Departement of Biochemistry

FK UMSU
2017
1. Starch  is similar in structure to glycogen
Starch contains amylose and amylopectin
2. Sucrose (table sugar and fruit)  contains
glucose and fructose residues
3. Lactose (milk sugar) contains galactose-
linked β-1,4 to glucose
In the mouth :
• salivary α-amylase  cleaves starch by breaking α-1,4
linkages between glucose residues within the chains.
• Dextrins (linear and branched oligosaccharides) are the
major products that enter the stomach.
In the intestine :
• bicarbonate (HCO-3) secreted by the pancreas
Digestion by pancreatic enzymes
a. α-amylase  The products are the disaccharides
maltose and isomaltase, trisaccharides, and small
oligosaccharides containing a-1,4 and a-1,6 linkages.
Digestion by enzymes of intestinal cells
a. produced by intestinal epithelial cells and located in their
brush borders.
b. Glucoamylase (an α-glucosidase) and other maltases
cleave glucose residues from the nonreducing ends of
oligosaccharides and also cleave the a-1,4 bond of
maltose, releasing the two glucose residues.
c. Isomaltase cleaves a-1,6 linkages, releasing glucose
residues from branched oligosaccharides.
d. Sucrase : sucrose  glucose and fructose.
e. Lactase (αβ-galactosidase) : lactose  glucose and
galactose.
Indigestible
polysaccharides 
dietary fiber 
Because enzymes
produced by human
cells cannot cleave the
β-1,4 bonds of
cellulose
Absorption of glucose, fructose, and galactose
1. facilitated transport, monosaccharides bind to
transport proteins and are transported into
cells moving down a concentration gradient.
2. active transport  Na+-K+ ATPase
• Dietary triacylglycerols  requires bile salts
and secretions from the pancreas  lumen of
the duodenum and jejunum.
• Bile salts  stored in the gallbladder 
released in response to hormones  in
intestine,  emulsifies the dietary lipids.
The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes and bicarbonate
• Pancreatic lipase, with the aid of colipase, digests the
triacylglycerols  2-monoacylglycerols and free fatty
acids  packaged into micelles.
• The micelles  emulsified by bile salts, also contain other
dietary lipids such as cholesterol and the fatsoluble
vitamins.
• The micelles travel to the microvilli of the intestinal
epithelial cells, which absorb the fatty acids, 2-
monoacylglycerols, and other dietary lipids.
• The bile salts are resorbed in the terminal ileum
In the stomach, pepsin is the major proteolytic enzyme. It
cleaves proteins to smaller polypeptides
• a. Pepsin is produced and secreted by the chief cells of
the stomach as the inactive zymogen pepsinogen.
• b. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) produced by the parietal cells
of the stomach causes a conformational change in
pepsinogen that enables it to cleave itself (autocatalysis),
forming active pepsin.
• c. Pepsin has a broad specificity but tends to cleave
peptide bonds in which the carboxyl group is contributed
by the acidic amino acids, aromatic amino acids, or
leucine.
In the intestine:
Bicarbonate (pancreas)
Endopeptidases
• from the pancreas cleave peptide bonds within protein
chains
1. Trypsin
• cleaves peptide bonds in which the carboxyl group is
contributed by arginine or lysine.
• inactive zymogen : trypsinogen
Trypsinogen  trypsin by the enzyme enteropeptidase
(enterokinase), produce by intestinal cell
2. Chymotrypsin
• usually cleaves peptide bonds at the carboxyl
group of aromatic amino acids or leucine.
• Chymotrypsinogen  chymotrypsin by trypsin.
3. Elastase
• cleaves at the carboxyl end of amino acid
residues with small, uncharged side chains such
as alanine, glycine, or serine.
• Proelastase  elastase by trypsin.
Exopeptidases
• procarboxypeptidases  carboxypeptidases, by trypsin.
• Carboxypeptidase A cleaves aromatic amino acids
• Carboxypeptidase B cleaves the basic amino acids, lysine
and arginine, from the C terminus end of the peptide.

Proteases
produced by intestinal epithelial cells
1. Aminopeptidases
are exopeptidases produced by intestinal cells, cleaving
one amino acid at a time from the N terminus of peptides.
2. Dipeptidases and tripeptidases
associated with the intestinal cells produce amino acids
• Free amino acids absorbed across the intestinal
mucosa by sodium-dependent active transport.
• different amino acid transporters amino acid side-
chain (large or small, neutral, acidic or basic).
• Dipeptides and tripeptides  enter the brush border
of the intestinal mucosal cells, hydrolyzed to free
amino acids transported into the hepatic portal
vein.
• Relatively large peptides may be absorbed intact 
transcellular or paracellular
• Many such peptides are large enough to stimulate
antibody formation—this is the basis of allergic
reactions to foods.
 COLON
- Water Absorbed :semiliquid to solid.
- Bacterial Activation:
Fermentasi .
Putrefaction.  dekarboksilasi , deaminasi
amino acid.
-- CO2,metana,H2,N2,H2S.
asetat acids, laktat, propionat,butirat.
- Phosphatidil kholin--- dekomposis bakterial ---
kholin & toxic amine
• The fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed in the lipid micelles that
are the result of fat digestion
• Watersoluble vitamins and most mineral salts are absorbed
from the small intestine either by active transport or by carrier-
mediated diffusion followed by binding to intracellular proteins
to achieve concentrative uptake
• Vitamin B12 absorption requires a specific transport protein,
intrinsic factor
• calcium absorption is dependenton vitamin D;
• zinc absorption probably requires a zinc-binding ligand
secreted by the exocrine pancreas
• absorption of iron is limited
• Serum amylase is elevated in cases of pancreatitis,
serum lipase is another marker of pancreatitis

• Lactase deficiency occurs in more than 80% of Native, African,

and Asian Americans  Lactose is not digested at a normal
rate and accumulates in the gut, where it is metabolized by
bacteria Bloating, abdominal cramps, and watery diarrhea
result.

• Steatorrhea  excess lipids are excreted into the feces

because of lipid malabsorption
• Acarbose, an a-glucosidase inhibitor  slowing down
digestion of carbohydrates and lengthening the time it
takes for carbohydrates to be converted to glucose 
postdigestive blood glucose control.

• Achlorhydria  lack of ability to produce HCl (usually

due to autoimmune destruction of gastric parietal cells),
have deficiencies in protein digestion and absorption.

• Hereditary deficiency of enterokinase  diarrhea,

failure to thrive, and hypoproteinemia and is managed
during infancy with pancreatic enzyme supplementation.