LANDSAT TM Band Combinations

Helpful Landsat TM Band Combinations

Red Green Blue Feature Screen color

7 4 2 Bare Soil Magenta/Lavendar/Pink
Crops Green
Urban Areas Lavendar
Wetland
Vegetation Green
Trees Green
3 2 1 Bare Soil White/Light Grey
Crops Medium-Light Green
Urban Areas White/Light Grey
Wetland
Vegetation Dark Green/Black
Trees Olive Green
4 3 2 Bare Soil Blue/Grey
Crops Pink/Red
Urban Areas Blue/Grey
Wetland
Vegetation Dark Red
Trees Red
4 5 3 Bare Soil Green/Dark Blue
Crops Yellow/Tan
Urban Areas White/Blue
Wetland
Vegetation Brown
Trees Tan/Orange Brown

7. Relationship to GIS
Orthophoto Phenomenon

Orthophotography first came into use in the 1960's, but they did not become commonplace until the
1970s due to cost. Digital Orthophotos are commonly used as a backdrop for vector
digitizing. Orthophoto show the actual land feature of an area as opposed to the generalizations
found on a map.

Change Analysis

Change analysis refers to the process of comparing changes to the same area using remotely-sensed
images that are temporally separated. Change analysis developed in the 1970s at a time when GIS
was in its early, developmental stages. Raster based data laid the ground-work for GIS and remote
sensing analysis. "Vegetation indices" and Dana Tomlin's "Map Algebra" were developed in this
era.

Software Vendor Dominance

Prominent software vendors who have dominated the GIS and remote sensing arena are ESRI
(vector based data display) and ERDAS (multi spectral data manipulation). ERDAS dominates the
Remote Sensing market.

Aerial Photography and Remote Sensing

These materials were developed by Shannon Crum, Department of Geography, University of Texas at Austin,
1995. These materials may be used for study, research, and education in not-for-profit applications. If you
link to or cite these materials, please credit the author, Shannon Crum, The Geographer's Craft Project,
Department of Geography, The University of Colorado at Boulder. These materials may not be copied to or
issued from another Web server without the author's express permission. Copyright © 2000 All commercial
rights are reserved. If you have comments or suggestions, please contact the author or Kenneth E. Foote at
k.foote@colorado.edu.

This page is available in a framed version. For convenience, a Full Table of Contents is
provided.

Introduction
This unit introduces basic concepts of remote sensing of the environment. It is intended to provide
you with the background information necessary to successfully use remotely sensed imagery in
conjunction with GIS technology to answer questions about the world in which we live.

In recent years, technological advances have changed the way geographic analyses are done.
Increasingly, computers are used to automate aspects of cartography and remote sensing, producing
data that are easily integrated into a GIS.
Many GIS systems have the capability of incorporating aerial photography, satellite data, and radar
imagery into their data layers. The process is simple, as images may be scanned or read off a data
tape. However, to use this technology effectively, it is important to know the strengths and limitations
of remotely sensed data, and to understand which types of imagery are suited to particular projects.
This unit was developed with these concerns in mind. The information and exercises contained within
it are intended to familiarize you with the interface between remote sensing and GIS.

Foundations of Remote Sensing

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The USGS defines the electromagnetic spectrum in the following manner: "Electromagnetic radiation
is energy propagated through space between electric and magnetic fields. The electromagnetic
spectrum is the extent of that energy ranging from cosmic rays, gamma rays, X-rays to ultraviolet,
visible, and infrared radiation including microwave energy."

Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves may be classified by FREQUENCY or WAVELENGTH, and the velocity of

ALL electromagnetic waves is equal to the speed of light, which we (along with Einstein) will refer
to as c.

Wavelength and Frequency of common EM waves

Wave Phenomena Concepts

Electromagnetic waves are radiated through space. When the energy encounters an object, even a
very tiny one like a molecule of air, one of three reactions occurs. The radiation will either be reflected
off the object, absorbed by the object, of transmitted through the object. The total amount of radiation
that strikes an object is referred to as the incident radiation, and is equal to:

reflected radiation + absorbed radiation + transmitted radiation

In remote sensing, we are largely concerned with REFLECTED RADIATION. This is the radiation
that causes our eyes to see colors, causes infrared film to record vegetation, and allows radar images
of the earth to be created.

Amplitude and Wavelength

Wave Descriptions

The electric field and the magnetic field are important concepts that can be used to mathematically
describe the physical effects of electromagnetic waves.

The electric field vibrates in a direction transverse (i.e. perpendicular) to the direction of travel of the
electromagnetic wave.
The magnetic field vibrates in a direction transverse to the direction of the em wave AND transverse
to the electric field.

POLARIZATION: Polarization is defined by the orientation of the electrical field E. It is usually

described in terms of HORIZONTAL POLARIZATION and VERTICAL POLARIZATION.
Polarization is most important when discussing RADAR applications of remote sensing.

The Particle Nature of Light

Infrared Radiation

Sources of Electromagnetic Radiation

Aerial Photography
Introduction

Aerial photography has two uses that are of interest within the context of this course: (1)
Cartographers and planners take detailed measurements from aerial photos in the preparation of maps.
(2) Trained interpreters utilize arial photos to determine land-use and environmental conditions,
among other things.

Although both maps and aerial photos present a "bird's-eye" view of the earth, aerial photographs are
NOT maps. Maps are orthogonal representations of the earth's surface, meaning that they are
directionally and geometrically accurate (at least within the limitations imposed by projecting a 3-
dimensional object onto 2 dimensions). Aerial photos, on the other hand, display a high degree of
radial distortion. That is, the topography is distorted, and until corrections are made for the distortion,
measurements made from a photograph are not accurate. Nevertheless, aerial photographs are a
powerful tool for studying the earth's environment.

Because most GISs can correct for radial distortion, aerial photographs are an excellent data source
for many types of projects, especially those that require spatial data from the same location at periodic
intervals over a length of time. Typical applications include land-use surveys and habitat analysis.

This unit discusses benefits of aerial photography, applications, the different types of photography,
and the integration of aerial photographs into GISs.

Basic Elements of Air Photo Interpretation

Novice photo interpreters often encounter difficulties when presented with their first aerial
photograph. Aerial photographs are different from "regular" photos in at least three important ways:

o objects are portrayed from an overhead (and unfamiliar) position.

o very often, infrared wavelengths are recorded, and
o photos are taken at scales most people are unaccustomed to seeing
 These "basic elements" can aid in identifying objects on aerial photographs.

o Tone (also called Hue or Color) -- Tone refers to the relative brightness or color of elements on a
photograph. It is, perhaps, the most basic of the interpretive elements because without tonal
differences none of the other elements could be discerned.
o Size -- The size of objects must be considered in the context of the scale of a photograph. The scale will
help you determine if an object is a stock pond or Lake Minnetonka.
o Shape -- refers to the general outline of objects. Regular geometric shapes are usually indicators of
human presence and use. Some objects can be identified almost solely on the basis of their shapes.
 the Pentagon Building
 (American) football fields
 cloverleaf highway interchanges
o Texture -- The impression of "smoothness" or "roughness" of image features is caused by the
frequency of change of tone in photographs. It is produced by a set of features too small to identify
individually. Grass, cement, and water generally appear "smooth", while a forest canopy may appear
"rough".
o Pattern (spatial arrangement) -- The patterns formed by objects in a photo can be diagnostic. Consider
the difference between (1) the random pattern formed by an unmanaged area of trees and (2) the
evenly spaced rows formed by an orchard.
o Shadow -- Shadows aid interpreters in determining the height of objects in aerial photographs.
However, they also obscure objects lying within them.
o Site -- refers to topographic or geographic location. This characteristic of photographs is especially
important in identifying vegetation types and landforms. For example, large circular depressions in the
ground are readily identified as sinkholes in central Florida, where the bedrock consists of limestone.
This identification would make little sense, however, if the site were underlain by granite.
o Association -- Some objects are always found in association with other objects. The context of an
object can provide insight into what it is. For instance, a nuclear power plant is not (generally) going to
be found in the midst of single-family housing.
o

Advantages of Aerial Photography over Ground-Based Observation

 Aerial photography offers an improved vantage point.

 Aerial photography has the capability to stop action.
 It provides a permanent recording.
 It has broader spectral sensitivity than the human eye.
 It has better spatial resolution and geometric fidelity than many ground-based sensing
methods.

Types of Aerial Photography

Black and White

Austin, Texas

Hidalgo County, Texas

Color

Color Infrared
In 1903 or 1904 the first reliable black and white infrared film was developed in Germany. The film
emulsion was adjusted slightly from regular film to be sensitive to wavelengths of energy just slightly
longer than red light and just beyond the range of the human eye. By the 1930s, black and white IR
films were being used for landform studies, and from 1930 to 1932 the National Geographic Society
sponsored a series of IR photographs taken from hot air balloons.

Throughout the 1930s and 1940s, the military was hard at work developing color infrared film, eager
to exploit it for surveillance. By the early 1940s the military was successful in its attempts. It
developed a film that was able to distinguish camouflaged equipment from surrounding vegetation.
Within months, however, an IR reflecting paint was developed for use on military vehicles,
effectively making IR film technology useless to the military. So, they dropped it.

The scientific community, however, has made continuous use of the film technology.

Color infrared film is often called "false-color" film. Objects that are normally red appear green, green
objects (except vegetation) appear blue, and "infrared" objects, which normally are not seen at all,
appear red.

The primary use of color infrared photography is vegetation studies. This is because healthy green
vegetation is a very strong reflector of infrared radiation and appears bright red on color infrared
photographs.

Basic Photogrammetry

Applications of Aerial Photography

Introduction: The Scope of Air Photography

Land-Use Planning and Mapping

Geologic Mapping

Archaeology

Species Habitat Mapping

Integration of Aerial Photography into GIS

Digital Image Processing

Why Process Remotely Sensed Data Digitally?

Humans are adept at visually interpreting data. We can distinguish millions of colors, several shades
of gray, and have a demonstrated ability to identify water, vegetation, and urban forms on several
types of imagery. Why try to expand on this?

(1) There are limits to a person's ability to distinguish small differences in color. We are especially limited in
our resolution of shades of gray. If data are collected using 256 shades of gray, but an analyst can only
distinguish 8-10 (optimistically) of them, a great deal of information is potentially lost. The human interpreter
is outpaced by the precision of the data. Computers, however, have no trouble distinguishing 256 shades of
gray. Each one is individually recognizable. And, the analyst has control over the conputer's presentation of
the data. She can group it any way she pleases, extract a portion of it, or display it in false color. Data sets
can also be combined, compared, and contrasted with more ease and precision (not to mention speed) than
if the task were left to humans alone.

(2) Human interpretations are highly subjective, hence, not perfectly repeatable. Conversely, results
generated by computer--even when erroneous--are usually repeatable.

(3) When very large amounts of data are involved (a series of photos of an orange grove taken at 5 day
intervals over an entire growing season) the computer may be better suited to managing the large body of
detailed (and tedious) data.

The processes of manual image interpretation and digital image interpretation are similar in many ways. The
goals of analysis are often the same, though the routes may vary.

Sources of Digital Data

Image Enhancement

Data Classification

Satellite Imaging
Introduction

Landsat

LANDSAT refers to a series of satellites put into orbit around the earth to collect environmental data
about the earth's surface. The LANDSAT program was initiated by the U.S. Department of Interior
and NASA under the name ERTS, an acronym which stands for Earth Resources Technology
Satellites. ERTS-1 was launched on July 23, 1972, and was the first unmanned satellite designed
solely to acquire earth resources data on a systematic, repetitive, multispectral basis. Just before the
launch of the second ERTS satellite, NASA announced it was changing the program designation to
LANDSAT, and that the data acquired through the LANDSAT program would be complemented by
the planned SEASAT oceanographic observation satellite program. ERTS-1 was retroactively named
LANDSAT-1, and all subsequent satellites in the program have carried the LANDSAT designation.
Over time, the sensors carried by the LANDSAT satellites have varied as technologies improved and
certain types of data proved more useful than others. The table which follows outlines the sensors
onboard each satellite, their launch dates, and the dates they were decommissioned.
 Table 1

The various Landsats have had Multispectral Scanners (MSS) , Return Beam Vidicon (RBV)
scanners, and Thematic Mapper (TM) scanners. Each type has its own spectral range and spatial
resolution.

Interpreting Landsat Data

The images discussed in this section are the property of the University of California, Santa Barbara.
Click here to get to the Center for Ecological Health Research Home Page, then click on the image
indicated below, then back up to this page with the image still visible to read the discussion that
pertains to the image. Detailed explanations of the images will be added soon.

 Click on the first image, labeled "California". This is a false color image that has been processed by
computer.
 Now, close the image of California and return to the CEHR Home Page. Click on the third image,
labeled "San Francisco Bay Delta, Northern California". more to come

SPOT

NOAA AVHRR

NOAA Geostationary and Polar Orbiting Satellites

NOAA GOES mission overview and history. The GOES graphic was prepared by the
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, which provides additional information about the GOES
project.

The first visible GOES-8 image. Look carefully and you can make out Baja California on
the lower left and Lake Michigan on the upper right.

Applications of Satellite Imagery

Integration of Satellite Imagery into GIS

Further Reading

Bauer, M.E., T.E. Burk, A.R. Ek, P.R. Coppin, S.D. Lime, T.A. Walsh, D.K. Walters, W.
Befort, and D.F. Heinzen. Satellite Inventory of Minnesota Forest Resources.
Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, in press.

MSS, Thermal, and Hyperspectral Scanning

 Thermal Radiation Principles

Thermal infrared radiation refers to electromagnetic waves with a wavelength of between 3.5
and 20 micrometers. Most remote sensing applications make use of the 8 to 13 micrometer
range. The main difference between THERMAL infrared and the infrared discussed above is
that thermal infrared is emitted energy, whereas the near infrared (photographic infrared) is
reflected energy.

Multispectral Scanning

Interpreting Thermal Scanning Imagery

Limitations of Thermal Infrared Imaging

There are some limitations of thermal imagery you should be aware of if you plan to use it in
your GIS:

 It is very expensive.
 Most thermal imaging systems have very strict operational parameters. For example, the detector
must be kept extremely cold during use.
 Thermal infrared imaging systems are notoriously difficult to calibrate.
 The data collected has extensive processing requirements. A PC isn't going to cut it.
 Thermal images can be quite difficult to interpret when compared with other types of imagery.
 Thermal imagery is NOT geometrically correct.
 Thermal images of water measure only the very top layer of the water. They tell you nothing of the
water's characteristics below the top few micrometers.

FLIR systems

Imaging Spectrometry

Radar (Microwave) Scanning

Introduction:

SLAR

LIDAR

ERS Program

Radar Images

The following radar images come from sites all over the world. The files at NASA's Jet Propulsion
Laboratory have explanations accompanying the images.

Spaceborne Synthetic Aperture Radar, Oetxal, Austria. This file was created by NASA's
Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, CA.
Remote Sensing and GIS
To sum up, remotely sensed images have a number of features which make them ideal GIS data
sources.

 Remote sensing provides a regional view.

 Remote sensing provides repetitive looks at the same area.
 Remote sensors "see" over a broader portion of the spectrum than the human eye.
 Sensors can focus in on a very specific bandwidth in an image.
 They can also look at a number of bandwidths simultaneously.
 Remote sensors often record signals electronically and provide geo-referenced, digital, data.
 Some remote sensors operate in all seasons, at night, and in bad weather.

Last updated 2000.2.6. LNC.

GIS Remote Sensing

Gis (Geographic Information System) is a system of hardware and software used for storage,
retrieval, mapping and analysis of geographic data. Where as remote sensing is the science of
obtaining information from a remote platform. Thus gis remote sensing is integrated. To
understand gis remote sensing integration, first we should know what is gis. Gis differs from
other computer application program in the sense that it can only produce geo-referenced map
with reliable spatial data as well as attribute data. in gis softwares we can produce 'topology'
which depicts the interrelation between spatial objects. Most well known softwares used in
gis are -

• map information

• arc view gis

• cad overlay

• autocad

From raw raster data or map we produce vector data which is represented in the form of
various forms of maps and diagrams. There are three fundamental concepts that a gis have.
These are -

• point (for showing point features like post office, fire stations etc)

• polygon (for showing area features)

• line (for showing linear features like road, railways etc)
The most common source for collecting gis data includes -

• aerial photography – photographs are taken from aerial platforms with automatically
shuttered camera after a specific time interval.

