Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
17
1
Soliman Khatib1,2 and Jacob Vaya1,2
Laboratory of Natural Medicinal Compounds, MIGAL-Galilee Technology Center, Kiryat Shmona,
Israel
2
Department of Biotechnology, Tel-Hai Academic College, Israel
1. INTRODUCTION
finding predates the cultivation of grain in the
Middle East by many hundreds of years [1].
The fruit is 3–5 cm long, with a green skin,
1.1 Fig sometimes ripening towards purple. The sap of
The word ‘fig’ usually refers to Ficus, the fig the tree’s green parts is an irritant to human
tree and its fruit known as the Common fig skin. The fig fruit is actually the flower of the
(Ficus carica). The Common fig is a large, decid tree, known as an inflorescence (an arrange
uous shrub or small tree native to southwest ment of multiple flowers), a false fruit or multi
ern Asia and the eastern Mediterranean region ple fruit, in which the flowers and seeds grow
(Greece east to Afghanistan). It grows to a together to form a single mass (Figure 17.1A).
height of 3–10 m, with smooth gray bark. The Fig fruits can be eaten fresh or dried and
Common fig is widely grown for its edible are used in jam-making. Most commercial pro
fruit throughout its natural range in Iran, as duction is in dried or otherwise processed
well as in the rest of the Mediterranean region, forms since the ripe fruit does not transport
and in other areas of the world with a similar well, and once picked does not keep well. It is
climate. There is evidence that figs, specifically cooked as a vegetable and is believed to be
the Common fig (F. carica) and Sycamore fig good for heart ailments.
(F. sycomorus), were among the first – if not On the basis of the Dietary Reference Intakes
the very first – plant species that were deliber (DRI) data published by the Food and Nutrition
ately bred for agriculture in the Middle East, Board of the US Institute of Medicine, and the
starting more than 11, 000 years ago. Nine sub- Nutrient Composition Data published by the US
fossil F. carica figs dated to about 9400–9200 BC Department of Agriculture (USDA) 2002, dried
were found in the early Neolithic village, figs have the best nutrient score among dried
Gilgal I (in the Jordan Valley, 13 km north of fruit. Figs are one of the highest sources of cal
Jericho). These were a parthenocarpic type, cium and fiber in plants. Furthermore, dried
and thus apparently an early cultivar. This figs are the richest in fiber, and contain
Bioactive Foods in Promoting Health: Fruits and Vegetables 245 r 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
246 17. FIG, CAROB, PISTACHIO, AND HEALTH
FIGURE 17.1 (A) Fig fruit (bbs.fruit8.com/viewthread.php?tid = 36364). (B) Carob pod (www.thefreedictionary.com/
carob+beans). (C) Pistachio nuts (www.thefreedictionary.com/pistachio).
important minerals and vitamins (Table 17.1). Carob pods ethanolic extract contains three
Figs have a laxative effect and contain many major carbohydrates: sucrose (437.3 mg/g dry
antioxidants. Moreover, they are a good source weight), glucose (395.3 mg/g dry weight) and
of flavonoids and other polyphenols [2]. In one fructose (42.3 mg/g dry weight). Together these
study, a 40 g portion of dried figs (two medium three carbohydrates account for 87.54% of the
size figs) produced a significant increase in the total dry weight extract. Carob pods are also
plasma antioxidant capacity [3]. rich in protein (5–8 g protein per 100 g dry
weight). Moreover, the pod has vitamins A and
B and several important minerals, such as K, P,
1.2 Carob Ca, and Mg, as major minerals and Fe, Mn, Zn,
and Cu as trace minerals. Carob pods are virtu
The carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is a legumi ally fat-free (0.2–0.6%). Results published by the
nous evergreen shrub or tree of the family USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard
Leguminosae (pulse family) native to the east Reference are presented in Table 17.1 [4–6].
ern Mediterranean, probably the Middle East,
where it has been cultivated for at least 4000
years. Its value was recognized by the ancient
Greeks, who brought it from its native Middle
1.3 Pistachio
East to Greece and Italy, and by the Arabs, Pistachio (Pistacia vera L., Anacardiaceae; some
who disseminated it along the North African times placed in Pistaciaceae) is a small tree,
coast and north into Spain and Portugal. The reaching up to 10 m tall, and is native to moun
fruit is an indehiscent pod, elongated, com tainous regions. Pistachio nuts are commonly
pressed, straight or curved, thickened at the consumed in western Asia. Pistachios (as part
sutures, 10–30 cm long, 1.5–3.5 cm wide, and of the pistacia genus) have existed for about 80
about 1 cm thick (Figure 17.1B). In many million years [7]. Archaeological evidence in
Mediterranean countries the fruit is used in pop Turkey indicates that nuts were used as food as
ular beverages and confectioneries. In Western early as 7000 BC.
countries, carob powder is produced by deseed The fruit is a drupe, containing an elon
ing carob pods. Carob powder is a natural sweet gated seed with a hard shell and a striking ker
ener [4] with a flavor and appearance similar to nel, which has mauvish skin, light green flesh,
chocolate; therefore, it is often used as a cocoa and a distinctive flavor. When the fruit ripens,
substitute, free of caffeine and theobromine. the husk changes from green to an autumnal
TABLE 17.1 Nutritional Value (per 100 g) of Dry Roasted Pistachio Nuts, without Salt Carob Flour, and Dried
Uncooked Figs
Unit Fig (dried) Carob Pistachio
Data from the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard References.
yellow/red and the shells split partially open them to lower the risk of heart disease:
(Figure 17.1C). This is known as dehiscence ‘Scientific evidence suggests, but does not
and happens with an audible pop. The kernels prove, that eating 1.5 ounces (42.5 g) per day
are often eaten whole, either fresh, or roasted of most nuts, such as pistachios, as part of a
and salted, and are also used in ice cream and diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may
confections. In 2003, the Food and Drug reduce the risk of heart disease.’ In a study at
Administration (FDA) approved the first quali Pennsylvania State University, pistachios, in
fied health claim specific to nuts, declaring particular, significantly reduced the level of
low density lipoprotein in the blood of volun where they carry out specific functions and
teers [8]. Dry roasted pistachio nuts are rich in impart sensory properties (flavor and color).
carbohydrates (27.65 g total carbohydrates, The interest in polyphenol compounds has
7.88 g sugars, and 10.33 g dietary fibers per increased over the last few decades, as these
100 g), proteins (21.35 g per 100 g) and fat agents have become popular among the public,
(45.97 g per 100 g; of which 5.5 g are saturated who attribute them several medicinal proper
fatty acids and 40.5 g unsaturated fatty acids). ties, mostly related to their antioxidant activity
In addition, pistachio nuts contain some impor [9,10].
tant vitamins and minerals (see Table 17.1). Polyphenols are divided into two categories:
flavonoidal and non-flavonoidal (Figure 17.2).
The non-flavonoidal phenols include phenolic
2. PHENOLIC AND POLYPHENOL
acids, lignans, and stilbenes. The stilbene
CONTENT AND COMPOSITION IN
resveratrol, found in red wine, has recently
THE FIG, CAROB AND PISTACHIO
received great attention regarding its anticarci
nogenic properties and neuroprotective effect
[11,12].
Polyphenol compounds are distributed Flavonoids may be divided into several
among many types of fruits and vegetables, subclasses, namely anthocyanins, flavonols,
(A) 2'
+ 8 B
O O O
2 6'
A C
3
OH OH
5
O O
Anthocyanins Flavonols Flavones
O O
O
Isoflavones Flavanones Isofalvans
(B)
O R R
R OH
TABLE 17.2 Polyphenol Composition of Fig Fruit, Carob Pods, and Pistachio Nuts
Fig (mg/100 g FW) Carob (mg/100 g FW) Pistachio (mg/100 g FW)
a
The values are percent of the total anthocyanin content.
b
The value per 100 g extract and not fruit dry weight.
composition in fig fruit by using the high per FW), whereas in dried fruit it was 320737
formance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-diode (mg catechin equivalents per 100 g FW).
array detector (DAD) method. These authors Moreover, they testified that dried figs and
showed that polyphenols were localized plums have the best nutrient score among the
mostly in the peel, while the pulp had only a other dried fruits investigated.
low content of polyphenols. In addition, the Flavonoids belong to the widespread
peel of the dark fig fruit was richer in poly- class of polyphenol compounds. The content
phenols (253 mg/100 g FW) than the peel of and composition of the flavonoids have been
the lighter varieties (78 mg/100 g FW). analyzed by several methods, such as
Vinson et al. [3], who analyzed the total HPLC–DAD and HPLC–mass spectrometry
polyphenols in fresh and dried fruits, using the (MS). The total flavonoid content in fig fruits,
same method as Solomon et al. [27], but with as reported by Solomon et al. [27], was mea
catechin as a standard, reported that the total sured colorimetrically [28] using a 510 nm
polyphenol content in fresh fig fruit was wavelength and ( + )-catechin as the standard.
4867218 (mg catechin equivalents per 100 g Similarly, flavonoids are also localized in the
skin of the dark fig fruit. Total fruit flavo that the major flavonoids in the fig leaf are quer
noids ranged from 21.5 (mg catechin equiva cetin and luteolin, with a total of 63.1 and
lent/100 g FW) for the darker variety to 2.1 68.1 mg/100 g extract, respectively.
(mg catechin equivalent/100 g FW) for the Anthocyanins belong to the widespread
lighter one. The skin was the major tissue that class of flavonoid compounds. The content
contributed to the total flavonoid content, and composition of the anthocyanins were
ranging from 45.6 (mg catechin equivalent/ determined by investigators, who employed
100 g FW) for the darker variety to 2.2 (mg cat several methods, such as HPLC–DAD and
echin equivalent/100 g FW) for the lighter HPLC–MS. The anthocyanin composition in
one. The flavonoid composition of the peel the fig fruit (Ficus carica L.) was analyzed by
and pulp of two Italian fresh fig cultivars Duenas et al. using HPLC, reverse phase
(Ficus carica L.) were analyzed by Del Caro chromatography coupled to DAD and MS
and Piga [10], using the HPLC–DAD method. detection [31]. Fifteen anthocyanin pigments
Results showed that all of the flavonoids con were detected, most of them containing cyani
tent is concentrated in the peel in the case of din (Cy), e.g. aglycone and some pelargonidin
the black cultivar. The total flavonoids content (Pg) derivatives. Rutinose and glucose were
was 145.2 mg/100 g FW for the black peel and present as substituting sugars, as well as acyla
69.7 mg/100 g FW for the green one, where tion with malonic acid. Minor levels of peoni
rutin was the major flavonoid constituent, din 3-rutinose (Pn 3-rutinoside) in the pulp
with levels ranging from 52.7 to 107.1 mg/ were also detected. According to Duenas et al.
100 g (fresh peel basis) for green and black [31] the total anthocyanin content in the skin
figs, respectively. Similar results were ob ranged between 3.2 and 9.7 mg per 100 g FW
tained by Veberic et al. [29], who also ana and between 0.15 and 1.5 mg per 100 g FW in
lyzed the flavonoids content in the fig fruit, the pulp for the light and dark fig fruit,
using the HPLC–DAD system, which identi respectively. The main anthocyanin in both
fied the flavonoids ( + )-catechin, ( - )-, epica parts of the fruit was Cy 3-rutinoside
techin and rutin as well as the polyphenols (Figure 17.3A) (48–81% of the total anthocya
gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, and syringic acid. nins in skin and 68–79% in pulp) followed by
Analysis of polyphenols extracted from light Cy 3-glucoside (Figure 17.3B) (5–18% in skin
and dark type figs revealed levels of rutin and 10–15% in pulp). Malonyl derivatives
ranging from 28.7 mg per 100 g FW for the were more abundant in the skin (1.2–6.5%)
dark cultivar to 4.89 mg per 100 g FW for the than in the pulp (1.0–2.6%).
lighter one, followed by ( + )-catechin (up to The total anthocyanin content described by
4.03 mg per 100 g FW), chlorogenic acid (up to Del Caro and Piga [10] was 93 (mg per 100 g
1.71 mg per 100 g FW), ( - )-epicatechin (up FW) and 0.49 (mg per 100 g FW) for the peel
to 0.97 mg per 100 g FW), gallic acid (up to and the pulp of the dark fig fruit, respec
0.38 mg per 100 g FW), and syringic acid (up tively. In addition, minor amounts of antho
to 0.10 mg per 100 g FW) [29]. cyanins were detected in the pulp of the
In another study, Vaya and Mahmood [30] green fruit (1.7 mg per 100 g FW). As reported
analyzed the total flavonoid content of leaf by Duenas et al. [31], Del Caro and Piga [10]
extracts (70% ethanol) from fig (Ficus carica L.), also stated that cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside is the
carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.), and pistachio (Pistacia main anthocyanin in the pulp and peel of the
lentiscus L.) plants by reverse phase HPLC and fruit (97%), while cyanidin 3-O-glucoside was
DAD array and electrospray ionization (ESI) less prevalent, detected only in the peel of the
mass spectrometry (MS) detectors. They found black figs (3%).
(A) OH (B)
OH OH
+ OH
O
HO
+
OH O
HO
O OH OH
OH O OH
O
OH OH
O
OH
O
OH
O OH
H3C OH
OH
FIGURE 17.3 (A) Cyanidin (Cy) 3-rutinoside, and (B) cyanidin (Cy) 3-glucoside.
extracted 1950 mg of total polyphenols, 290 mg nine different flavonoids were detected, with
of proanthocyanidins, and 46 mg of ellagi the major one being myricetin (148.6 mg/100 g
tannins in 100 g carob pods (all based on dry extract).
weight).
The polyphenol constituents in carob pods
were analyzed using an HPLC with a DAD in
conjunction with a liquid chromatography 2.3 Phenol and Polyphenol Content and
LC–MS method for the determination of
Composition in the Pistachio
major polyphenols in vegetables, fruits and
teas [36]. It was revealed that carob pods The total polyphenol content in pistachio
contain the following flavonoids: quercetin hulls was analyzed by Goli et al. [38] using the
glycosides [231 µmole (107 mg)/100 g FW], Folin–Ciocalteu method [26]. The polyphenols
( + )-catechin [175 µmole (50 mg)/100 g FW], were extracted by two different extraction meth
( - )-epicatechin gallate [68 µmole (30 mg)/100 g ods (solvent and ultrasound-assisted) and with a
FW], ( - ) epigallocatechin gallate [239 µmole mixture of three different solvents (water, metha
(110 mg)/100 g FW]. An abundant quantity of nol, and ethyl acetate); the total polyphenols
polyphenols was also found, including gallic were determined and expressed as tannic acid
acid [3540 µmole (602 mg)/100 g FW] and ella equivalents per 100 g dry weight of sample
gic acid [84 µmole (25 mg)/100 g FW]. (TAE/gdw). Higher extraction yields of phenolic
Menelaos Papagiannopoulos et al. also ana compounds were obtained with an increase in
lyzed the polyphenol composition (simple phe the polarity of the solvent. Extraction with water
nols, tannins, and flavonoids) of the carob afforded the highest yield (35 mg TAE/gdw), as
fibers in a similar fashion using an HPLC compared to with ethyl acetate (5.7 mg TAE/
with a UV detector in conjunction with MS gdw) or with methanol (32.8 mg TAE/gdw).
[37]. In carob fibers, which had been prepared There was no significant difference (P<0.05) in
from carob pods, 41 individual phenolic com the extraction yield obtained from the solvent
pounds could be detected. They included gal and ultrasound-assisted methods.
lic acid, hydrolyzable tannins, and condensed The polyphenol composition was deter
tannins, as well as derivatives of myrictin, mined by either HPLC–DAD, or by an HPLC
quercitin, and kaempferol. The polyphenol instrument connected to an MS, as a detector
content was influenced by carob pod proces (LC–MS). Sicilian pistachios, harvested on ten
sing. Carob pods (kibbles), carob syrup, carob different farms in Sicily, were extracted with
fiber, and roasted carobs were found to con ethanol:water (80:20), and subsequently their
tain 44.8, 108.5, 414.2, and 120.8 mg poly stilbene concentration was determined [39].
phenols/100 g, respectively. In addition, the Resveratrol derivatives have attracted much
polyphenol composition was affected by the attention due to different therapeutic effects. In
carob pod processing. For example, the con all tested samples, trans-resveratrol and trans
tent of condensed tannins in carob pods (kib resveratrol-3-O-b-glucoside (trans-piceid) were
bles), carob syrup, carob fiber and roasted detected with no cis isomers. The mean value of
carobs was 1.4.8, 0.90, 19.18 and 1.87 mg tan trans-resveratrol was 0.01270.003 mg/100 g,
nins/100 g, respectively. trans-piceid was 0.69770.055 mg/100 g and the
The flavonoid content in leaf extracts of car total resveratrol concentration was 0.70970.054
obs (Ceratonia siliqua L.) was also examined mg/100 g. Epidemiological and clinical investiga
[30] by Vaya and Mahmood using HPLC con tions have shown that the polyphenolic phyto
nected to UV/VIS array and ESI-MS detectors; alexin resveratrol (3,5,4u-trihydroxystilbene) has
been associated with reduced cardiovascular dis kernels, and in some samples a small amount
ease and reduced cancer risk. of cyanidin-3-glucoside was also detected. The
The polyphenolic phytoalexin resveratrol level of cyanidine-3-galactoside in pistachios
content in pistachio nuts was determined by in ranged from non-detectable quantities to
vestigators by the same methods as mentioned 42.64 mg/100 g, depending on the ripening
above. Tokusoglu et al. [40] reported that the progress. Pistachios in the unripe stage con
trans-resveratrol concentration in pistachio vari tained the lowest anthocyanin content (2.2 mg/
eties is 0.009–0.167 mg/100 g (average = 0.115 100 g), whereas in the intermediate stages the
mg/100 g), and others [41] claimed that level of anthocyanin was 10.6–14.7 mg/100 g.
the total amount of trans-resveratrol was In ripe samples, it reached 30.0 mg/100 g. The
0.01270.0012 mg/100 g. Exposure of the pista ripening status correlated well with the antho
chio extracts to UV light at 366 nm for 1 min cyanin level with an R2 of 0.9425.
converted approximately 20% of the trans
resveratrol to cis-resveratrol [40] according to
analysis by the GC–MS method.
Other polyphenols found in pistachio
3. CAROTENOID COMPOSITION IN
extracts include proanthocyanidins, and the
FIG, CAROB, AND PISTACHIO
phytoestrogens daidzein and genistein at con
centrations of 268.1278.31, 3.6870.41, and Carotenoids are pigments that occur natu
3.4070.37 mg/100 g, respectively [41]. rally in chromoplasts of plants and in some
Anthocyanins were extracted from the other photosynthetic organisms, such as algae,
external skins of pistachio kernels by Bellomo some types of fungus, and some bacteria.
and Fallico [42] using aqueous formic acid There are over 600 known carotenoid com
(1%) as the solvent, followed by methanol pounds, which are divided into two classes,
containing 0.1% HCl. Afterward, their struc xanthophylls and carotenes (Figure 17.4).
tures were elucidated by the HPLC–MS/MS Carotenoids can act as antioxidants, and in
method. Cyanidin-3-galactoside was found to humans β-carotene (Figure 17.4A) is a precur
be the major anthocyanin present in pistachio sor of vitamin A, a pigment essential to vision.
(A)
HO
(B)
HO
FIGURE 17.4 Carotenoid structures: (A) β-carotene, representative of the carotene carotenoid family, and (B) lutein, rep
resentative of the xanthophylls carotenoid family.
Many in vivo studies have been carried out to and Iran, respectively, to 18.0170.068 and
evaluate the contribution of carotenoids to 3.7770.20 mg/100 g for the ripe ones harvested
human health, when consumed in diets rich in in Turkey and Italy, respectively. Giovannini
carotenoids, either owing to high fruit and and Condorelli [45,46] claimed that the
vegetable content or to diet supplementation average level of lutein and β-carotene was
with pure compounds, mostly β-carotene and 0.79 mg/100 g each in ripe fruit, with a value of
lycopene. The carotenoid content in selected 0.94 for β-carotene:lutein, compared to 0.05 for
components of the Mediterranean diet has this ratio, as reported by Bellomo and Fallica
been analyzed [43]. Table 17.3 summarizes the [42].
carotenoid content and composition in
fig, carob, and pistachio. Major carotenoids
4. PHYTOSTEROL COMPOSITION
present in fig include lutein, cryptoxanthin,
lycopene, β-carotene, and α-carotene. Lycopene
IN THE FIG AND PISTACHIO
was the most abundant carotenoid (0.32 mg/
100 g FW), followed by lutein and β-carotene Phytosterols are formed in ornamental
(0.08 and 0.04 mg/100 g, respectively). Another plants, medicinal herbs, edible plants, shrubs,
study analyzed the carotenoids content in vege and trees. It has been widely reported that
tables and fruit commonly consumed in Israel plant sterols (phytosterols) lower the serum
[44]. It was found that carob pods contain cholesterol level in animals and humans [47–
0.2 mg total carotenoids/100 g dry weight, with 51]. Furthermore, investigators claim that phy
α- and β-carotene (0.08 mg/100 g dry weight), tosterols have positive effects in the treatment
lycopene (0.03 mg/100 g dry weight), and of benign prostatic hyperplasia, rheumatoid
lutein (0.02 mg/100 g dry weight) as the major arthritis, allergies, and stress-related illness, as
constituents. Carotenoids were also extracted well as inhibiting the development of colon
from the pistachio kernel by Bellomo and cancer [52].
Fallico [42], with acetone:methanol (75:25) as Jeong and Lachance [53] studied the sterol
solvents and their concentration determined by profiles of various ‘parts’ of fig tree branches,
an HPLC with a DAD detector. i.e. structural components (bark, stem, pith)
Lutein was the main carotenoid identified, and fig fruit, using the GC–MS method.
although a small amount of β-carotene was also Following saponification (treatment with KOH
present (<0.18 mg/100 g). The lutein level solution), the weight of the solid concentrate,
depends on both the degree of ripeness and the resulting from the KOH hydrolysis, was
source of the kernels, with values ranging 433 mg of solid/100 g dry weight of fig fruit.
from 5.2170.294 mg/100 g and 4.1370.164 Four phytosterols were determined in the
for the unripe harvested nuts from Turkey solid. Sitosterol was the most predominant
TABLE 17.3 Carotenoid Composition of Fig Fruit, Carob Pods, and Pistachio Nuts
Fig (mg/100 g FW) Carob (mg/100 g FW) Pistachio (mg/100 g FW)
component (28% of the solid, 121 mg/100 g dry fig fruits has been determined. Some of
weight of fig fruit), fucosterol (5% of the solid, them have shown a high correlation between
21.7 mg/100 g dry weight of fig fruit), stigmas the polyphenol content and the level of the anti
tirol (3.2% of the solid, 13.9 mg/100 g dry oxidant capacity. Solomon et al. [27] measured
weight of fig fruit), and campesterol (1.3% of the antioxidant capacity using the Trolox
the solid, 5.629 mg/100 g dry weight of fig Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (TEAC)
fruit). method. This study demonstrated a correlation
The same procedure was carried out by between total polyphenols, total flavonoids, or
Arena et al. [54] in the determination of the total anthocyanins and antioxidant activity. The
phytosterol composition in pistachio oil antioxidant activities were higher in extracts of
extracted by a Soxhlet extractor in the solvent, the dark fig varieties, with the skin the major
petroleum ether, for 6 h. After alkaline hydroly contributing tissue, as it had a threefold higher
sis of the pistachio oil, nine sterols were identi antioxidant capacity as compared to the pulp.
