Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Characteristics of Organisms
- Energy
From food
From cellular respiration, a process that breaks down substances from food and produces
energy and waste products.
Heterotroph (an organism that cannot make its own food and relies on other sources):
Cells use glucose, a type of sugar to create energy
(glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide (waste) + water + energy)
Autotroph (organisms that can make their own food):
Plant cells collect light energy to use for photosynthesis
(carbon dioxide +water + light energy -> oxygen +glucose)
- Excretion
Getting rid of waste, or feces
- Reproduction
Unicellular organisms through cell division
Multi-cellular organisms reproduce when two parents contribute reproductive cells that will join
to form a new individual
1) Incomplete metamorphosis – the mode of development of certain insects that includes three distinct
stages: the egg, nymph, and the adult stage
Eggs hatch into nymphs, which look like small adults, but wingless – nymphs eat the same food and
live in the same habitat as adults, they mold outer casings several times
Nymphs reach adult size and grow wings – they stop molting at this stage
2) Complete Metamorphosis – the mode of development of certain insects that includes four distinct
stages: the egg, larva, pupa, and imago
Larvae hatch from the eggs, usually have worm-like shape with six legs – molt their skin several times
Larvae make a hard, protective case around themselves where they develop into their adult form with
wings, legs, internal organs, and other parts
Larvae change into adults inside their protective case and breaks out of them
Fertilization, where a sperm and an egg form to make a one-celled individual that will grow and
develop for about nine months
Teenager – 13 to 18
Adult, who is capable of producing reproductive cells through the process of meiosis
Seed
Germination/Sprouting – the process by which the seed grows to form leaves or buds. Seeds wait to
germinate until three needs are met: water, correct temperature (Warmth), and a good location
Reproduction – the female part of the flower is called the pistil and it has four parts—the stigma, style,
ovary, and ovules. The male part of the flower is called the stamen which consists of the filament and
the anther, where pollen is made.
Pollination – when the male and female structures are further apart, plants depend on insects, birds,
animals, wind, water, or other pollinators to carry polled from the male flowers to the female flowers.
Brightly colored petals, strong smell, nectar, and pollen attract pollinators.
Response: any behavior of a living thing that results from an internal or external stimulus
a) Instinctive behavior: natural response; especially a fight or flight response, based in a need to
protect themselves from danger
(e.g. horse perceives danger and will run or fight)
c) Voluntary response: a behavior of a living thing that is under conscious control; doesn’t
automatically happen
(e.g. drinking water when thirsty)
d) Involuntary response: a behavior of a living thing that is not under conscious control
(e.g. sweating)
Hemeostasis of Organisms and Feedback
A primary goal for an organism’s response to both an internal and external stimuli is to maintain a
relatively constant internal environment; homeostasis. Factors of homeostasis include the concentration
of ions and glucose, pH levels, and temperature.
Disturbing factor
Stimulus
Integrating center—contains the set point (the normal range for a condition), and compares it to actual
conditions—a particular part of the brain, spinal cord, or endocrine gland cells
Effector—causes changes to make up for the difference from the set point response, and returns the
condition to set point—glands or muscles
Response
One is activated when a parameter—like body temperature—is above the set point and is
designed to bring it back down
One is activated when the parameter is below the set point and is designed to bring it back up
Positive feedback loops— amplify the starting signal, and only happens in some biological cases, like
childbirth.
Cells
Cell Theory
2—all cells come from pre-existing cells (cells divide to make more cells)
Eukaryotic cell: has a membrane-enclosed nucleus that stores genetic information and provides
instructions in the DNA—e.g. plants, animals, fungi
Prokaryotic: do not contain a membrane-enclosed nucleus—e.g. bacterium, archaea
o DNA: a molecule located in chromosomes, provides specific guidelines about traits inherited
from parents
Cell Structure
Cell membrane:
Cytoplasm:
Eukaryotic Prokaryotic
Cytoplasm
Cell membrane
Mitochondria
Plant vs. Animal Cells
contains chloropyhll: several green pigments found in green plants to give off green color
captures light energy to make sugar through photosynthesis
Plant cells have one large vacuole while animals cells only have a few small ones:
surrounded by a membrane
filled with a watery fluid that is filled with materials such as nutrients and waste products stored
in fluids
helps regulate turgar pressure, which is the pressure placed on the plant cell wall by water
passing in and out of the cell
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a process in which it collects sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to produce glucose,
energy for a plant, and oxygen, the waste product. Photosynthesis primarily happens in the leaves,
Used to convert
Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration is the process that the cells of organisms perform in order to get energy. Glucose is
used through mitochondria to make ATP, energy for the cells.