• satellite imagery – Imageries are taken from satellites

after processing they are used in remote sensing.

• ground survey – it includes GPS survey as well as other methods of survey.

• scanned images – soft copy images are scanned as input to use in gis.

In the first two sources gis remote sensing relation lies. As aerial photography and satellite
images are two major sources of remote sensing data. In todays topic gis remote sensing, our
work is to emphasize on gis remote sensing integration in the context of satellite imagery. Or
it can be said gis remote sensing relation on the basis of satellite imagery. Remote sensing
data need to be rectified before it can be used in gis. As those data contains some error due to
-

• atmospheric disturbances

• undulating plane

• unconformity in camera angle

• camera resolution

• ground surface condition and many other reasons

The correction procedure includes -

• Pre-processing – it removes the geometric as well as radiometric errors fro image.

• Image enhancement – it includes the improvement of image quality for a better visual
representation.

• Image classification – classification of features shown in image.

• Analysis – it includes the generation of spatial and attribute information on the area of
interest.
After those all aforesaid techniques a remote sensing data can directly be used in gis. Thus
gis remote sensing relationship becomes possible. Some fields where gis remote sensing are
used vigorously are -

• environmental monitoring

• coastal disaster management

• slope degradation monitoring

• ground engineering

• geoscientific study

• vegetation monitoring

• ocean floor study

• ocean color study and also many other many fields

Some most common satellite that are used for remote sensing to use in gis to sustain a gis
remote sensing relation are -

• LANSAT

• NDVI (Normalized Differential Vegetation Index)

• AVHRR (Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer)

• IKONOS

• Cartosat

After all these taken techniques remote sensing data is used in gis for producing maps. Thus
we may say that gis remote sensing integration becomes possible. Some vectorized data
using remote sensing softwares also used in gis. With new technical era gis remote sensing
integration becomes a obvious part of todays study.

REMOTE SENSING TECHNOLOGIES FOR UPDATING GIS INFORMATION

Benefits from merging of GIS and remote sensing technologies are well recognized. On one side, GIS
can be use for improving the information extraction potential of remotely sensed data. On the other
side, remotely sensed data can be used for updating GIS information. For the context of this study, a
brief review about the uses of remotely sensed data is limited to their roles in updating GIS
information only.
Remote sensing and image processing are powerful tools for many research and application areas.
Remote Sensing may define as the process of deriving information by means of systems that are not
indirect contact with the objects or phenomena of interest. Image processing specifically refers to
manipulating the raw data produced by remote sensing systems.

Remote sensing often requires other kind of ancillary data to achieve both its greatest value and the
highest levels of accuracy as a data and information production technology. Geographic information
systems can provide this capability. They permit the integration of datasets acquired from library;
laboratory and field work with remote sensed data. On the other hand, applications of GIS are heavily
dependent on either the timeliness or currency of the data they contain, as well as the geographic
coverage of the database. For a variety of applications of remote sensing, while only one source of
potential input to a GIS, can be valuable. Remote sensing can provide timely data at scales appropriate
to a variety of applications. As such, many researchers feel that the use of geographic information
systems and remote sensing can lead to important advances in research and operational applications.
Merging these two technologies can result in a tremendous increase in information for many kinds of
users (Star and Estes, 1990).

As we have mentioned, interconnecting remote sensing systems to geographic information systems

is valuable in many different applications. We will now discuss a number of common techniques for
moving data between these two kinds of spatial data-processing systems.

Remotely sensed data is almost always processed and stored in raster data structures. When working
simultaneously with an image processing systems and a raster geographic information system, it is
usually easy to move data between the two. Typically, a single theme of information is extracted from
the remotely sensed data. Once the remotely sensed data has been converted to a desired data type,
transferring this data to a raster GIS is relatively simple. Header and trailer records of files may need
to modify during the conversion process, but converting between different raster data structures, most
operational image processing and raster geographic information systems provide mechanisms to read
and write them.