Kenneth A.

Abuda April 9, 2014

BS Biology 4

Results

A. Red Blood Cell Count

a. RBC Count in five counting areas: Lower left – 101 Upper left – 125
Lower right– 77 Upper right – 77
Middle – 104
b. Average number of RBCs per 1/25 mm2 = 96.8 RBCs
c. Ave. number of RBCs/cc blood: 6,140,000 RBC/mm3
Calculated as follows:
122.8 RBC = 30,700 RBC/ cu mm x 200 = 6,140,000 RBC/mm3
1/250 mm3
*Volume of fluid in a square = 1/250 mm3
Dilution factor = 200
Total number of cells counted: 125+77+77+101+104= 484 x 10, 000
RBC count (cells/mcL): 4.84 million

B. Clotting Time of Human Blood

Table 1. Clotting Time of Human Blood

Observation Time
a. Time when blood was shed 4:12 pm
b. Time when a fibrin thread was 4:16 pm
observed
c. Clotting time 4 minutes and 45 seconds
 300
255
240
250
Clotting time (sec) 200

150 120
100
60
45
50 20 15
0

Condition of Test Tube

Figure 1. Clotting times of different test tubes under different conditions.

DISCUSSION

Red Blood Cell Count

Red blood cell count tells how many red blood cells (RBCs) an individual have. It is
reported as the number of red blood cells per volume of blood, and could either be millions
in a microliter or millions in a liter of blood. Their number affects the transport of oxygen
from the lungs to the tissues because contain a pigment called hemoglobin, which aids in
the transport oxygen around the body. (Fankhauser, 2014).

Normal values of RBC for males is 4.7 to 6.1 million/µL 4.2 to 5.4 million/µL for
females, and 4.6 to 4.8 million/µL for children (RBC Count, 2014). Abnormalities in the RBC
count can be alarming. Anemia or oligocythemia could occur if there is too few RBCs.Thjis
could also be a result of external or internal bleeding, hemolysis, kidney disease, leukemia,
multiple myeloma, bone marrow failure, erythropoietin deficiency, or deficiencies in iron,
folate, and vitamin B12. Administration of drugs such Chloramphenicol, Hydantoins, and
Quinidine may also cause a decline in RBCs (RBC Count, 2014).

Clotting Time

Clotting time is the time required for a blood sample to coagulate under certain
conditions. The process that determine the speed and extent of coagulation under normal
circumstances in the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin which is in turn dependent on
the amount of active thromboplastin present. Thrombin then converts soluble fibrinogen
into insoluble fibrin (Blood Laboratory, 2014). The expected range for clotting time is 4-10
minutes but some sources indicate a range of normal clotting time from 5 to 15 minutes.
Various factors could lead to abnormalities in clotting time but the most common is an
irregularity in the coagulation cascade, which is a series of reactions necessary to achieve
hemostasis by developing a clot, stopping its formation at the right time, and eventually
facilitating clot dissolution when the vessel has healed. Bleeding abnormalities can range
from severe and life-threatening conditions to mild variants (Bleeding Disorder, 2014).

Factors Affecting Coagulation

Coagulation is the process in which particles are clumped together to form larger
particles. This involves reactions between coagulant molecules and the surfaces of particles.
Study shows that the time required for human blood to clot varies between individuals and
with the substrate upon which the blood is deposited (Laber & Epstein, 2001).

Surfaces that repel water such as paraffin and some of the plastics tend to inhibit the
agglutination and disintegration of platelets and the subsequent liberation of
thromboplastin. The effect of artificial surfaces on blood coagulatability, with special
reference of polyethylene. That is why the blood with paraffin clotted 3 times slower than
the normal while cotton which is a water-absorbent when mixed with blood, clotting time
becomes faster.

The citrate ions chelates calcium ions in the blood by forming calcium citrate
complexes making the blood clotting mechanism faster (Medicago.com). The expected
result is that clotting would be faster but the result was an opposite. There could be an error
in the preparation on the citrate solution.

Changes in the temperature of the blood, after it is withdrawn from the body
produce a marked effect on its coagulation time. From 10°C to about 40°C the time
shortened as the temperature rises and beyond this from 40°C upwards, it is lengthened. At
55°C or 56°C, the blood does not coagulate at all. The results on the effect of temperature
were expected. Clotting time of blood in the cold water bath was higher than that in the
warm water bath.
 QUESTIONS

1. Why is the red blood cell number in males more than in females? More in infants than in
adults?
 There is a higher number of red blood cells in males than in females because
females shed blood through cyclical menstruation. Moreover, males produce
hormone, testosterone, which triggers production of red blood cells. Males have
more red blood cell count than females because males have larger bodies and have
more muscle mass. In order to meet the demands of an increased muscle mass,
there must be an increase in red blood cells. Infants on the other hand have higher
red blood cell count than adults because it is during this stage that the body is
further developing, thus a great supply of blood is needed to complete the
development of different organs.
Sources: http://vetpatho.blogspot.com
http://www.rnceus.com

Give factors that cause deviation from the normal value. Do you consider these normal
mechanisms? Why? When do you consider a deviation pathological?