fied and quantified. β-Sitosterol was the In another study, the ability of the water extract
predominant component in all samples, vary of dark fig fruit to protect the low density lipo
ing from about 85 to 88%. Also detected were proteins (LDL) and very low density lipopro
Δ5-avenasterol (5–9%), campesterol (3–4.5%) teins (VLDL) oxidation was evaluated [3]. The
and other sterols, such as clerosterol, stigmas results demonstrated that spiking the plasma
terol, Δ5,24-stigmastadienol, Δ7-stigmastenol, with the fig extract (50 µM and 100 µM fig poly-
and Δ7-avenasterol [trace amounts (<1%)]. phenols, as measured by the Folin assay)
increased the lag time of LDL and VLDL oxida
tion by 25 and 40%, respectively. In the same
5. ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY AND study, Vinson et al. [3] determined the antioxi
HEALTH-PROMOTING EFFECTS dant capacity of human plasma (using the
TEAC method) after consumption of fig fruit.
The phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables Five males and five females, aged 25–58, partici
attract the interest of many investigators due to pated in the research, and their plasma antioxi
their potential health benefits and largely dant capacity was analyzed after consumption
because of their antioxidant activity. Usually a of either 240 mL of Spritet alone (control) or
mixture of compounds contribute to the antioxi 40 g of dried fig fruit. Results revealed that con
dant activity of a specific plant, some due to sumption of Spritetdecreased the antioxidant
their capacity to donate an electron, others capacity, which reached the lowest level at 1 h
owing to their capacity to chelate transition me after the consumption of the soft drink. In con
tals, and still others as a result of their cell sig trast, fig fruit consumption increased the antiox
naling effects, which promote the activity of the idant capacity of the plasma significantly over a
defense system, including the synthesis of spe period of 4 h.
cific enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase, In another in vivo study, the effect of fig leaf
catalase, and glutathione peroxidase [55]. extract on diabetic rats was tested [56]. There
were four groups of rats: streptozotocin
induced diabetic rats (N = 10); diabetic rats,
5.1 Antioxidant Activity and Health- which received a single dose of an aqueous frac
tion of Ficus carica leaf extract (N = 14); diabetic
promoting Effects of the Fig Fruit
rats, which received a single dose of a chloro
Several studies have been published in the form fraction of the leaf extract (N = 10); and
last few years in which the antioxidant level in normal rats (N = 10). The results demonstrated
that both the aqueous and chloroform extract of system (100 µg/mL), and rat liver microsomal
Ficus carica leaves reduced the hyperglycemia system (1 mg/mL). In all of the above methods,
in diabetic rats and normalized the fatty acids the carob pod crude polyphenol extract, with
and vitamin E values, whereas the chloroform the above concentrations, showed a strong anti
extract was more effective in reducing fatty oxidant activity, in comparison to the well-
acid levels. These studies confirm that the anti known polyphenol antioxidants (e.g. catechin,
oxidant status in rat plasma was affected in the quercetin, and gallic acid), which have been
diabetes syndrome, and that Ficus carica attributed to the carob pod polyphenol content.
extracts from leaves tend to normalize it. Similarly, carob fiber, produced by cold water
The cytotoxicity of fig fruit latex (FFL) extraction by Papagiannopoulos et al. [37],
against human cancer cells was also examined showed a strong antioxidant activity, when
[57]. It was found that FFL has a strong dose- measured by the DPPH method and by the
and time-dependent anticancer activity against TEAC method. The carob pod’s high polyphe
human glioma and hepatocellular carcinoma nolic content and its strong antioxidant activity
(HCC) cells, with a lower cytotoxicity toward make this nutrient an interesting potential can
normal liver cells; in short, the HCC cells were didate for health food.
