LA Lectures 13-15 (Updated) PDF

Linear Algebra
Department of Mathematics
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
January – May 2019
MA 102 (RA, RKS, MGPP, KVK)
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Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
Topics:
Determinant of Matrices
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
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Determinant of a matrix
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The determinant det(A) of 2 × 2 matrix A is defined by

a11 a12
det (A) = det = a11 a22 − a12 a21 .
a21 a22
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a11 a12
det (A) = det = a11 a22 − a12 a21 .
a21 a22
If det (A) 6= 0 then | det (A)| is the area of the parallelogram

formed by the vectors Ae1 and Ae2 .
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a11 a12
det (A) = det = a11 a22 − a12 a21 .
a21 a22

a11 a12 a13
" #
det (A) = det a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33

a22 a23 a a23 a a22
= a11 det − a12 det 21 + a13 det 21 .
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
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a11 a12
det (A) = det = a11 a22 − a12 a21 .
a21 a22

a11 a12 a13
" #
det (A) = det a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33

a22 a23 a a23 a a22
= a11 det − a12 det 21 + a13 det 21 .
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
If det (A) 6= 0 then | det (A)| is the area of the parallelepiped

formed by the vectors Ae1 , Ae2 and Ae3 .
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Determinant of an n × n matrix
Definition: Let A = [aij ] ∈ Mn (F). The determinant of A is
defined by
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defined by
det(A) = a11 , if n = 1, i.e., A = [a11 ].
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defined by
det(A) = a11 , if n = 1, i.e., A = [a11 ]. For n ≥ 2:
det(A) = a11 det(A11 ) − a12 det(A12 ) + . . . + (−1)1+n a1n det(A1n ),
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defined by
where Aij is the submatrix of A obtained by deleting the i-th row
and the j-th column of A.
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defined by
and the j-th column of A. Note that det (A) ∈ F.
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defined by
Example
 
1 5 0 0
2 0 8 0
det  =
3 6 9 0
4 7 10 1
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defined by
Example
 
1 5 0 0
0 8 0 2 8 0
" # " #
2 0 8 0
det  = 1· det 6 9 0 −5· det 3 9 0 =
3 6 9 0 
7 10 1 4 10 1
4 7 10 1
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defined by
Example
 
1 5 0 0
0 8 0 2 8 0
" # " #
2 0 8 0
det  = 1· det 6 9 0 −5· det 3 9 0 = −18.
3 6 9 0 
7 10 1 4 10 1
4 7 10 1
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defined by
Example
 
1 5 0 0
0 8 0 2 8 0
" # " #
2 0 8 0
det  = 1· det 6 9 0 −5· det 3 9 0 = −18.
3 6 9 0 
7 10 1 4 10 1
4 7 10 1
Theorem: The determinant of a diagonal, upper or lower triangular
matrix is the product of its diagonal entries.
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defined by
Example
 