 Dietary intake of a person can increase RBC count, wherein iron which oxygen
binds to is not obtained enough by the body. High altitudes can be another factor
because of the partial decrease of the pressure of oxygen due to the less
atmospheric weight which pushes air into the lungs. Yes, because the body adjust
and try to adapt to the situation. It is considered to be pathological when normal
circulation is compromised due to the viscosity of the blood.
Source: http://www.rnceus.com

What is polycythemia? Oligocythemia? What is the difference between absolute and

relative polycythemia? Absolute and relative olygocythemia?

 Polycythemia is a disease wherein there is an increase to the proportion of the red

blood cell in the blood volume. Absolute polycythemia results from the
overproduction of red blood cells in the bone marrow, while relative polycythemia is
due to the decrease in blood plasma. Olygocythemia on the other hand is the
decrease of red blood cells in the blood. In absolute olygocythemia, destruction of
red blood cells is greater than its production, while in relative olygocythemia there is
an increase in the volume of blood but the number of red blood cells remains
constant.
 Source: http://www.medicinenet.com

2. Is there a difference between white blood cell numbers in male sand females? What is
the term for the increase or decrease in WBC? Does an increase or decrease denote a
proportional increase or decrease in the different types of WBC?
 There is no difference. Leucocytosis is the increase of WBC, while leukopenia is the
decrease of WBC. Yes.
Source: http://coulterflow.com

3. Can type O blood be transfused to Type B? How about the antibodies of type O as a
donor? Will these not clump the RBC of the recipient?
 Yes, blood type O, as the universal blood can be transfused to blood type B. This
blood type has antibodies against A and B, but it lacks antigens against the A and B.
Antibodies from type O will bind to the RBC in the transfused blood. It would cause
incompatibility and clumping will not occur due to the depletion of the transfused
blood.
Source: Umaly, R. C. (1979) Lecture Notes on Modern Genetics. Vibal Publishing
House , Inc. Quezon City.

4. If you are Rh positive, do you have the antibodies for Rh? What if you are negative?
 If one his Rh positive, the blood of that person contains Rh factor but do not have
the antibodies for Rh. If on the other hand, one is Rh negative, the blood lacks the
Rh factor and contains the antibodies which will inhibit the Rh proteins on the red
blood cells.
Source: Umaly, R. C. (1979) Lecture Notes on Modern Genetics. Vibal Publishing
House , Inc. Quezon City.

If a man is Rh positive and the wife is Rh negative, is there a chance for a normal child?
When and how will it happen physiologically and medically?

 If the Rh positive father has one Rh+ and one Rh- allele, then 50% of his children will
get Rh+ from him (and Rh- from the mother) to be Rh positive, and 50% will get Rh-
from him (and Rh- from the mother) to be Rh negative. But if the Rh positive father
is Rh+Rh+ then all of his children will be Rh positive. Since the mother is Rh
negative, she would produce antibodies against the Rh proteins of the baby. This is
not good because antibodies production of the baby is usually after birth and thus
this will cause Rh incompatibility. Rh antibodies of the mother will attack the red
blood cells of the baby coming through the placenta. Thus the baby will not get
 enough oxygen, a disease known as hemolyticanemia-RBC degradation is greater
than that of its production.
Source: Umaly, R. C. (1979) Lecture Notes on Modern Genetics. Vibal Publishing
House , Inc. Quezon City.

5. Is coagulation the same as agglutination? Why is sodium citrate preferred over sodium
oxalate as an anticoagulant? How does temperature affect clotting time? Why do
dentist advise their patients to take something cold after a tooth extraction?
 Coagulation is the formation of fibrin due to the protein factors present in the
blood, while agglutination is the clumping of red blood cells due to the presence of
antibodies. Sodium citrate is preferred over sodium oxalate as anticoagulant
because the oxalates can cause cell shrinkage or swelling. Enzyme activity affects
the clotting time. There are different factors that may affect the rate of enzyme
activity and one of which is temperature. Thus clotting time is dependent to the
optimum temperature of the enzyme. It is advisable to take something cold after
extraction to lessen the flow of blood from the extraction area due to the cold
temperature that cause the blood vessel to narrow down and to minimize the
swelling because the blood vessels can’t carry much fluid.
Sources: http://www.vetstream.com
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed

6. What is the function of blood pigments? What are the different types of blood
pigments? Explain the changes in the color produced in your experiment.
 Blood pigment are the carriers of oxygen through the circulatory system which are
the following: hemoglobin, hemocyanin, hemerytherin and chlorocruorin.
Sources: http://www.annualreviews.org
http://bio662.dyndns.info

7. What buffers found in the blood plasma?

 Bicarbonate buffer and phosphate buffer can be found in the blood plasma. In
addition the carbonyl groups (-COOH) and the amide group (-NH2) present on
proteins allow some of these to act as buffers.
Source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed