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Si nals and Systems
Chaptor1 : Introduction to Signals

But the nature of the spectrum of a bandpass signal is
0. 1 Define signal. What are Its types?
completely different. It is as shown in Fig. i.l(b). The bandwidth
Ans. : Definition of Signal :
is 2W Hz but it is centered about a frequency 1: f: rather than zero.
In a communication system, the word ‘signal’ is used very We assume that fc > W. therefore (ft - W) > 0. Thus bandpass
commonly. Therefore we must know its exact meaning. signals are the signals having their spectrum extending from fl to Q
Mathematically. signal is described as a function of one or more with l"2 > fl and both f| and f2 being of nonzero value. For example.
independent variables. Basically it is a physical quantity. It varies the voice signal which has a spectrum extending from 20 Hz to
with some dependent or independent variables. So the term signal 3.4 kHz is a bandpass signal.
is defined as “A physical quantity which contains some
information and which is function of one or more independent O. 2 Define sampling process.
variables.” Ans; Sampling Process:
The signals can be one-dimensional or multidimensional. In the pulse modulation and digital modulation systems. the
signal to be transmitted must be in the discrete time form. If the
Ono dimensional signals : When a function depends only on
message signal is coming from a digital source (e.g. a digital
a single variable, the signal is said to be one dimensional. Example
computer) then it is in the proper for a digital communication
of one dimensional signal is speech signal whose amplitude varies
system to be processed.
with time.
Continuous time
i Multidimensional signals : When a function depends on two analog signal
or more variables. the signal is said to be multidimensional. The
examme of a multidimensional signal is an image because it is a
l
two dimensional signal with horizontal and vertical co-ordinates.
Low Pass and Band Pass Signals : A low pass signal is
defined as the signal which has a frequency spectrum extending (Ir-ISOFIg.1.2:Sampllngprucess
right from 0 Hz to W H2. if a single sided spectrum is plotted and
But this is not always the case. The message signal can be
it extends from — W to + W. if a double sided spectrum is plotted
analog in nature (e.g. speech or video signal). In such a case it has
as shown in Fig. 1.1(a). A video signal which has a frequency
to be first converted into a discrete time signal. We use the
i Spectrum from 0 to 5 MHz is an example of low pass signal. “sampling process" to do this. Thus using the sampling process we
‘ xm convert a continuous time signal into a discrete time signal.
For the sampling process to be of pmtical utility it is
necessary to choose the sampling rate properly. The sampling
process should satisfy the following requirements :
1. Sampled signal should represent the original signal faithfully.
2. We should be able to reconstruct the original signal from its '
(a) Spectrum of a low pass signal sampled version.
Fig. 1.2 summarizes the sampling process. Thus sampling is
4‘ Xli) the process of converting a continuous analog signal to a discrete
analog signal and the sampled signal is the discrete time
representation of the original analog signal.
G. 3 Stats and prove sampling tlreerem.

I
o I ' lo 1 Ans. : Sampling Theorem for Low Pass Signalsjn Tints
|~—2w—~l Domain :
In order to represent the original message signal “faithfully“
(b)Spectrumofahandpasasigml
Mmm (without loss of information). it is necessary to take as many
samples of the original signal as possible.
Higher the number of samples. closer is the representation.
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Sampling theorem was introduced
to the angina!” a, sample! Pu second. Therefore 'T.”"'Pmm the
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AllaaingtThisphenornenonofahighfieq
uencyinthespoetrum
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re this theorem ts oftheoriginal signal x(t). taking ontheide Nyquistrate uzwu;
theory in l949 by Shannon. Therefo such that. _ ntity oflower N u‘st‘t
. l
“Shannon's sampling theorem".
domain. for the
T . ”Nomad mm frequency in the spectrum of the sampled signal
aliasing or fold over error.
X; (t) is called as ' yq | m . law m
The statement of sampling theorem in time 0. B All Inning elgml,
bandlirnited signals of finite energy
is as follows : _L _ ' rate. EMO"MII92
1.0)lflfllm3nir3flnmgnh
Due to aliasing some of the information contained mm
Statement : in the time P" m-
original signal it (t) is lost in the process of
f
ef emfl How to
0.4 What Is aliasing or toldov
sampling.
l. lf a finite energy signal it (t) contains no frequencies higher 1- 0M“. "‘0 let "milling rah
bra. (l).
How to eliminate aliasing ?
than “W" Hz the. it is a band limited signal) then it rs eliminate it? 2, Determine m. m. Mm,
completely determined by specifying its values at the instants
Aliasing can be completely elinunated‘
Ana. : if we take the 3. Whit are the Mend“ In I'm
of time which are spaced (lIZW) seconds apart. . following action : in
Allaeing or Foldover Error : Use a bandlintiting low pass filter and pass the
reeuitlng diecrese time signal it (n) 1
2. if a finite energy signal it it) contains no frequency signal a (t)
d and I or if the 4. If x (II) II M through In kl“
components higher titan “W" Hz then it may be completely If the signal it (t) is not strictly bandllmitc through it before sampling as shown in Fig. 1.5(a). ”A
all-sing com. whet Ie the mine“
recovered from its samples which are spaced (lI2W) seconds sampling frequency f' is less than 2W. then an error called This filter has a cutoff frequency at rc = w. therefore it will
apart. or foldover error is observed. The adjacent spectrums overlap if Y. (t) ‘I‘ i
strictly bandlimit the signal it (t) before sampling takes
fI < 2W. This is shown in Fig. 1.4(b). place. This Ann. :
_ third statement of “nailing thedremxsykcontiltuonsr filter is also called as antialiasing filter or prealins filter.
1 The given analog signal is
‘ M’mefi! ‘. .. ‘ ‘iniu'flfipfl'félui‘ The signal it (t) is not strictly bandlimited. The spectrum of
" ' bacb'from the" assumed-form: ifthe.sarnpllng signal it (t) is shown in Fig. 1.401). x(t) - sin(480nt)+3sin(720nt) «All
" "yea 2w where “w’ is themaxirnumfrequencyofthe The spectnrm X; (f) of the discrete time signal it6 (t) is shown T'hediscretetimesignslunhsobtainedbytep
. . - z .1 . lacingtby
. mamas: (t)- '= . .52.. Ed? IL $.n '34: in Fig. l.4(b) which is nothing but the sum of X (f) and infinite n'l‘.
Proof of Sampling Theorem : number of frequency shifted replicas of it as explained earlier. Strictly
x(n) - sin(4801mT)+3sin(720nnT)._(2)
Now prove the sampling theorem in time domain. The hmd'mm Ill)
Now '1‘ a Sampling time: W
assumptions made for this proof are as follows : Mtflmlfla):Useofabandllndtingfllterto
ii I te It I“8 , . "W 8
Aeeumptione : Given sampling frequency a: 600 samples/sec .
.
l
Let x (t) be a continuous time analog signal as shown in
trnquenclee x") Spectrum oi original T a 50°
Fig. 1.3. Spectrum ofa continuous time signal
“W ”(0 Putting this value in Equation (2) we get,
o I x(n) - sin(486.&m)+3sin(7%)
-. x(n) = m4§m+3nn§5
H
mint?» ldenlltyot lower .;, . x(n) = sin‘gm+3sin(2n-53§)n
i '_ , l. t. e W i .43)
frontiericy due to aliasing
(it) Spectrum attire umpied Version ofrr(t) with l, < 2“! "-"w ""w' ' "'w New smart-6) . -lln9
(0-417) Fig 1.50») : Specuumor-umptedngmtrorr,>2w .. m.) a anim—3m§m
(0415) Fig. 1.4
increase the sampling frequency f. to a great extent i.e. 5' 4
Consider the rum replicas of X (t) which are f, >>> 2W. Due to this. even though at (t) is not strictly
centered about x ( n) a -2 singttn
the frequencies f‘ and — f.- "(4)
bandlimited. the spectrum will not overlap. A guard band is . .
If we use a reconstruction filter with its created between the adjacent spectrums as shown in
(e) pass-band extending S equation 0d
fiom-fi/Ztotbf‘mthenitsoutputwi Fig.1.5(b). time I
llnot be an undistorted X(ll) = Aslnzflfl'l'Atlllm “0(5)
version of the original signal it (0.
Some distortion will be present Thus aliasing can be prevented by 1
in the filter output. Comparing Equations (4') and (5) we M
l. Using an antialiasing or prealiasing filter and Frequency in 0.1: signal a m -% radians
The distortion occurs due to «AI.
Minglswampllngofacon the overlapping of the adjace 2. Using the sampling frequency f. > 2W.
tinnottstimesigmlxfl) speetmms as shown in Fig. nt 2 '
1.4(b). Due to this overlapping,
letx (t) be a signal with seen that the portions of the it is WhenxtspassedthroughDACthenthereconstructsd
finite energy and infinite frequency shifted replicas are “folded 0. 5 Define Nyqulet Rate and Nyqulet interval.
duration. over" inside the desired 3 signaly(t)isgivenby.
"at Let 'x (t) be a strictly
- . ited
bandhm . , pectrum.
Signal. That means it does Due to thi . Ana. : Nyquiet Rate and Nyqulet Interval :
contain any frequency compouents mm awn Hz. ,
8 ‘fold over", in
' w 8h Mucmi“ in X (f) arereflected The minimum sampling rate of “2W" samples per second for vii) '- xtn) “"11 ‘ ' «453
aheau‘sluuons In tol 0 fiequencresrnx5m.
- -
a signal it (0 having maximum frequency of “W" Hz is called as
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In this type of communication. the communication takes space crali. The above elimition can be Written as
place between a single transmitter and a single receiver as shown Problem:
- 1-11
in Fig. 2.40).
Every communication system has to deal with the presence
of - X“) a Here A1 a ‘l 1 0
“-25. . ‘A 7-1
of the received Signal lags: ('1‘) T [PT “- WI]
Boththesidcsofthepointtopointlinkhaveatransmitteund channel noise. which degrades the quality
.nd ‘ n ‘32
a receiver- and the flow of information is bl-dlrectlornl, Le. In severely. . .lim