more sensitive to FFL than normal liver cells. Carob pulp, rich in insoluble fibers, was
FFL also inhibits the colony growth potential examined for its ability to lower the total and
of cancer cells in a dose-dependent manner LDL cholesterol level in hypercholesterolemic
in vitro. The anticancer activity of original fresh patients [60]. Volunteers (N = 58) with hyper
FFL (collected from ripe fig fruits, drop by cholesterolemia consumed daily, both bread
drop without squeezing) is more potent (two servings) and a fruit bar (one serving),
(IC50 = 0.25–0.8 1 g/mL) than that of the hydro either with (N = 29) or without (N = 29) a total
phobic resin [6-O-acyl-β-D-glucosyl-β-sitoster amount of 15 g/d of a carob pulp preparation
ols (6-AGS)] extracted from FFL and identified (carob fiber). Total LDL, high density lipopro
by Rubnov et al. (IC50 = 25 µg/mL) [58]. tein (HDL) cholesterol, and triglyceride con
The mechanism of the anticancer activity of centrations in serum were assessed at baseline
FFL against human glioma and HCC cells was and after 4 and 6 weeks. Results showed that
investigated by Jing Wang et al. [57]. It was the consumption of carob fiber reduced LDL
suggested that FFL has a strong antiprolifera cholesterol by 10.572.2% (P = 0.010). The
tion effect, since it induced apoptosis, inhibited LDL:HDL cholesterol ratio was marginally
DNA synthesis, and caused G0/G1 phase decreased by 7.972.2% in the carob fiber
arrest of cancer cells. group compared to the placebo group
(P = 0.058). Carob fiber consumption also low
ered triglycerides in females by 11.374.5%
5.2 Antioxidant Activity and Health- (P = 0.030). Lipid-lowering effects were more
pronounced in females than in males. Similar
promoting Effects of the Carob Pod
research supported the above findings that the
The antioxidant activity of the aqueous carob daily consumption of food products enriched
pod crude polyphenols extract was evaluated with carob fiber has beneficial effects on the
by Kumazawa et al. [59] by means of several human blood lipid profile and may be effective
methods: the β-carotene–linoleic acid system in prevention and treatment of hypercholester
(10 µg/mL was obtained), 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl olemic patients [61]. These results strengthen
hydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity the concept that carob fiber affords a beneficial
(25 µg/mL), rabbit erythrocyte membrane ghost effect on human health. This effect may be
attributed to the high content of lignin and 44%, and decreased the ORS requirement
polyphenols (especially tannins), and their abil by 38% relative to children who received
ity to adsorb bile acids in the chymus. ORS alone.
The postprandial effects of carob fiber, rich The antiproliferative effects of carob
in polyphenols, on circulating ghrelin levels, (Ceratonia siliqua L.) on the mouse hepatocellu
plasma triglycerides, non-esterified fatty acids lar carcinoma cell line (T1) were also investi
(NEFA), and substrate utilization in humans gated [66]. Extracts from pods and leaves of
were investigated [62]. Ghrelin is a peptide hor carobs (Ceratonia siliqua L.) were tested for
mone produced and excreted mainly in the their ability to inhibit cell proliferation of the
stomach [63]. It circulates in two major forms, mouse T1 cells. Incubation of these cells for
acylated ghrelin and desacyl ghrelin. Acylated 24 h with carob pod and leaf extracts signifi
ghrelin acts as an orexigenic signal of the cen cantly inhibited their proliferation. The two
tral nervous system, and its levels increase dur extracts showed a marked reduction in T1 cell
ing fasting and are suppressed postprandially. proliferation in a dose-related fashion, reaching
The administration of ghrelin induces body the maximal effect at 1 mg/mL. Pod and leaf
weight gain by promoting food intake and extracts were also able to induce apoptosis in
decreasing fat utilization [64]. Gruendel et al. T1 cell lines, as indicated by the darker stain
[62] found that consumption of carob fiber ing of nuclei in treated cells. The effect on apo
extract rich in polyphenols by 20 healthy sub ptosis obtained by leaf extracts (0.2 mg/mL)
jects, aged 22–62 years, lowered acylated ghre was greater than that obtained with pod
lin to 49.1%, triglycerides to 97.2%, and NEFA extracts (0.4 mg/mL).