1 5 0 0
0 8 0 2 8 0
" # " #
2 0 8 0
det  = 1· det 6 9 0 −5· det 3 9 0 = −18.
3 6 9 0 
7 10 1 4 10 1
4 7 10 1
Theorem: The determinant of a diagonal, upper or lower triangular
matrix is the product of its diagonal entries.
Proof: Use induction on the size of the matrix.
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Properties of Determinant
Let A be a square matrix.
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1 If B is obtained by interchanging two rows of A, then
det(B) = −det(A).
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det(B) = −det(A).
2 If A has a zero row, then det(A) = 0.
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det(B) = −det(A).
3 If A has two identical rows, then det(A) = 0.
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det(B) = −det(A).
4 If B is obtained by multiplying a row of A by a scalar α, then
det(B) = α det(A).
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det(B) = −det(A).
det(B) = α det(A).
5 If the matrices A, B and C are identical except that one of the
rows of C is the sum of the corresponding rows of A and B,
then det(C ) = det(A) + det(B).
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det(B) = −det(A).
det(B) = α det(A).
6 If B is obtained by adding a multiple of one row of A to
another row, then det(B) = det(A).
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det(B) = −det(A).
det(B) = α det(A).
6 If B is obtained by adding a multiple of one row of A to
another row, then det(B) = det(A).
7 det (αA) = αn det A.
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Expansion of det along rows and columns
Theorem: Let A ∈ Mn (F).
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Theorem: Let A ∈ Mn (F). Then for any i, j ∈ {1, . . . , n}
det(A) = (−1)i+1 ai1 det (Ai1 ) + · · · + (−1)i+n ain det (Ain )
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(Expansion along the i-th row)
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1+j
= (−1) a1j det (A1j ) + · · · + (−1)n+j anj det (Anj )
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1+j
(Expansion along the j-th column).
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1+j
Theorem:
Determinants of elementary matrices:
det Eij =
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1+j
Theorem:
det Eij = − 1, det Ei (α) =
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1+j
Theorem:
det Eij = − 1, det Ei (α) = α, det Eij (α) =
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1+j
Theorem:
det Eij = − 1, det Ei (α) = α, det Eij (α) = 1.
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1+j
Theorem:
For any elementary matrix E , det (E ) = det (E T ).
For any elementary matrix E , det (EA) = det (E ) det (A).
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1+j
Theorem:
For any elementary matrix E , det (E ) = det (E T ).
For any elementary matrix E , det (EA) = det (E ) det (A).
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Two important properties
Suppose A ∈ Mn (F).
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Suppose A ∈ Mn (F). Then A = Ek · · · E1 · rref(A) for some
elementary Ei .
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elementary Ei . We have
det (A) = det (Ek ) · · · det (E1 ) det (rref(A)).
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Thus,
det (A) 6= 0 iff
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Thus,
det (A) 6= 0 iff det (rref(A)) 6= 0 iff
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Thus,
det (A) 6= 0 iff det (rref(A)) 6= 0 iff rref(A) = In iff
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Thus,
det (A) 6= 0 iff det (rref(A)) 6= 0 iff rref(A) = In iff A is invertible.
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Thus,
Definition A matrix A ∈ Mn (F) is said to be singular or
non-singular according as
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Thus,
non-singular according as det(A) = 0 or det(A) 6= 0.
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Thus,
Theorem: A matrix A ∈ Mn (F) is invertible if and only if it is

non-singular.
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Thus,

non-singular.
Theorem:
(a) For any matrix A ∈ Mn (F), det (A) = det (AT ).
(b) For any A, B ∈ Mn (F), det (AB) = det (A) det (B).
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Thus,

non-singular.
Theorem:
(a) For any matrix A ∈ Mn (F), det (A) = det (AT ).
(b) For any A, B ∈ Mn (F), det (AB) = det (A) det (B).
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Suppose V is a vector space and T : V → V is a linear

transformation.
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transformation. Suppose B = {v1 , . . . , vn } is a basis of V and
λi ∈ F are such that T (vi ) = λi vi .
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λi ∈ F are such that T (vi ) = λi vi . Then, T is nicely described by
T (α1 v1 + · · · + αn vn ) = λ1 α1 v1 + · · · + λn αn vn .
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Remark
[T vi ]B = λi [vi ]B .
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Remark
[T ]B =
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Remark

[T ]B = [T (v1 )]B , . . . , [T (vn )]B =
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Remark

[T ]B = [T (v1 )]B , . . . , [T (vn )]B = diag{λ1 , . . . , λn }.
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Remark

Definition: Let T ∈ L(V). If there is a scalar λ ∈ F and a nonzero

vector v ∈ V such that T (v) = λv
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Remark


vector v ∈ V such that T (v) = λv then λ is called an eigenvalue of
T and
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Remark


vector v ∈ V such that T (v) = λv then λ is called an eigenvalue of
T and v an eigenvector of T corresponding to λ.
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Definition: Let A ∈ Mn (F).
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Definition: Let A ∈ Mn (F). If Ax = λx for some λ ∈ F and
0 6= x ∈ Fn ,
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0 6= x ∈ Fn , then λ is called an eigenvalue of A and
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0 6= x ∈ Fn , then λ is called an eigenvalue of A and x an
eigenvector of A corresponding to λ.
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Fact: Suppose dim(V) = n, and T : V → V is an LT.
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Fact: Suppose dim(V) = n, and T : V → V is an LT. Then
T (v) = λv iff
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T (v) = λv iff [T (v)]B = λ[v]B for any ordered basis B of V.
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Thus it is enough to study eigenvales/eigenvectors of square
matrices.
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matrices.
" #
1 3
Example: Consider the matrix A = .
3 1
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matrices.
" #
1 3
Example: Consider the matrix A = . Then 4 is an
3 1
eigenvalue of A with [1, 1]> as a corresponding eigenvector.
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matrices.
" #
1 3
3 1
" #
cos θ − sin θ
Next, consider the rotation matrix A = . Then
sin θ cos θ
Av 6= λv for any λ ∈ R and 0 6= v ∈ R2 .
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matrices.
" #
1 3
3 1
" #
cos θ − sin θ
Next, consider the rotation matrix A = . Then
sin θ cos θ
Av 6= λv for any λ ∈ R and 0 6= v ∈ R2 .
Henceforth, we consider F = C. 9 / 21
Eigenspace
Definition: Let λ be an eigenvalue of a matrix A ∈ Mn (C).
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Eigenspace
Definition: Let λ be an eigenvalue of a matrix A ∈ Mn (C). Then
Eλ = {x | Ax = λx}
is called the eigenspace of λ.
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Eigenspace
Eλ = {x | Ax = λx}
is called the eigenspace of λ. Eλ consists of all eigenvectors of A

corresponding to λ, together with the zero vector.
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Eigenspace
Eλ = {x | Ax = λx}

Theorem: Let A ∈ Mn (C). Then the following conditions are
equivalent.
λ ∈ C is an eigenvalue of A.
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Eigenspace
Eλ = {x | Ax = λx}

equivalent.
Eλ = null(A − λI ) is a nontrivial subspace of Cn .
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Eigenspace
Eλ = {x | Ax = λx}

equivalent.
rank(A − λI ) < n.
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Eigenspace
Eλ = {x | Ax = λx}

equivalent.
det(A − λI ) = 0.
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Eigenspace
Eλ = {x | Ax = λx}

equivalent.
det(A − λI ) = 0.
Definition: Let A be an n × n matrix.
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Eigenspace
Eλ = {x | Ax = λx}

equivalent.
det(A − λI ) = 0.
Definition: Let A be an n × n matrix. Then
det(A − λI ) is called the characteristic polynomial of A.
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Eigenspace
Eλ = {x | Ax = λx}

equivalent.
det(A − λI ) = 0.
Definition: Let A be an n × n matrix. Then
det(A − λI ) is called the characteristic polynomial of A.
det(A − λI ) = 0 is called the characteristic equation of A.
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Facts:
The eigenvalues of A are the zeros of the characteristic
polynomial det(A − λI ) of A. Hence A has at most n
eigenvalues.
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Facts:
eigenvalues.
The eigenvalues of a triangular matrix are its diagonal entries.
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Facts:
eigenvalues.
A is invertible iff 0 is not an eigenvalue of A.
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Facts:
eigenvalues.

1 3
Example: What are the eigenvalues of A = and their
3 1
eigenspaces?
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Facts:
eigenvalues.

1 3
3 1
eigenspaces? We have
det (A − λI ) =
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Facts:
eigenvalues.

1 3
3 1

1−λ 3
det (A − λI ) = det =0
3 1−λ
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Facts:
eigenvalues.

1 3
3 1

1−λ 3
det (A − λI ) = det =0 ⇔ λ = 4, −2,
3 1−λ
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Facts:
eigenvalues.

1 3
3 1

1−λ 3
det (A − λI ) = det =0 ⇔ λ = 4, −2,
3 1−λ
E4 = null(A − 4I ) =
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Facts:
eigenvalues.

1 3
3 1

1−λ 3
det (A − λI ) = det =0 ⇔ λ = 4, −2,
3 1−λ

−3 3
E4 = null(A − 4I ) = x: x=0 =
3 −3
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Facts:
eigenvalues.

1 3
3 1

1−λ 3
det (A − λI ) = det =0 ⇔ λ = 4, −2,
3 1−λ

−3 3
E4 = null(A − 4I ) = x: x=0 = span([1, 1]> ),
3 −3
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Facts:
eigenvalues.

1 3
3 1

1−λ 3
det (A − λI ) = det =0 ⇔ λ = 4, −2,
3 1−λ

−3 3
E4 = null(A − 4I ) = x: x=0 = span([1, 1]> ),
3 −3
E(−2) = null(A + 2I ) =
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Facts:
eigenvalues.

1 3
3 1

1−λ 3
det (A − λI ) = det =0 ⇔ λ = 4, −2,
3 1−λ

−3 3
E4 = null(A − 4I ) = x: x=0 = span([1, 1]> ),
3 −3

3 3
E(−2) = null(A + 2I ) = x: x=0 =
3 3
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Facts:
eigenvalues.

1 3
3 1

1−λ 3
det (A − λI ) = det =0 ⇔ λ = 4, −2,
3 1−λ

−3 3
E4 = null(A − 4I ) = x: x=0 = span([1, 1]> ),
3 −3

3 3
E(−2) = null(A + 2I ) = x: x=0 = span([1, −1]> ),
3 3
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Computation of eigenvalues and bases for eigenspaces
1 Compute the char. poly. det(A − λI ).
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2 Solve the char. eqn. det(A − λI ) = 0 for eigenvalues λ.
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3 For each eigenvalue λ, find a basis of null(A − λI ) = Eλ .
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Example
A real matrix may have complex eigenvalues and complex
eigenvectors.
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Example
A real matrix may have complex
eigenvalues
and complex
0 1
eigenvectors. Consider A = .
−1 0
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Example
eigenvalues
and complex
0 1
eigenvectors. Consider A = . The char. poly. of A is
−1 0
λ2 + 1 and so the eigenvalues are ± ι̇.
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Example
eigenvalues
and complex
0 1
−1 0
λ2 + 1 and so the eigenvalues are ± ι̇. Corresponding to the
eigenvalues ± ι̇, it has eigenvectors [1, ι̇]> and [ι̇, 1]> , respectively.
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Example
eigenvalues
and complex
0 1
−1 0
λ2 + 1 and so the eigenvalues are ± ι̇. Corresponding to the
eigenvalues ± ι̇, it has eigenvectors [1, ι̇]> and [ι̇, 1]> , respectively.
The eigenspaces Eι̇ and E(−ι̇) are one dimensional.
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Algebraic and geometric multiplicities
Definition: Let λ be an eigenvalue of A ∈ Mn (C).
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The algebraic multiplicity of λ is the multiplicity of λ as a
root of the characteristic polynomial of A.
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The geometric multiplicity of λ is the dimension of Eλ .
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Theorem: Let λ be an eigenvalue of A. Then the algebraic

multiplicity of λ ≥ the geometric multiplicity of λ.
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Example: What are "the eigenvalues and the corresponding

1 1 1
#
eigenspaces of A = 0 1 1 ?
0 0 1
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1 1 1
#
eigenspaces of A = 0 1 1 ? Eigenvalues are 1, 1, 1 (1
0 0 1
appearing three times, multiplicity three).
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1 1 1
#
0 0 1
appearing three times, multiplicity three). Moreover,
0 1 1 1
" #! " #!
E1 = null 0 0 1 = span 0 .
0 0 0 0
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1 1 1
#
0 0 1
appearing three times, multiplicity three). Moreover,
0 1 1 1
" #! " #!
E1 = null 0 0 1 = span 0 .
0 0 0 0
We have dim(E1 ) = 1.
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Linearly independent eigenvectors
Theorem: Eigenvectors corresponding to distinct eigenvalues are
linearly independent.
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Proof. Suppose that λ1 , . . . , λm are distinct eigenvalues of A,
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Proof. Suppose that λ1 , . . . , λm are distinct eigenvalues of A, xi
is an eigenvector of A corresponding to λi .
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is an eigenvector of A corresponding to λi . Suppose, if possible, xi
are not LI.
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are not LI. Then there is k > 1 such that {x1 , . . . , xk−1 } is LI, but
{x1 , . . . , xk } is not.
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{x1 , . . . , xk } is not. Let xk = α1 x1 + · · · + αk−1 xk−1 .
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{x1 , . . . , xk } is not. Let xk = α1 x1 + · · · + αk−1 xk−1 . Then,
Axk = λ1 α1 x1 + · · · + λk−1 αk−1 xk−1 .
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Axk = λ1 α1 x1 + · · · + λk−1 αk−1 xk−1 .
Therefore, 0 = λk xk − Axk
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Axk = λ1 α1 x1 + · · · + λk−1 αk−1 xk−1 .
= (λk − λ1 )α1 x1 + · · · + (λk − λk−1 )αk−1 xk−1 .
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Axk = λ1 α1 x1 + · · · + λk−1 αk−1 xk−1 .
= (λk − λ1 )α1 x1 + · · · + (λk − λk−1 )αk−1 xk−1 .
Since {x1 , . . . , xk−1 } is LI,
(λk − λ1 )α1 = · · · = (λk − λk−1 )αk−1 = 0,
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Axk = λ1 α1 x1 + · · · + λk−1 αk−1 xk−1 .
= (λk − λ1 )α1 x1 + · · · + (λk − λk−1 )αk−1 xk−1 .
Since {x1 , . . . , xk−1 } is LI,
(λk − λ1 )α1 = · · · = (λk − λk−1 )αk−1 = 0,
i.e., α1 = · · · = αk−1 = 0
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Axk = λ1 α1 x1 + · · · + λk−1 αk−1 xk−1 .
= (λk − λ1 )α1 x1 + · · · + (λk − λk−1 )αk−1 xk−1 .
Since {x1 , . . . , xk−1 } is LI,
(λk − λ1 )α1 = · · · = (λk − λk−1 )αk−1 = 0,
i.e., α1 = · · · = αk−1 = 0 (as λi are distinct),
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Axk = λ1 α1 x1 + · · · + λk−1 αk−1 xk−1 .
= (λk − λ1 )α1 x1 + · · · + (λk − λk−1 )αk−1 xk−1 .
Since {x1 , . . . , xk−1 } is LI,
(λk − λ1 )α1 = · · · = (λk − λk−1 )αk−1 = 0,
i.e., α1 = · · · = αk−1 = 0 (as λi are distinct), i.e. xk = 0, a
contradiction.
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Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
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Let p(λ) be the characteristic polynomial of a matrix A.
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Let p(λ) be the characteristic polynomial of a matrix A. Then
p(A) = 0, the zero matrix.
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[This is a beautiful and useful theorem.
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[This is a beautiful and useful theorem. However, we omit the

proof.]
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proof.]
Exercise
1 2
Let A = .
2 1
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proof.]
Exercise
1 2
Let A = .
2 1
Verify that char. poly. of A is λ2 − 2λ − 3.
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proof.]
Exercise
1 2
Let A = .
2 1
Verify that A2 − 2A − 3I = 0.
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proof.]
Exercise
1 2
Let A = .
2 1
Use the fact A2 = 2A + 3I to compute A5 without computing
any matrix multiplication.
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proof.]
Exercise
1 2
Let A = .
2 1
Argue that A is invertible using its char. poly.
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proof.]
Exercise
1 2
Let A = .
2 1
Argue that A is invertible using its char. poly. Since
3I = A2 − 2A, we should have A−1 = 13 A − 2I .

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proof.]
Exercise
1 2
Let A = .
2 1
Argue that A is invertible using its char. poly. Since
3I = A2 − 2A, we should have A−1 = 13 A − 2I . Verify.

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Exercise
Let A be a matrix with eigenvalue λ and corresponding
eigenvector x.
For any positive integer n, show that λn is an eigenvalue of An
with corresponding eigenvector x.
If A is invertible, then show that λ1 is an eigenvalue of A−1
with corresponding eigenvector x.
If A is invertible then show that for any integer n, λ−n is an
eigenvalue of A−n with corresponding eigenvector x.
Let v1 , v2 , . . . , vm be eigenvectors of a matrix A with
corresponding eigenvalues λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λm , respectively. Let
x = c1 v1 + c2 v2 + . . . + cm vm . Show that for any positive
integer k,
Ak x = c1 λk1 v1 + c2 λk2 v2 + . . . + cm λkm vm .
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Google Search Engine
The task of extracting information from all the web pages available
on the Internet is performed by search engines.
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Google search engine does three basic things:

Crawl the web and locate all web pages with public access.
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Index the data (create term-document matrix) from step-1 so
that they can be searched efficiently for relevant key words or
phrases.
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Index the data (create term-document matrix) from step-1 so
that they can be searched efficiently for relevant key words or
phrases.
Rank each page in the database, so that when a user does a

search and the subset of pages in the database with the
desired information has been found, the more important pages
can be presented first.
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PageRank Algorithm
Google PageRank algorithm assigns ranks to all the web pages and
is formulated as a matrix eigenvalue problem.
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PageRank Algorithm
The web is an example of a directed graph. Let all the web pages
be ordered as P1 , . . . , Pn . Link from Pi to Pj represents an arrow.
Google assigns rank to a page based on its in-links and out-links.
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PageRank Algorithm
In-links of Pj : All the incoming links (pages) to Pj .

Out-links of Pj : All the outgoing links (pages) from Pj .
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PageRank Algorithm

Google assigns a high rank to a web page if it has backlinks from
other pages that have a high rank. This self-referencing statement
can be formulated mathematically as an eigenvalue problem.
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PageRank Algorithm

However, a ranking system based only on the number of backlinks
is easy to manipulate.
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PageRank Algorithm

However, a ranking system based only on the number of backlinks
is easy to manipulate.
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PageRank Algorithm (eigenvalue problem)
Let xj ≥ 0 be the rank of page Pj . Then xj > xk =⇒ Pj is more
important than page Pk .
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If page Pj contains nj out-links, one of which links to page Pk ,
then page Pk ’s score is boosted by xj /nj .
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Let Lk denote the set of in-links Pk . Then the rank xk of Pk is

defined by X xj
xk = (1)
nj
j∈Lk
where nj is the number of outgoing links (outlinks) from page Pj .

Setting v := [x1 , . . . , xn ]T , equation (1) is rewritten as
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Let Lk denote the set of in-links Pk . Then the rank xk of Pk is

defined by X xj
xk = (1)
nj
j∈Lk
where nj is the number of outgoing links (outlinks) from page Pj .

Setting v := [x1 , . . . , xn ]T , equation (1) is rewritten as
Eigenvalue problem Hv = v ,
where H is the hyperlink matrix and v is the page rank vector.
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The Google matrix
The hyperlink matrix is modified to obtain the Google matrix
G := (1 − m)H + mS,
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The Google matrix
G := (1 − m)H + mS,
where S is an n × n matrix with all entries 1/n and 0 ≤ m ≤ 1.
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The Google matrix
G := (1 − m)H + mS,

Both H and G have 1 as the dominant eigenvalue.
20 / 21
The Google matrix
G := (1 − m)H + mS,

By Perron-Frobenius theorem, there is a unique vector
v = [x1 , . . . , xn ]> with xj > 0 for j = 1 : n such that
n
X
Gv = v and xj = 1.
j=1
20 / 21
The Google matrix
G := (1 − m)H + mS,

By Perron-Frobenius theorem, there is a unique vector
v = [x1 , . . . , xn ]> with xj > 0 for j = 1 : n such that
n
X
Gv = v and xj = 1.
j=1
The rank of the web page Pj is given by the j-th component xj of

the eigenvector v of the Google matrix G . Google sets m = 0.15.
20 / 21
References
For more on Google search engine, read the following paper/book.
21 / 21
References

K. Bryan and T. Leise, The $25,000,000,000 Eigenvector:
The Linear Algebra behind Google, SIAM Review, 48(2006),
pp.569-581.
21 / 21
References

K. Bryan and T. Leise, The $25,000,000,000 Eigenvector:
The Linear Algebra behind Google, SIAM Review, 48(2006),
pp.569-581.
Amy N. Langville and Carl D. Meyer, Googles PageRank and
Beyond: The Science of Search Engine Rankings, Princeton
University Press, 2006
***
21 / 21

LA Lectures 13-15 (Updated) PDF

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LA Lectures 13-15 (Updated) PDF

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Linear Algebra

January – May 2019

MA 102 (RA, RKS, MGPP, KVK)

If det (A) 6= 0 then | det (A)| is the area of the parallelogram

If det (A) 6= 0 then | det (A)| is the area of the parallelogram

If det (A) 6= 0 then | det (A)| is the area of the parallelogram

If det (A) 6= 0 then | det (A)| is the area of the parallelepiped

Theorem: Let A ∈ Mn (F).

Theorem: Let A ∈ Mn (F). Then for any i, j ∈ {1, . . . , n}

det(A) = (−1)i+1 ai1 det (Ai1 ) + · · · + (−1)i+n ain det (Ain )

Theorem: Let A ∈ Mn (F). Then for any i, j ∈ {1, . . . , n}

det(A) = (−1)i+1 ai1 det (Ai1 ) + · · · + (−1)i+n ain det (Ain )

Theorem: Let A ∈ Mn (F). Then for any i, j ∈ {1, . . . , n}

det(A) = (−1)i+1 ai1 det (Ai1 ) + · · · + (−1)i+n ain det (Ain )

Theorem: Let A ∈ Mn (F). Then for any i, j ∈ {1, . . . , n}

det(A) = (−1)i+1 ai1 det (Ai1 ) + · · · + (−1)i+n ain det (Ain )

Theorem: Let A ∈ Mn (F). Then for any i, j ∈ {1, . . . , n}

det(A) = (−1)i+1 ai1 det (Ai1 ) + · · · + (−1)i+n ain det (Ain )

Theorem: Let A ∈ Mn (F). Then for any i, j ∈ {1, . . . , n}

det(A) = (−1)i+1 ai1 det (Ai1 ) + · · · + (−1)i+n ain det (Ain )

Theorem: Let A ∈ Mn (F). Then for any i, j ∈ {1, . . . , n}

det(A) = (−1)i+1 ai1 det (Ai1 ) + · · · + (−1)i+n ain det (Ain )

Theorem: Let A ∈ Mn (F). Then for any i, j ∈ {1, . . . , n}

det(A) = (−1)i+1 ai1 det (Ai1 ) + · · · + (−1)i+n ain det (Ain )

Theorem: Let A ∈ Mn (F). Then for any i, j ∈ {1, . . . , n}

det(A) = (−1)i+1 ai1 det (Ai1 ) + · · · + (−1)i+n ain det (Ain )

Theorem: Let A ∈ Mn (F). Then for any i, j ∈ {1, . . . , n}

det(A) = (−1)i+1 ai1 det (Ai1 ) + · · · + (−1)i+n ain det (Ain )

Theorem: A matrix A ∈ Mn (F) is invertible if and only if it is

Theorem: A matrix A ∈ Mn (F) is invertible if and only if it is

Theorem: A matrix A ∈ Mn (F) is invertible if and only if it is

Suppose V is a vector space and T : V → V is a linear

Suppose V is a vector space and T : V → V is a linear

Suppose V is a vector space and T : V → V is a linear

Suppose V is a vector space and T : V → V is a linear

Suppose V is a vector space and T : V → V is a linear

Suppose V is a vector space and T : V → V is a linear

Suppose V is a vector space and T : V → V is a linear

Suppose V is a vector space and T : V → V is a linear

Definition: Let T ∈ L(V). If there is a scalar λ ∈ F and a nonzero

Suppose V is a vector space and T : V → V is a linear

Definition: Let T ∈ L(V). If there is a scalar λ ∈ F and a nonzero

Suppose V is a vector space and T : V → V is a linear

Definition: Let T ∈ L(V). If there is a scalar λ ∈ F and a nonzero

is called the eigenspace of λ.

is called the eigenspace of λ. Eλ consists of all eigenvectors of A

is called the eigenspace of λ. Eλ consists of all eigenvectors of A

is called the eigenspace of λ. Eλ consists of all eigenvectors of A

is called the eigenspace of λ. Eλ consists of all eigenvectors of A

is called the eigenspace of λ. Eλ consists of all eigenvectors of A

is called the eigenspace of λ. Eλ consists of all eigenvectors of A

is called the eigenspace of λ. Eλ consists of all eigenvectors of A

is called the eigenspace of λ. Eλ consists of all eigenvectors of A

1 Compute the char. poly. det(A − λI ).

1 Compute the char. poly. det(A − λI ).

2 Solve the char. eqn. det(A − λI ) = 0 for eigenvalues λ.

1 Compute the char. poly. det(A − λI ).

2 Solve the char. eqn. det(A − λI ) = 0 for eigenvalues λ.

3 For each eigenvalue λ, find a basis of null(A − λI ) = Eλ .

1 Compute the char. poly. det(A − λI ).

2 Solve the char. eqn. det(A − λI ) = 0 for eigenvalues λ.

3 For each eigenvalue λ, find a basis of null(A − λI ) = Eλ .

1 Compute the char. poly. det(A − λI ).