A, . Ils=-2
both the directions. 3‘" [T—lOPT(“mIT] ._,5(l_ ...» M.-E
using large
it is possible to overcome this problem by m .'. Y(s) . ll 1 l
The examples of broadcast communication are radio Ttiznllix(t)cmgeexpW“_
antennas and error controlling techniques. 2 F2372
transmission or W transmission. The examples of point to point
cornrmmicationsystemarethetelephonesystemanduvedeep '- X (l) = 2 X (tn 5
nhmhrlwemm
r-
Chapter 3 : Linear Time Invariant (L'i'l) Systems l = — or: ( m “‘(2) “3 ACT'iflMIxmia ”Mariam".
'
Where‘ T = N“ Width: f. =Samp1ingfmquency a if? "mm W ""11 Who
WIm Mt) ‘ Hen: m
Dill
0. 1 Explain convolution integral. By time invarlent property of L'l'l system. response to T is very 3m“ and f . .
Vii) “Ding WWW
Ana. : impulseapplied at any time “nT’[8(l—‘t)ish(t-'t)]. frequencies present in in: Signal. ls high compared to the WWW“) a>o
h(t)-u(t)
Convolution is a nuthematical operation which is used as a it indicates that if unit impulse is delayed by '1‘ then impulse properties of ConVolutio
n Integral - Ann: M
tool by communication engineers for system analysis. probability response is also delayed by the same amount.
Some of the important prop: Given: x(t)=e"u(t) Ind h(t)=
tries of convolution inner-l m
theory and transform calmlations. Convolution can be performed According to the definition of linear convolution. given below. n(t)
in time as well as frequency domain. x(t) = e“u(1)andh(1:)=
(a) Commutative prom :
u(t)
xtt)‘y(t)= ix(r)~y(:—r)dr .‘.h(-1)=u(—l)
The convolution of two functions x(t) and y (t) is defined as.
(t)andx,(t)arecontinuousli
If rtl may. nalax(t)andh(-t)are
'l'liesig
mesignalsthen sho wn 'in Figs. 3.3(a) and (b)
Convolution: x(t)'y(t)= lx(t).y(t-1:)dt lnthiscasewrite. x1(l)*xq(t) = x2(t)‘x1
...(l) (l) ...(3)
(b) Distributive property : 7 713 $"' e“
Equation (1) is called 5 convolution integral. As the x0) ‘56) = Ix(‘t)h(l-t)d‘t i ;

x1(t)*[x2(t)+x3(t) ]=xl(‘)'xfi(t)+xi(l)‘x](t) l
|
independentvariableis‘t“whichissameastheindependentofthc
functionsx(t)andy(t)whicharebeing convolved.1'heintegration Here h (t - 1:) is response of 1.11 system to input 5 (t). ...(4) ._:7 7'
Where x3 ( t ) is another signal.
isalwayspcrformedwithrespeatoadurnmyvariablesuchast [ll-16¢) Fig. 3.3(a) (ll-1m Fig. 33(5)
andtisu-eatedasaconstantsofarastheintegrationisconoemcd. ya) = norm): lx(t)-h(t-'t)d't (1:) Associative property :
According in definition of convolution integral.
The process of convolution involves following operations of y (1:) This property states that.
whilethesignalxmreminsunchangcd: Repreeentation of or. Signal In tonne of impuieee :
x,(t)![x2(i)#x3(t)]=[x1(t)ex2(1)]ax3(n "‘(5) H!) = I x(t)h(-1:+t)dr
1. Foldingor'timereversaltoobtainy(—t). Consider a signal it (t) which will be first approximated as a
setofpulseofdurationTas show-ninFig. 3.2. Thefunctioncanbe. 0. 2 The input and impulse reeponaea of continuous
2. Timeshifiingthefoldcdsignaly(—t)toobtainy(t—‘t). Case]: lft<0:
then expressed as. time system are given below. Find out output at
3. Multiplication ofx(t)andy(t—t). no the continuous time ayaterna using appropriate 'Iherowillnotbeanynveriapprn' g.
y(l)=0
4. lntegntionoftbeproclucttennx(t)-y(t-t).
x (t) = 2 “man—m method.
Prod: ConsideranL'l‘lcontinuonstimesystemwith x (r) = u(t). . h(t) :- 6" u(t)

Where x (H) = Is weight of signal. (t is an integer) Ana. :
h(t) = imprflsemponseofthesystem
x(t) = inputsignal Given : x(t) = u(t) and h (t) = e'21 u(t)
y(t) a: outputsignll Taking Laplace transform,

Writingtheinpnlseresponseoftbesysteminprogr’essive ' l l
X(s) = E andH(s)=;:§
filmielnpnlseresponseh(t)ofanL‘l'lsystemisdefincdtobe Caae2: llt>0:
rcsponseofsystemtounnimpuhe5(t)[5(t)—iunitimpulseat This condition is shown in Fig. 3.30:).
Now convolution becomes multiplication in [apiece dormin
t20]
Here overlappingis front) to t.
O
LctY(s) = X(s)-}i(s) l e 1
(8-274) 1% 3.2 1 yo) = [0‘4“431]

Y“) = EYE-2)- 0 ° -
1 4 l 4
At every value of time; weight of signal is multiplied by pulse A 2.];[r.""—-e°]=-';le -c°]=.[1 e ] -
of duration T. Y(s) = 21+???
This approximation is valid even for small value of T.
iii-rifll‘l '17
‘
H'-AQ.L _
. . = I “ — ’ i («m—r»
0.4 WWWMW 1-13

Ant: Graphlcduothod: '.2"u(—K+n) h(0)X(l)
:.h(n—K) " (l;- h(0)X(2) “d ”i ' mix-2+2“
Thuswegei.
'lhetinearconvolution of iwosequence is given by. _ r
H0) 2 h(0)x(0)
no
no 1 K ‘ l n.2K
h(1)X(0) h(l)X(l)
(2) U( K+n) I h(1)X(2) Y(l) a h(l)x(1)+h(0)
ma) ',. ’0‘) g 2 (3) ll“) x(l)
’01) 3 z X&)h(ll-k) y(2) . h(2)ii(0)+h(l)x
Kg—M .h(2)X(0) h(2)X(1) (l)
kn—eo h(2)x(2) +h(0)x(2)
1 , °' 2 x .' s (II-36
3: 6mg. 3.5 :M'llliplica
Woutputfordifierentvaluesof‘n' “(K)-u(—K+n) I tep :me out the eleme
tlon of elem:nu x (ii) and
h( ) y(3] = h(2Jx(I)+h
._. (5) K2 (3)
nts diagonally as shown (l)x(2)
”“30““. n in and y(4) - h(2)x(2)
.42) m‘omemmuag.u(—K+n);thelimitsofsummafimI _J x(0) x(1)

Alter calculating all these values:
write dovni the result of
no) . 2 x(k)h(-k)
h(0)
x0) convolution as,
willbeK=0ton. Mongol."'h(0)x(l‘),/S<o)x(2) y(n) =ly($).i(1).i(2).y(3).yt4ll

k‘“ 1 I ll 2 K
Hmh(-k)indicntsfoldingofh(k).
Hit) 3 ('2') 330(3)
ha) hlllxgogx"hulxagx'i'alxlzl Obtaln linear
Furnalwcget, oomolutlon ol following
aequancu:
Standardsumination'formull.
ha) »’ balm),,«'£(2)x(1),x‘h'czlx(2) x(n):{1.:,1,2} and h(n).{a,2,-1,i}
H1) = 2 xcklilu—k) ...(3) T
N2 nth-“N161
k“°‘ (Ii-3mm. 3.6 : Diagonatly separati Ana. : Pirstdecidetherangeof ‘n' fory(n).
on of elements
a = 14
Hmdrcwrmhtl-k)canbewnmnuh(—k+l).nus 1121*!]
Step 4 : Simply add the elements in that panicular block.
addition gives corresponding values of y (n). This Immindnsy‘: x,+h,=-t+(-2)=-3
W0)mm Highestindexnyha xh+hb=2+l=3
Hererangeof‘n'is: yl = x‘+h,=0+0=0
Herea = %.N,=O.N3=n 'i'husy(n)variesflnmy(-3) 1031(3)
w - 2 o m
ya) = 2'. Xfl)h(—k+l) ..,(4) Solve this problem using multiplication method.
it(n) ;- I 2 l 2
_1_' {32132 Multiplication
k=—” HI!) = (2)1}
Hereh(-k+l)indicnmsshifiingoffoldedsignalh(—k).lt h
boil-b:
‘
2 —l i
1 2 1 g c: m) is mlfltipliedbi (1)
indiateathath(- k)isdelaycd by '1' sample. Similarly forother , Addition #0 —l —2 -1 .2 .10.“: 5(a) ia'm‘ultiplied by (-1)
values of ‘n' output y (n) is calculated.
Thus different operations involved in the calculation of linear
= (%)'-s[n-(%)“‘] Addition +6
’ .
2 4 2 4 (6"0 e: x(n) is multipliedhy (2)
I
._ uJI'lnnnlI
-----x. No zero digits similar to normal multiplication

________
convolutionareasfollows: 0. 6 Explain tabular method of convolution. Addition -.® 2 4 2 4 .10 ___o_” i e: x(n) l. multipliedhy (2)
Thu-n. a.“
nauw mu w
Ana. :
l. Foldingopentionfltindicatcsfoldingofsequencehfi). 26555 " 2 fillet: valueaareobtauicdbyadding
k) This is the simplest method of performing linear convolution. all digitaincorrecpmdingcolm
2. momma:ltindicaiectimeshiflingofh(- 0 ,h () 2
l.h ()l (no-mm 3.7
egh(-k+l). MIG!) : {x($).x(l).x(2)]andh(n) = l h (T)
x (k) and Step]: Formtl'ie . asshowninFig.3.4: This result of multiplication is same as linear convolution. 2 (2x1) (2x2) (2x1) (2x2)
3. Multiplication : It indicates multiplication of
Asrangeofy(n)isfromy(-3)toy(3).Sothefirsttermfrom 2 (2x1) (2x2) (2x1) (2x2)
h(n-k). i) L.H.S. represents the value of y ( - 3 ). Now mark the arrow at the 4 (—lxl) (-1x2) (-lxl) (-lx2)
. . .. I “T x“) x(2) position ofy(0).1'husoutputy(il)canbewrittenae.
4. Summation : it indium addition of all product terms l (l x l) (l x2) (1x1) (1x2)
, 11(0) y(n) = (2.6.5.5.5.-l.2]
obiainedbecauseof multiplication of x(k)andh(n—k). (1))
T
i(-3) lit-2) iH) i )
l " ,
1 " u[n] Verify this result using tabulation mathod shown in Fig. 3.8.
0.5 Convolvnx In1' (*)
3 I 1 wltlihln]=(-)
un 2 h(n) 11(1) xn I”
4 I/Y()1
’2’ It! 3’
uelngconvolutlonlntegral. |1212 ’ 2/ 41’2” 4171(2)

Dec 201‘. 11(2)
I f l I;
II I
’_
l I 2/ ’1’!
_ _ c
Ill/YB)
.
Ant. : Given : x (n) = (%) u(n) and h (n) = (%) u(n) z’i’l’z,’ 1/ 2
(ti-amFIg. 3.4 : Matrix of {(n) and h (n) I I I
According to definition of convolution
Interchange the positions of x (n) and h (n).
(ii-sum.a.s.cila
. volntltfgd X (n) ' (1.2.1’ 21"“
T
Step 2 : Multiply the corresponding elements of x (n) and h (n)
HI!) = E x(K)h(n-K) as shown in Fig. 3.5 : ' HI!) fizz-#11
Ks-oc .
. . ‘A .7 l ‘ -
. Begum . 3;) mandala—19
) ."(P -:-
:01 “E3“ (1‘
miuhnguwiuonmfiodiesu- I 2
y(n) ‘5
y(-3) - 2
k z — no
; 3- ammonium.
and delayed sennenoe
( n k ) is folded
= 2+486 In an; equation x n of 9mm:
As per the dCfinltIO
-
“—2)
ence h ( k ) is unchanged. y 1 (n) a X(n)* Mn) “Maths! linearoonvolulion‘
yt-i) = -i+i+2=5 while sequ as. Now mu
' m
n (4) can be written armada»: y.(n)=x(n)tli I in)
I
l—2+2+4=5 convolution Equatio mm" i ”M“ “113B“!)‘h.(n
y(0) = “ )]+[x(n
‘ ”~11“)0h,‘(n-ll
y(3) - 2
yin) =
2', hum-Mn-k . according to Equation (8); y
( l'l ) ' obtained' Proof:
computlllg convolution of y.(n)a
y(2) = l-2=-1 k=—~ ndh,(n) l-l
input signal to the L’l'l system whose
'3 by
Considerthekns. m f "no,
-. y(n)- i2.6.5.$.5.-l.2l = h(n)*x(n) ---(5) impulse Mimi‘s??n?.
0 Elm” (10). "WWRW
The output of this system is y (
n ). mammm
' ‘ n ‘
y (n).
Thus from Equa tions (1)and(5)we get. represented asshown in Fig. 3.100)). Hit) a lx(n)‘h.(n)l+lxtnl'hgtnll
...(6) V n ‘3
WWoi‘Uno-rcimvolutlon. *X( n)
0.8
y(n) = xtn)*h(n)=h(n) .411.)
m: olution is commutative.
gmh'mmhmmlifimmemm
r conv
Hence proved that linea
'l'hepropenies oflinearconvolutionaregivenas: as shown 2'33; Omput WNMWWwWofe-wmvm union:
: Graphically it is presented vtn)=v1(n)'h2(n)
2.Associativepmperty Graphical presentatlon vi(n)=. X(n)‘h(n)
I. Conumtative property . and yd“) x(n).h;(u) "1.11)
in Fig. 3.9. (BMW's-3.10“»- Y(n)=y‘(n)ohz(n)
3. Distributivepruperty. ens)
. ‘
“I us tcimplementEquation y(n) = Yi(fl)+¥;(n) «(14)
(l)wc havetoconnect (cascade)
1. continue-mom: Outiwt
i—I—o—uw F MW ' y(n) : hin) ‘ x(n) two systems shown in Figs. 3.9 and 3.|0(a). This cascade
0M" WWW (12) and (13). n indicaea rim these up
.
.
States-ell : It states that linear convolution is commutative X0" 1' ' fin) = 1m) . Mn)
connection is shown in Fig. 3.10”
ill")
two [.11 systems whose inpulse responses IIBlIflII)Mh‘(ll).
operationflhatmuns
meaning”: xin)¢h(n)=h(n)‘8(n) lniqiomntdungisdmdiesameinputsignal xtu) isappliedb
Xinlthtnl=h(n)*xtn) bothayxtema.WliileEquatim (l4)sliowatliatwehavetolddtlie
2. Aaeoclatlvo property:
Proof:Thelinearconvolutionofxtn)andh(n)isgivenby. outputsoftl'iesetwoL'l'lsystentThispi'oceatisteprueuted
Statement: Input 0M diagrammtically “shown in Fig. Mlle).

HI!) = x(n)*h(n) "W v(n) =yiin) - Mn) ”(ill , 7
. W 11(n)=l(nl'h‘lfll
It states that
8 Z xthin-io ...(l) [xin)ih,(n)]‘h2(n)=x(n)*lh.(n)*h¢(n)] (ii-390)Fig.3.10(c): “Mglxtnl'hdnll "11”)
k=-u
Explanation : Now consider the R.H.S. term it ( n ) - [hl (n) ‘ h2 (n) 1. It“)
Inthiacquationh (n—k)isfoldeddelayed sequence; while convolution Design one L'l'l system whose impulse response h ( n ) is the my Q? “m"‘wflgw
As ‘fi‘ indicates convolution operation. Every
atkliwnchlnsfil operation indicates that certain input is applied
to the LT! system convolution of hl (n) and h1 (ii). That means convolution of two
Putm: n-Itasnewindexofsummationin and output is the convolution of input signal and
the impulse impulse responses'l'hus h(n)=hl(n)th2(n). ’1’
‘ W' vinlefinl‘hginl
WU)- response of system. x(n)‘[h.(n)*hz(n)]=X(n)#h(n) ...(9)
. k = n—m Now consider LH,S. term. casement-i: 'yinisy‘mlpyn-i
The diagrammatic representation of Equation (9) is shown in
Limits will changeasfollows: =llllli'llgillll+l!(lll‘lgllll
'l‘hatistheterm.[1i(n)*h, (n)]*h2(n) Fig. 3.lO(d).
Wheuk=-°°=bn—m=-°° As shown in Fig. 3.1101). the same input is applied tubal:
Let this output is y (n) . Tl N
00W . . n of two LImus. . on
-m:-—w-n m=oo ...(7) systems. so this is a parallel connectio
y(n)=[X(n)*h.(n)]*hg(n) input W" ___ fl") . 01““),Mnn
s unified.
xtn)
as shown in Fig. 3.1m); two impulse response .415)
Whenk=+ao=en—m=u bracket term h (a) g hl in)“; (n)
There are two convolution operations. The
m=—w hI ( n ) Let this output be dusting. 3.10(d)
-iii=oo-n indicates one convolution of x ( ii ) and it
denoted by y, (n ). Thus Equation (7) becomes. Thus design a single LTl system having iwdsemepm
PuttingMevaluesiauationtl)wegel. mm“ 0' “Mimi“ PW")! = “=hi(“)*hi(“)-
...(8) g of cascade
This property indicates thaL replacin
-oo
fin) = yi(n)*h2(n)
HI!) = 2 X(n-ui)h(m) .42) The convolution y, ( n ) = x ( n ) it hI ( n ) indicates that. we a single system whose impulse Input . ,
m=+w are applying input to LTI system whose impulse response is
combination of LTI systems by
is convo lution of individual impulse responses
is an) z; '
*- w..
Vlnlexlfli'hlfll
reSpon se
Ineueofsummflionoperationlimitsfrom+w to-wate hl ( n ). The output of system is y, ( n ). Such system is represented le It is repres ented in Fig. 3.10te).
possib -shunts.)
mm-mto+u.1huschanginglimitsofsummationweget. in Fig. 3.]0(a). iii-summit)»: uni i]
ll(ll)‘[h‘(ll+ Min
1h ‘ I . : :
_. yin)
ytn) = 2 X(n-m)h(m) ...(3) x(n) Yin} xtn)
m=-oo y(n) - sin) - th‘tn) ' run»

yin) stun) ' him) ' hzim
InEquation(3).misdurnmy variable. ltcanbereplaced by rty
(waniFig. 3.10“!) = Mean
ing of associative prope
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TheexpooentialI-‘ourierseries foraulinofredangullr
pulsesolduratiourandperiodToits valueis,
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2. TollndC,:
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in F" 53(5).
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Amplitude spectrum :
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Ae-jZIIKIT
at ...(3) x“) g Z q;“um
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fihflfit‘umkwm mm 11(2) -.-. 1 32" ...(3) ”32(2) 2 Ll" 4-”
z
“I!" 8W”)
.. +- '
h'klmmummm Mummmmmm 8 - Y(Z) I 1
‘M‘U-mmtsipdm'm W' Obtaindimafmlandflmmggfimdc W(Z) |—-Z"+§Z'7'
. _ . - - ' ' ’ I. I). 3W ,‘ M
m u -:b ”I; w I, block W L Wmflwflmvm I‘ , ‘ mm.mmmmnum:g&
a. 2' t‘zmmmmmvm 1r :. 74:

1% a! Ian 3. - m n ,. : 7
'2... "F“ m Ti”? ”m '. w "‘2’ ‘7” W” a '
' _ !_ LAB-14.. " "W mmmmmum :
-
' I g I if"- ”/41"
, “ L.»
' F '‘. 'r’"T '.. at; ‘_, ‘ .2 Hi '_
i'
a \. flyirrfi: : "'
Y(Z)[l-%Z‘l+%2'2]=W(Z) Direct term-ll realization =

. - ' ' tained by interchangin
. a the
'nre dtreCt form-II reallwmfl 1s ob
3 "Y(Z)+% positions of H1 (2) and H2 ( z ). That means by interchanging m , F 1'73
Y(Z)—zZ Z'2Y(Z) =W(Z) duect 0"“ realization is oblarn' ed
and 111(2). It is show in Fig. “3.12, by W! Bra)
, '
in Fig. 10.9(e).
block-l and block-2 of Fig. 10.9(d). It is shown
7
Y(Z) = W(Z)+%Z“Y(Z)-% Z‘2Y(Z)
aloe-1 [Hum Brock-2 erzn
...(6)
Taking 121‘ of Equation (6). A A
x(n)
3
Y(II) F wtn)+; y(n-—l )-§l y(n-—2) ...(7)-
The direct form-I realization of Equation (7) is shown in

153.10.9(c). -0.125
Now direct form-I Win)

Fig. 10.1] -0.625
realization of total transfer
Fig. 10.12
function H ( Z ) is obtained
by cascading Fig. 10.90)) Chapter 11 : Applications at Signals and System
s
0_ 1 Explain method: of much syndicate
and Fig. 10.9(c). This is .
To operate in recognisation mode. rp 1000 is used to poet-rte
shown in Fig. 10.9(d). Ans. :. For better speech quality . more numbe
f br’ the coefficients for unknown words. These coefficients are then
stored in the memory to represent each Word. Io B should be
compared with known words in rrrernory and then tntknownrword
The speed of operation depends on how fast
data is send to
the synthesiser act. is identified. For synthesis mode. sp It!” is switched to talk much.
Microcomputer sends the coefficients to it and then sound is
1. Waveiorm modification :
generated.
53m Voiced sounds are produced by vibration of vocal cords as air
2. Direct digitization speech syndicate :
passes from lungs. The frequency of vibration is called as pitch.
Pitch depends on position of tongue shape of mouth and the This method produces high quality speech because it is
position of lips. Vowels A. E are examples of voiced sounds. actually play back of recorder sound. initially. the word. we want
Unvoiced sounds are produced by modifying the position of the compare to speak ; is spoken clearly into microphone. Output
tongue and shape of mouth as consist stream of air comes out from voltage of microphone is amplified and applied to [2 bit ADC.
the lungs. Letter 5 is an example of unvoiced sound. Mixture of
One approach is to store the samples of ADC into memory.
voiced sound and unvoiced sound is called as nasal sounds or
Whenitisrequiredtoprorlucethewordthanthesesan'piesue
fricatives.
applied to DAC. But this requires lot of memory space. To reduce
Nowconsider 112(2): .37l Electronic model for human vocal tract this. speech compression techniques are used.
0.: Draw Direct Form-l llR Filtorotrueture for:
42 2
Variable “5 Sometimes delta modulation techniques are used. In this case
“m'3*z-o.s ' 2-025 =W irequenoy only 3 bit or 4 hit code representing how much tatnple
has
of storing
42 2 generator; changed from last sample is stored in memory ; instead
Arts..Given:H(Z)= 3+m‘Z—025 ...(l)
Y(Z)-D.7SZ"Y(Z)+0.lZSZ'2Y(Z)=W(Z) complete 12 bit value.
Equation(l)canbewrittenas. Y(Z) = W(z)+o.7sz"Y(Z)-o.rzsz"v(23 O. 2 Explain voles model.
421-32“ TakinnTweget. Ana. :
Hm = 3* —o.752+o.125 "'(2) A voice model or speed: model shown
infig. 11.2 isuaedto
'. y(n) = w(n)+0.75y(n-i)-O.125y(n—2)
voice model is dependcutott the
3 [z_’—o.7sz+o.125]+4z’—3z-r Unvolood signal simulate voice. The operation ofa
“voiced " and flavoured"
'I'herealization of H2(Z) is shown in Fig. 10.1]. fact that speech consists of a
wquene e of
°' "(2) ' 21—0315 2+o.125 Fig. 11.1 it by passing a sequence of voiced
sounds. Therefore. approximate
7z2 — 5.252 - 0.625 a filter.
In this case the parameters send and unvoiced sounds through
Solving. 3(2) = 2‘ _ 0.75 z + 0.125 Usually LPC is used as filter. the
ients of LPC and the pitch for
R 7 - 5252"_——
= .____ - 0.6252'2 by the computer are the coeffic ted the sum of
asvalues
°‘ ...(3)
pulse source. In LPC. cu
nent value is predic
‘ .
‘2) 1.0.752".»o.r25r2 .
portions of prevrous mput
current input value and the sec. h
Now 9(2) = Hi (2) ' "Z (2) hesis requires 16 K brtsl
A high quality LPC synt QOdlspm
be: H,(2) =¥%=7-5152"-o.6252” as LPC speech pmcessO
IC sp 1000 is used wmmumm
spwch synthesrs. In
wm=7xm-5.2sz'xmxm—o.625sm MOgnizer and LPC s.
LPC coefficie nts for spoken word
generates
TakingIZTweget.
these coefficients and stores In mum”
w(n) a 7x(n)—5.25x(n—l)—0.625x(n-2)
regs, .t‘isréig w ~ ' I.

-
1~74 Signals and Systems {Mu}
Sipnals and Systems (MU) '
The DC signals available at the out 1-75
is f law“... mm
~ ed m, ND cox";
are sampled. multiplex Voice Decoder :
Frequency control to ' t we get up,
aoccmodate to pitch oi sound digital equivalentoflhe speech aignaiat theencoder mm m“ ““4" ’1'“ m the diet-1 voice than and then
Then the encoded voice Signal "Maritime using a speech synthesizer. produces an Wm vol“
. Ii gnal
at its output.
Voiced sounds
encoder consists of all the {Muency °°mvomubzmrzggm
syntl'ioelzed
3200 Hz» intonation about the "pitch" or the Speech than and m Fig. H.303) shows the block diagram of a voice decoder.
information about whether the speech is voiced or unvoiced, m
approximated
speech
Balanced Bandpass
Swiwh waveform moduiators litters
deterrrtined by whether
sound is voiondunvoiced
Flg.11.2:Speechmndeluaedinvocodm
in such a way that the-
The speech model shown in Fig. ”.2 simulates the voiced The input signal is liltemd by this filter
sounds by an impulse generator whose frequency is equal to the required him“ PNW°
in Fig. 11.2 [for
fundamental frequency of the vocal cords. All the vocoders employ the scheme shown
of speech. A vctce
The noise source simulates the unvoiced sounds. The switch generation of a synthesized approximation .
position determines whether the sound is voiced or unvoiced. coder or voooder consists of voice encoder and vctce decoder.
The selected voiced or unvoiced sound is then passed through
a filter. which simulates the effect of the mouth. throat and nasal
passage of the speaker on the generated sound. uuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuu
Unvoioed sounds
Voiced sounds
0.: Whatlavclcooncoderandvoicodocodnr?
'. "l' ,7 ' .
Ant. : Fig. ll.3(a) shows the block diagram of a voice encoder.
Bandpass litters
Fig. 11.30») : Voice decoder

Operation cl voice decoders : signal is received then all the balanced modulatorwill produce
Operation of the voice decoder is as inflows : some output.
The received encoded voice signal is demultiplexed and The adder will add all the analog signals at its input to
output.
Encoded decoded i.c. convened back to analog form by the demultiplexer produce the voice or speech
—> voice each rectifier-litter The only disadvantage of speech transmission using vocoden
signal and D/A converter. Corresponding to
combination at the encoder we have a balanced modulator-filter is that the quality of speech is severally degraded.
combination at the receiver. The carrier signal to all these balanced
0. 4 Classify AudieNldno services. Explain thorn.
modulators comes from either a noise generator or a pulse video
AM. : Fig. 11.4 shows the classification of audio and
generator output depending on the position of switch "SW“. he'classllied
made services. it shows that audio and video services cart
The position of switch “SW“ depends on the decision
categories namely :
signal into three
by the decoder of whether the received signal is a “voiced" video.
"unvoiced " signal. When the received signal is “voiced". l. Streaming stored audio I
DC voltage proportional ND converter or an
to the inputs of 2. Streaming live audio I video.
. to frequency 0' voice and multiplexer switch “SW“ connects the pulse generator output
unvoiced. the switch 3. interactive audio I video.
Fig. 11.3(a) : Voice encoder all the balanced modulators and when it is
of all the balanced
connects the noise generator at the input internet node I video services
Won: 0d 1
The input speech signal is also applied to a frequency m u ators. .
. ofthe voiceen is as follows: discriminator followed by a 20 Hz low pass filter. The output of . of swrtch- u SW" -Is d°P°nd°m °" the decision , ._
The positron , . . .. - - interactive,
I The y (200 Hz 32“) Hz) is :11: 2:15 a dc voltage thins proportional to the voice frequency.
affohyfie decoder of whether the recetved Signal is vorced' 01‘ fir";")9 mo
stored Streammm
mac/video audol video
-
divided intwo 15 M‘fiwmmycmsgwmum; 15 5MP!” filters. Each 5 ueacy represents pitch of the vorce. .1
rc .
of 01::
range is ofbandwidthflDI-la (200“) m. Min 600 etc.) The dc voltage at the output of the discriminator-filter l is “voi " the outputs
When the received signa
out!“ of “ch bandpass filter is rectified and filtered to combination can also indicate whether the speech is voiced or will be present depend? 03m" (mama- 11" : am w
certain balanced modulators some“
and video
ed signal. But if an nv
adc voltagethatis ptoportiomltotheanplitude cfAC “WM frequencies present in the receiv
-
‘‘‘
. ' am
I‘m,
- .
e
, m. “saga
l
Signals and Systems (MU) 1 ~73
Signals and Systems (MU)
This avoids need to download the entire file before
Streaming : beginning
R - Fl interval
'.
Streamin: is the process in which the user can listen 1.

RN
or watch playou l u. . 1-77
t.‘
an audio or video file after the downloading has begun. 3. continue"! P ayo '
t. Streaming eteredaudlo/vldeo: dia content begins, it is
Once the playout of the multime
i inal timing of recording Thi
In "115 type of intemet service the audio / video files are
necessary to p ‘ 'c: Zeciam:o(r)rlstgraints on data delivery.
stored on a server in the compressed
form. A user (client) uses ,8
requirement puts mu
Internet to download these stored files. onto his machine. This y _
Streaming Live Audio lild Video ' Fig. 11.5
examples of .this service are : stored songs.
books. educational This is similar to traditional broadcast radio
lectmes. movres. TV shows. video clips etc. and TV. except The Fetal Heart Rate (HR
Streamed stoned audio for one change that transmi55l0n takes place 0"" ) is obtained from 11.n
I vrdeo service is also lmown as on ”“3 Internet. of the waveform shown in Fig. interval
demand audio / video. 11.5. BCG is having P-wave
2. Streaming live audio I video : complex wave and QRS
lntemet radio : T wave . Instantaneous heart
rate is obtairied by
measured EEG produces
an error signal. e (k).
multip
60.000lying time interval . between R-to
In this category the audio / video
infomurtion is being After it became possible to stream audio over the Internet, -R (in nulls
‘ ‘ econds) by This signal is applie
d to PID (Proportional
streamed live on the Internet and the Derivntive) control: to genera -Integral-
user is listening I watching the commercial radio stations started broadcasting their contents over te the required control signal.
A suitable DSP algorithm The signal C (k) is applied C (it).
broadcast live. The examples of this the Internet. There are two general approaches followed. In the first is u sed succe
service are : Internet radio and ssive QRS complex to pharmacokinetic I phatam
waveform and from this. R-ro.R i dynamic model and this aco-
Internet TV (live cricket match broadcas one. the programs are prerecorded and stored on disk. Listeners can nterval is calculated model generates a signal
t). In the live streaming value of corresponding FHR. . It gives I (k) to determine
there is no need to download the The shape of QRS the rate at which. drug is
stored audio / video files from a download any of these programs for listening. injected in to the patient body.
complex The signal
server. to patient. The obtained I (k) operates infusion pump
which controls the flow rate
The other approach is to broadcast live over the lntemet. ECG of dmg.
3. Interactive audio / video : With this technique. buffering on the users side is necessary to
smooth out jitter. The Internet radio should use multicasting with on the basis of similarity.
WMW- Itu ’
This service enables the users to interactiv
ely communicate RTP/RTSP protocols. The streaming live audio/video is not stored.
with each other via Internet. The
examples of this service are a, 6 Explain DSP based
Hence a client cannot fast forward through the media.
Internet telephony and interact teleconfe
rencing. For all these
closed loop controlled
applications the audio and video informati However local stomge is always possible. which makes the anaesthesia.
on has to be in the digital
form. Hence it is necessary to first other interactive applications possible. Distribution of live Ans. :
digitize the sound and video
information and then it should be compresse audio/video to many receivers can be accomplished using the IP In case of surgery; anaesth
d to reduce the esia is injected to the patient
‘body.
bandwidth required to transmit it. multicasting technique or using separate unicast streams. A proper amount of drug to induce 0. 7 Claealty modulation eyetem. Explain
anaesthesia is required to inject All.
Real Time Interactive Audio and Video: in the patient body. Extra amount
Streaming Stored Audio and Video : of drug produces side effects. as Ans. :
well as less amount of
In this class of applications. people are allowed drug can produce psychological Depending on which characteristics
This is the class of applications which allows the to use of the carrier is being
clients to consequences for a long term. changed. the modulation systems are
request for compressed audio or video files which are audio/video to communicate with each other in real time. classified as shown in '
stored on the So it is required to make necessary
servers. Stored audio files may contain educationa Real time interactive audio over the intemct is called as changes in the dose of fig. ”'7'
l lectures. songs anaesthetic drugs and to control the anaesthesia. Using DSP. a
and other recorded audio stufi'. Stored video files Internet phone. This can provide local. PBX and long Modulation SW9“
may contain distance closed loop system can be designed
movies. TV shows. documentaries. cartoons telephone service at a very low cost. to monitor the does of
or music video clips. anaesthesia and it is an automatic system.
o This class of applications has three distinguis This service also facilitates some special services Amplitude Modulation
hing factors as such as : But. this system requires an accurate measurement Annie Modulation.
follows: of the (Amplitude of the carrier is varied ,
1. Web phone integration 2. Group real time communica according to instantaneous magnitude
tion depth of anaesthesia and it requires a feedback signal
1. Stored media 1 Streaming to monitor oi modulating signal)
3. Directory services 4. Caller filtering the delivery of dose.
3. Continuous playout. ‘
Real time interactive video is also called as video EFG represents. electrical activity of the brain and it contains
t. Storedmedla: conferencing. Here the users communi
cate visual] useful information for diagnostic of neurological disorders. From osasc SSE-SC VSB FM PM
as well as (Dmble side
orally. (Single dds (Vestlgial (Frequency (Phase
The mulu'media content has been Pm’d y the EEG signals; the features like bispectral index Audiotory band band aide bard) mutton) meditation)
ed ”d 5‘0"“ 3‘ The delays should not be longer than 400 Evoked Response (AER) are extracted and then the depth of suppressed suppressed ‘
the server. So it is possible msec.
operations on the “and contents:for the user to make following anaesthesia is determined.
carrier) carrier)
0. 5 What in fetal ECG monitoring
? Basically AER signal gives information from consciousness (it-34) Fig. 11.7 : Classification of modulation system
1. Pause 3. Fast forward
2. Rewind Ant: to unconsciousness condition of the patient. But these AER signals
4_ Index through. Amplitude Modulation (AM) :
2. Streaming : Electrical activity of a heart is are usually small and they are mixed up with EEG. So a proper
called as electrocardiogram _
(ECG). Fetal ECG represents electric Definition :
al activity of the baby’s heart. system is required to extract these AER signals and then process it
In a streaming stored audio/video It is similar to the adult ECG
waveform. The Fetal ECG Amplitude modulation (AM) or Amplitude Modulation with
applications. a client starts (FECG) A bispectrai index is obtained by performing spectrum
playout of the audio/video
a few seconds after receiving
contains five peaks namely
PQRST. This waveform is Full Carrier (AM-PC) is the process of changing the amputation;
the file shown in analysis of EEG. It gives infomration about the changes in
from the server. 80 the
client plays out audio/video Fig. 11.5. high frequency sinusoidal carrier signal in proportion With-x .
from one frequency components of EEG at different consciousness levels. A
location in the file when instantaneous value of modulating signal. ,
it is receiving later parts block diagram of DSP based closed controlled anaesthesia system
of the same file
from the server. This techn
ique is called as streaming is shown in Fig. 11.6. Fig. 11.8 shows the amplitude modulated wave when the
.
@s— modulating signal is a sinusoidal signal.
r 7 ~— a.—
I ' r _
1~7°
'l'hefreqneneyo 3 'lhe time domain display of AM signal is as Shown
fthe sinusoidal carri
that of the lllDdula er is much higher than - Ft ll 8 This AM signal is transmitted by a transmmu.
ling signal.
2. lnAMtbeinatan information in the AM signal is contained in the “flip“
laneoua amplitude variations of the carrier of the envelope show by dotr
fiequency Car of the sinusoidal high
rier is damage ed line.
d in proportion
to the in Fig. l 1.8.
Implitudeofthe
PincipleofAM m odulating signal. This 4 The frequency and phase of the carrier remain constant,
. is the MWEXW
:
AM is used in the applications such as radio transmissi Nofimlly such sys
transmission etc. on. TV tem are '
¥ Openloopryrtem mum
isgivenbelow: ;
lammrhouham Enntplu -E 0f
leenrcHand
w Drter:
Anelectrichan
ddrierscndsag
net-kenneari mhot‘homr
tlhempmisd
Innd.'l'lteprocec iewer
s geaeratea mwihdn‘:
the taunting awhirlofhotlir
beta.
signal Wheue . Altomngive

M)Whi6hf0rrns ‘let' lrlllt “0W a
flre¢0tttmllcfi ll W (bl!
0n. Wet
'lhisconn-olact
ionhuuothingto
Onwulrehhufll dowidntaauoft
The bandwidth elhnddriedLE hemm
of the AM Ule VeniIWePlaa
subtraction of the hi signal is Obtained _ MtineQJaceu). eadryhndlldow
sheet andth by the unopenloopsyste “Willsenemeawaidofhota
F
i
the frequency s Pe elo inllquit

ctrum'lherefore: ““1 frequency component in m
BW = fm‘fua=
(fc+fm
)-(f¢-fl
BW = 2r
)
0.9 ...(4)
ii
Whatleotren
loopayetar
OXIII'IMO. n?Exptolnw
lthom
Ans. : An ope
n loop system is
correct the change one which does
(tr-u) Fig. 11.8: AM in output by adju not automatically
“Velez-m for sinu definition would sting the input sign
soidal mod Mati be as follow. A al. A formal
ng aten-l action is totally inde sysrem in which
0.! Explnlnl-‘ro pendent of the outp the Control
queneyspaetmmo ut of the system is
Anew tthoAIIWava. open loop system. called as
9AM = Er: one that +
.rlgm(m c + damn + $00901 A generalized bloc
Thefiequencys »: — mm” k di agram ofaope
pecuumisa grap in Fig. “.10. n loop system is show
Yaxismfiequmc h of amplitude Carrier n
yonXuitefrequen on Upper aideband
mummahunwmd cySpwuumofA Lower aideband
ihequmey compon M
Aaeudwhaure entsarepreeentindie - (p.137)
their Intplitndes.So°on Observations :
...(3)
qMw-ve sidertheequation
e“ a (Et+E_c The expression for