to 67.2% compared with the effect of the con In another study, the ability of carob pod
trol meal (P<0.001). Total ghrelin and insulin fiber to suppress tumor cell growth was inves
concentrations were not influenced by the con tigated by determining selected biological
sumption of a carob fiber-enriched liquid meal. effects in human colon cells [67]. An aqueous
Postprandial energy expenditure was increased carob fiber extract was used to determine its
by 42.3%, and respiratory quotient (RQ) was influence on the survival and growth of the
reduced by 99.9% in those who received a liq HT29 colon adenocarcinoma cell line and the
uid meal with carob fiber in comparison to pre-neoplastic adenoma LT97 cell line, as
those who were given a control meal models of late and early cancer stages. The
(P<0.001). These results indicate that carob results showed that carob fiber modulates
fiber might exert beneficial effects on energy parameters of cell growth differently in
intake and body weight. human HT29 colon adenocarcinoma cells
The ability of carob bean juice in treatment than in LT97 colon adenoma cells. In both
of children with diarrhea was examined [65]. human colon cell lines used, cell growth was
Diarrhea in children may cause dehydration inhibited. The inhibition of proliferation was
and is treated by the World Health more pronounced in LT97 adenoma than in
Organization (WHO) standard oral rehydration the less differentiated HT29 adenocarcinoma
solution (ORS). The ORS protects children cells, and the reduction in cell number was dis
from dehydration and provides effective rehy tinctly higher in the latter. After 72 h, carob
dration, but it does not treat and reduce the fiber extract reduced survival of rapidly prolif
diarrhea. Aksit et al. [65] found that the addi erating HT29 cells (by 76.4712.9%), whereas
tion of carob bean juice (20 mL per kg body metabolic activity and DNA synthesis were
weight of patient) to ORS, shortened the diar only transiently impaired. Survival of the
rhea duration by 45%, reduced stool output by slower growing LT97 cells was less decreased
(by 21.5712.9%), but there were marked as the Fe + 3/ascorbate system, resulted in a
effects on DNA synthesis (reduction by decrease in the lag time, with a maximum of
95.677%, 72 h). The antitumor activity of the 60 min. Co-incubation with the extracts result
carob pod fiber is not due to the main com ing from 0.5 and 1.0 mg of nuts increased the
pound found in the fiber, gallic acid. protective activity observed in the metal-depen
dent oxidation model. This phenomenon could
be derived from the expression of combined
5.3 Antioxidant Activity and Health- peroxyl radical-scavenging abilities and metal
chelating activity of one or more extract compo
promoting Effects of the Pistachio
nents. In addition, the hydrophilic extract of
The antioxidant activity in polar pistachio pistachio nuts brought about an increase in the
hull extract (PHE) was analyzed by Goli et al. susceptibility of LDL to oxidation. Thus, when
[38]. The oxidation of soybean oil in the pres LDL was incubated with the hydrophilic nut
ence of PHE and synthetic antioxidants (BHA extract (30–100 µg), a dose-dependent elonga
and BHT for comparison) was assessed by mea tion of the lag phase was observed. Five hun
suring the peroxide value (PV) and thiobarbi dred micrograms of the hydrophilic nut extract
turic acid reactive substances value (TBARS). protected LDL from oxidation for 6 h.
The PV value is a gauge of the primary pro Clinical and epidemiological studies have
ducts of lipid oxidation, and the TBARS value reported the beneficial effects of pistachio nuts
is a measure of the formation of secondary oxi on serum lipid levels. Consumption of pistachio
dation products, mainly malondialdehyde, nuts at a level of 15% of the daily caloric intake
which may contribute to the off flavor or odor affected lipid profiles of human subjects with
of the oxidized oil [68]. According to PV and primary and moderate hypercholesterolemia
TBARS, all samples examined in the presence (serum cholesterol greater than 210 mg/dL) [69].
of PHE (0.02–0.06%) were more stable on heat Subjects that consumed pistachio nuts showed
ing at 601C than the control. The antioxidant statistically significant increases in HDL-C (6%,
effect of PHE increased with concentration, P = 0.02), as well as decreases in total choles
and at a concentration of 0.06%, the antioxi terol (TC):HDL-C (-9%, P = 0.001), LDL-C:
dant activity was not significantly different HDL-C (-14%, P = 0.004) and in B-100:A-1
(P<0.05) from that of the synthetic anti (apoliproteins) (-13%, P = 0.009). Decreases
oxidants (BHA and BHT) at levels of 0.02%. were also seen in LDL-C (-9%, P = 0.06), with
The activity of the hydrophilic pistachio nut no changes in body mass index or blood pres
extracts in biological models of lipid oxidation, sure observed. It is assumed that changes in
including bovine liver microsomal membranes ratios of TC:HDL-C and LDL-C:HDL-C are bet
and human LDL was investigated by Gentile ter predictors of coronary heart disease (CHD)
et al. [41]. When lipid oxidation was induced risk reduction than changes in each of these spe
in microsomes by the hydrophilic radical gener cific component levels [70,71]. Others [72] have
ator AAPH, in the absence of nut extract, the reported that the apolipoprotein ratio B-100:A-1
production of TBARS reached a plateau after a is the best lipoprotein-related measure to esti
90 min incubation, while hydrophilic extracts mate CHD risk. Similar results have been
from 0.25 to 1.0 mg pistachio nuts increased obtained in another two investigations carried
the lag time to over 120 min, implying that the out by Gebauer et al. [73] and Kocyigit et al.
antioxidant activity of the nuts slowed down [74]. They showed that the consumption of pista
the oxidation rate in a dose-dependent man chio nuts by healthy volunteers may reduce the
ner. Employing pro-oxidation conditions, such risk of cardiovascular disease.
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