Some organism:
Cells need to extract energy in order to maintain homeostasis. Nutrients that pass into cells are used to
provide this energy .
- Making materials
- Cell growth
- Cell division
- Cell production
1) Reproducing
Growth
Replacement
Repair
Sugar molecules get absorbed into wall of small intestine, then move into tiny blood vessels and are
carried away to cells of the body. Enzymes break down the nutrients.
Cellular respiration results in wastes like carbon dioxide, that needs to be gotten rid of through the lungs,
and water, that needs to be gotten rid of as urine through the liver.
Diffusion— movement of nutrients, ions or small molecules, through the cell membrane from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
Osmosis— movement of water through the cell membrane, usually from the side of the weaker
concentration to the side of the stronger concentration.
Unicellular locomotions
Cilia—hair-like projections on a cell that can whip back and forth to move the cell
Flagella—skinny tails on some unicellular organisms that allow them to move by whipping the
extensions back anf forth
Pseudopod— a temporary extension of the protoplasm (the cytoplasm and the nucleus) used
for moving around
Unicellular reproduction
- Asexual reproduction
Binary fission—A reproductive process commonly used by unicellular organisms, which a cell splits to
form two separate cells
- Sexual reproductiom
Conjugation—A temporary connection only between two unicellular organisms of the same species that
transfer genetic material to each other
Ingestion
Endocytosis: the movement of materials such as food into the cytoplasm of a cell through membranous
vesicles or vacuoles
Elimination
Exocytosis: the movement of waste materials out of the cytoplasm of a cell through membranous
vesicles or vacuoles
Ecology
1- Biomes
Biome: a type of environment in which organisms can be found; each supports different organisms that
are adapted to that region
Terrestrial Biomes
Tundra Alpine Located at very > Highland climate > Himalayan tahr
(mountains) high altitudes > One of the > Snow leapord
where trees coldest biomes
cannot grow
Aquatic biomes
b) Marine (saltwater)
Coral reefs (living communities within tropical oceans)
Estuaries (regions where freshwater streams or rivers merge with the ocean
Oceans
Relationships Between Organisms
5 types of interactions:
- Symbiosis -
Matter in Ecosystems
Carbon cycle:
Decomposers recycle some carbon into the soil and release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
Plants absorb carbon dioxide to make food through photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide is also returned to the atmosphere through cellular respiration
Nitrogen Cycle:
Nitrogen fixation—nitrogen in the air combines with other elements to form compounds that are
deposited in the soil
Nitrification—these organic compounds are converted by bacteria into nutrients that can be absorbed
by plants
After going through the food cycle, nitrogen is then decomposed back into the soil along with the
remains of dead plants and animals who all of which, contain nitrogen
A bacteria convert s the nutrients in the soil back to atmospheric nitrogen in the air
Sexual and Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction—the reproduction of living things combining male and female reproductive
cells
Genes from both parents, half from each, are passed through meiosis, a type of cell
division.
Advantage: because genes are passed through from two parents, the offsprings from
sexual reproduction are diverse
Disadvantage: because two opposite sexes are needed for sexual reproduction, an
organism needs to find an opposite sex to be able to reproduce
Asexual reproduction—the reproduction of living things in which offspring are made by just one
parent
Steps:
Interphase—cells grow in size. Inside the nucleus, the chromosomes are duplicated, but are still in the
form of loosely packed chromatin fibers.
1. Prophase
Early Prophase—each chromosome appears as two identical strands called chromatids, which is either
of the two strands that form when a chromosome copies itself. The chromatids are then joined by a
single centromere, which is a part of the chromosome to which the spindle fiber attaches to to divide
them.
Late Prophase—the chromosomes get thicker, the centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell, and
themembrane around the nucleus goes away.
2. Metaphase—the chromatids line up in the middle of the cell by attaching themselves to the fibers of
the spell spindle
3. Anaphase—the pairs of chromatids then seperate from each other and move toward opposite ends of
the cell
4. Telophase—a new membrane forms around each of the two groups of chromosomes
Meiosis
A type of cell division that goes through two rounds of the 4 mitotic step, resulting in
reproductive cells with half the original number of chromosomes
An egg cell and a sperm cell combine to begin development of a new individual
Sexually produced offspring are never identical to either of their parents
Meiosis II -> Phases of Mitosis, but the number of chromosomes is reduced to half the original number
in each sperm and egg cell, telophase and cytokinesis happens at the same time