ostn_tleo s(alt the AM wave show
terms: s that it consists of In open loop systems. the
0q or remains constant
Eg a [l+':—.eosr input provided the exter for a given
u.t]eosmt First term is noth
nal conditi ons are the
same. [here is no mwnimisukmby
the Man signal and the reference rum
ing else but the un correcting action taking flnm mmhm
modulated
carrier signal. place in an open loop system
Asperdaedefiniuon The second term .
oftheflndtdafiminde is a sinu soidal sign A very common example mmnouaonsmueuroum;
em a E‘(l+mcos
m.t)eosmct
nm= 5.15. (f‘+rm).'lhisiscal
ledasth e upper
al at frequency of a open [00p system is the
Fan. I’m—r refereueeinpm
...(l) sideband (USB).
. . Its
Swansea amplitud e rs "IE
2 . C(t)—r msignal
em =Ecmm‘ httl—r feedbackSignal
t+mfimm_tm The third term repr
Forlheiecoudlen qr ...(2) esents a sinusoid Fig. 11.11
UC — f. ). It is called al signal at frequen C(tl—r controlledoutprnsigml
n in the above express as the lOWer side cy
WM: ion use the followin band (LSB). Its munindlfferenee'
g E In this case. when we switch on the betweenaclusedloopsysternaudan
amplitud e is "IT. fan. it starts moving at a
openloopsysumudmmachmmsyne
2oosAcosB= Speed depending on the position of the mthueisaoonsnnt
costA+Bl+eo regulator. It continues to
e(A-B) Hence the frequen rrotate at the same speed without oomparisonbetweentheoutputandtherefe
Therefore Equatio cy spectrum of taking into account the reneemptm'lhisis
n (Zlaetsiinplifie an AM. wave is surrounding environment. The only way to absentinopenloopsysaemsAoommonenmple
dasfollom: in Pig “.9. As as shown change the speed of the ofaclosedloop
it is a single side fan would be to physically adjust the regulator. system isanAir-Conditioning(A.C.)
plotted for only the d spectrum i.e. This rs an open tmitlumACweadjustthe
pasitive values the spectrum
of frequency. loop system. temperature to a particular value (say 24°C).
. '
as easv~s In this human-system interface. the system (fan in this ease)f 'llte.kC.givesoutcoolairwhiehooolatheroom.assoonas
olutrons is unable to complete its task (controlling the
W0 the temperature of the room drops flown-“C. ttshutsoffi
the room) without the contribution Em 1mm .. Ltsted tillthe
belowareafewday-to-day-' n 'v
V'm
lr’ 7‘ —.”fi 7
.L‘JK "x\"‘ k". ,,
1 ~80 signals and Systems (MU)
Signals and Systems (MU) fl
ihe an“
temperature falls bea
ified range. When the , heating rs sin
3. Noise : Noise is an undesired input si 31 1'81
temperature. The A.C. is constantly checking the temperature of the range
started and when it exceeds
- A
inflicting is system should be insensitive to go signals
so“ A”mm In the feedrorward system. the co ‘ve do“ u. . i i
the room and based on the temperature. it switches on or switches such input
off the compressor. Listed below are a few day-to-day examples of
closed loop systems.
Thus it is closed loop
control action (which initiate
depends on the output
with reSpect to terrrpe
s heating or not heatin
temper ature.
ramre as line
g the coil)
In this.- the “Emma;
4,
u "1.. ‘ e . mmmm 22?: 2221?.2'mam “ m..r..
Stability : Stability means bounded input and bounded
. good ‘ ' ' '
o
significantly improve the overall performan
-
and feedback control can u
.1'
“-
Cloned Loop Examples : temper ature. This is fed back to a ce as enamored to a
'I
constantly checks the output output. In the absence of the inputs. the simple feedback control whenever there
is a major disarm that
switches OFF the heater. This is output should tend to
Example of the close loop system is given below. comparator which switches ON or “'0 as time increases A 800d control a
ystem response is can be measured before it
' affects the system.
J
Example 1 - Automatic Electric irons : the principle of closed loop temperature control. Refer Fig. 11'13' '_ stable for all variations.
.
O. 15 Explain adaptive control w. l
An Automatic Electric Iron regulates the temperature of iron 5' Bandwidth : Operating frequency range
decides the Ann. :
such that for a given cloth selection the temperature remains in a bandwidth of any
Contml system. system. For
bandwidth frequency response of a good I‘
should An misprive Control Syttem ‘ts one that
s . A 00d can" 1 '
continuously and .'-i
Desired belarge. . automatically measures the dynamic characteristics (such as
temperature
6. peedm g f 0 system should have high speed. the '
transfer function or state equation) of
Hence e output 0 system should be as first as lmsibk~ the plant. 0011mm them
i
with the desired characteristics and use. the difference to my
7. Oscillation : For [good control system. oscillations of output
the i
adjustable system parameters so that optimal performance can he
should be constant or sustained. -
maintained regardless of environmental changes. It can also be
a. 14 Explain feed forward systems. defined as follows. Adaptive Control Systems continuously
Fig. 11.13 : Automatic electric iron
measure its own performance index. compares it with given
Ans. :
The feedback element could be a R'l'D. a thermocouple or a thermostat
As per feedback systems (closed loop systems) perform
performance index and modify parameters such that optimal
performance is given under all possible operating conditions.
correction and adjust the output based on the reference input
servomechanisms is the position sensor. The position sensor signal. in feed forward systems the output of one stage of the The block diagram of a Adaptive Control System is shown in
measures the position of the servomotor and converts it into an Fig. [1.16.
control system is sent to a later stage to improve the overall
our: :‘3 eiecuicai signal that the control system can use.
3354‘s performance of the control system. It is used whenever there are
L-us s. 1..
A typical block diagram of position control servomechanism disturbances present.
is shown in Fig. “.14.
Shown is Fig. ”.15 are block diagrams : one of a feedback
No feedback. Hence Feedback exists. Hence
fwdback elements Reference Position system and another one with feedback as well as feedforward. in
feedback elements exists.
position output . feedback systems. the corrective action starts only after the output
absent.
has been affected.
I 2. I No error detector. I Error detector is present. Disturbance
I 3. I It is inaccurate. I It is accurate. Environmenil clinch

I
4. Highly sensitive to Less sensitive to parameter

input Output
signal signal Fig. 11.16 : Adaptive control system
parametcr‘changes. changes.
Fig. 11.14 Thus an adaptive control system must:
L5. I Small bandwidth. I Large bandwidth. I
A servo control system is one of the most widely used forms , ' l. Measure its own performance
I: I Stable. I May become unstable. I "3.5mm,
of control systems. 7 2. Have some defined performance ladies:
L7._I Economical. I Costly. j
(I) Fwdbeck system 3. Work in such a way that performance is optimal subject
O. 13 What are requirements of a good control systems.
8. Examples : Coffee Examples : Guided missile. Disturbance to the available resources and constraints.
maker. automatic Temperature control of Arts. :
toaster. hand drier. Thus for adaptive control system there must be '. '
oven. Servo voltage 1. Accuracy : Accuracy should be very high as any error arising
' stabilisers. should be corrected. Accuracy can be improved by using l. identification of dynamic characteristics of plant
o. 12 Explain eervomechenleme.
feedback element. Because of feedback element. system 2. Decision making based on that identification
becomes closed loop system. In closed loop control systems. Output
Ana. :
input 3'9““ 3. Modification based on such identification.
steady state error tends to zero. signal
or
Servomechanisms are closed loop systems where the The process of identification includes using test signals
To increase the accuracy. an error detector should be present be no
feedback signals are used to control position. speed. velocity. stochastic signal analysis. Nonmlly identification should
in control system.
acceleration etc (position or time derivatives of position). time consuming.
Sensitivity : A control system senses changes in output due will measure the -
Servo voltage stabilisers in which position of the secondary
to environmental or parametric changes, internal disturbance Decision making based on identification
tap is controlled using servo motors is an example s it will begin to initiate
of or any other parameters and corrects the same. A good present performance and if it is not optinul.
servomechanisms. Since servomechanisms are used
to control ' (b) Feedback with feed forward new changes.
position, one of the most important components control system should be insensitive to such parameter
of s bill Fig. 11.15
very sensitive to the input signals.
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Si nals and Systems

Chaptor1 : Introduction to Signals

G. 3 Stats and prove sampling tlreerem.

o I ' lo 1 Ans. : Sampling Theorem for Low Pass Signalsjn Tints

a receiver- and the flow of information is bl-dlrectlornl, Le. In severely. . .lim

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y(t) a: outputsignll Taking Laplace transform,

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Statement: Input 0M diagrammtically “shown in Fig. Mlle).

m=-oo y(n) - sin) - th‘tn) ' run»

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The direct form-I realization of Equation (7) is shown in

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regs, .t‘isréig w ~ ' I.

Fig. 11.30») : Voice decoder

Streamin: is the process in which the user can listen 1.

signal Wheue . Altomngive

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I 3. I It is inaccurate. I It is accurate. Environmenil clinch

4. Highly sensitive to Less sensitive to parameter

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