An overview of the history of mathematics

Alphabetical list of History Topics History Topics Index

Mathematics starts with counting. It is not reasonable, however, to suggest that early counting
was mathematics. Only when some record of the counting was kept and, therefore, some
representation of numbers occurred can mathematics be said to have started.

In Babylonia mathematics developed from 2000 BC. Earlier a place value notation number
system had evolved over a lengthy period with a number base of 60. It allowed arbitrarily large
numbers and fractions to be represented and so proved to be the foundation of more high
powered mathematical development.

Number problems such as that of the Pythagorean triples (a,b,c) with a2+b2 = c2 were studied
from at least 1700 BC. Systems of linear equations were studied in the context of solving number
problems. Quadratic equations were also studied and these examples led to a type of numerical
algebra.

Geometric problems relating to similar figures, area and volume were also studied and values
obtained for π.

The Babylonian basis of mathematics was inherited by the Greeks and independent development
by the Greeks began from around 450 BC. Zeno of Elea's paradoxes led to the atomic theory
of Democritus. A more precise formulation of concepts led to the realisation that the rational
numbers did not suffice to measure all lengths. A geometric formulation of irrational numbers
arose. Studies of area led to a form of integration.

The theory of conic sections shows a high point in pure mathematical study by Apollonius.
Further mathematical discoveries were driven by the astronomy, for example the study of
trigonometry.

The major Greek progress in mathematics was from 300 BC to 200 AD. After this time progress
continued in Islamic countries. Mathematics flourished in particular in Iran, Syria and India. This
work did not match the progress made by the Greeks but in addition to the Islamic progress, it
did preserve Greek mathematics. From about the 11th Century Adelard of Bath, then
later Fibonacci, brought this Islamic mathematics and its knowledge of Greek mathematics back
into Europe.

Major progress in mathematics in Europe began again at the beginning of the 16th Century
with Pacioli, then Cardan, Tartaglia and Ferrari with the algebraic solution of cubic and quartic
equations. Copernicus and Galileo revolutionised the applications of mathematics to the study of
the universe.
The progress in algebra had a major psychological effect and enthusiasm for mathematical
research, in particular research in algebra, spread from Italy to Stevin in Belgium and Viète in
France.

The 17th Century saw Napier, Briggs and others greatly extend the power of mathematics as a
calculatory science with his discovery of logarithms. Cavalieri made progress towards the
calculus with his infinitesimal methods and Descartes added the power of algebraic methods to
geometry.

Progress towards the calculus continued with Fermat, who, together with Pascal, began the
mathematical study of probability. However the calculus was to be the topic of most significance
to evolve in the 17th Century.

Newton, building on the work of many earlier mathematicians such as his teacher Barrow,
developed the calculus into a tool to push forward the study of nature. His work contained a
wealth of new discoveries showing the interaction between mathematics, physics and
astronomy. Newton's theory of gravitation and his theory of light take us into the 18th Century.

However we must also mention Leibniz, whose much more rigorous approach to the calculus
(although still unsatisfactory) was to set the scene for the mathematical work of the 18th Century
rather than that of Newton. Leibniz's influence on the various members of the Bernoulli family
was important in seeing the calculus grow in power and variety of application.

The most important mathematician of the 18th Century was Euler who, in addition to work in a
wide range of mathematical areas, was to invent two new branches, namely the calculus of
variations and differential geometry. Euler was also important in pushing forward with research
in number theory begun so effectively by Fermat.

Toward the end of the 18th Century, Lagrange was to begin a rigorous theory of functions and of
mechanics. The period around the turn of the century saw Laplace's great work on celestial
mechanics as well as major progress in synthetic geometry by Monge and Carnot.

The 19th Century saw rapid progress. Fourier's work on heat was of fundamental importance. In
geometry Plücker produced fundamental work on analytic geometry and Steiner in synthetic
geometry.

Non-euclidean geometry developed by Lobachevsky and Bolyai led to characterisation of

geometry by Riemann. Gauss, thought by some to be the greatest mathematician of all time,
studied quadratic reciprocity and integer congruences. His work in differential geometry was to
revolutionise the topic. He also contributed in a major way to astronomy and magnetism.

The 19th Century saw the work of Galois on equations and his insight into the path that
mathematics would follow in studying fundamental operations. Galois' introduction of the group
concept was to herald in a new direction for mathematical research which has continued through
the 20th Century.
Cauchy, building on the work of Lagrange on functions, began rigorous analysis and began the
study of the theory of functions of a complex variable. This work would continue
through Weierstrass and Riemann.

Algebraic geometry was carried forward by Cayley whose work on matrices and linear algebra
complemented that by Hamilton and Grassmann. The end of the 19th Century saw Cantor invent
set theory almost single handedly while his analysis of the concept of number added to the major
work of Dedekind and Weierstrass on irrational numbers

Analysis was driven by the requirements of mathematical physics and astronomy. Lie's work on
differential equations led to the study of topological groups and differential
topology. Maxwell was to revolutionise the application of analysis to mathematical physics.
Statistical mechanics was developed by Maxwell, Boltzmann and Gibbs. It led to ergodic theory.

The study of integral equations was driven by the study of electrostatics and potential
theory. Fredholm's work led to Hilbert and the development of functional analysis.

Notation and communication

There are many major mathematical discoveries but only those which can be understood by
others lead to progress. However, the easy use and understanding of mathematical concepts
depends on their notation.

For example, work with numbers is clearly hindered by poor notation. Try multiplying two
numbers together in Roman numerals. What is MLXXXIV times MMLLLXIX? Addition of
course is a different matter and in this case Roman numerals come into their own, merchants
who did most of their arithmetic adding figures were reluctant to give up using Roman numerals.

What are other examples of notational problems. The best known is probably the notation for the
calculus used by Leibniz and Newton. Leibniz's notation lead more easily to extending the ideas
of the calculus, while Newton's notation although good to describe velocity and acceleration had
much less potential when functions of two variables were considered. British mathematicians
who patriotically used Newton's notation put themselves at a disadvantage compared with the
continental mathematicians who followed Leibniz.

Let us think for a moment how dependent we all are on mathematical notation and convention.
Ask any mathematician to solve ax = b and you will be given the answer x = b/a. I would be very
surprised if you were given the answer a = b/x, but why not. We are, often without realising it,
using a convention that letters near the end of the alphabet represent unknowns while those near
the beginning represent known quantities.

It was not always like this: Harriot used a as his unknown as did others at this time. The
convention we use (letters near the end of the alphabet representing unknowns) was introduced
by Descartes in 1637. Other conventions have fallen out of favour, such as that due to Viète who
used vowels for unknowns and consonants for knowns.
Of course ax = b contains other conventions of notation which we use without noticing them. For
example the sign "=" was introduced by Recorde in 1557. Also ax is used to denote the product
of a and x, the most efficient notation of all since nothing has to be written!

Brilliant discoveries?

It is quite hard to understand the brilliance of major mathematical discoveries. On the one hand
they often appear as isolated flashes of brilliance although in fact they are the culmination of
work by many, often less able, mathematicians over a long period.

For example the controversy over whether Newton or Leibniz discovered the calculus first can
easily be answered. Neither did since Newton certainly learnt the calculus from his
teacher Barrow. Of course I am not suggesting that Barrow should receive the credit for
discovering the calculus, I'm merely pointing out that the calculus comes out of a long period of
progress starting with Greek mathematics.

Now we are in danger of reducing major mathematical discoveries as no more than the luck of
who was working on a topic at "the right time". This too would be completely unfair (although it
does go some why to explain why two or more people often discovered something independently
around the same time). There is still the flash of genius in the discoveries, often coming from a
deeper understanding or seeing the importance of certain ideas more clearly.

How we view history

We view the history of mathematics from our own position of understanding and sophistication.
There can be no other way but nevertheless we have to try to appreciate the difference between
our viewpoint and that of mathematicians centuries ago. Often the way mathematics is taught
today makes it harder to understand the difficulties of the past.

There is no reason why anyone should introduce negative numbers just to be solutions of
equations such as x + 3 = 0. In fact there is no real reason why negative numbers should be
introduced at all. Nobody owned -2 books. We can think of 2 as being some abstract property
which every set of 2 objects possesses. This in itself is a deep idea. Adding 2 apples to 3 apples
is one matter. Realising that there are abstract properties 2 and 3 which apply to every sets with 2
and 3 elements and that 2 + 3 = 5 is a general theorem which applies whether they are sets of
apples, books or trees moves from counting into the realm of mathematics.

Negative numbers do not have this type of concrete representation on which to build the
abstraction. It is not surprising that their introduction came only after a long struggle. An
understanding of these difficulties would benefit any teacher trying to teach primary school
children. Even the integers, which we take as the most basic concept, have a sophistication which
can only be properly understood by examining the historical setting.

A challenge
If you think that mathematical discovery is easy then here is a challenge to make you
think. Napier, Briggs and others introduced the world to logarithms nearly 400 years ago. These
were used for 350 years as the main tool in arithmetical calculations. An amazing amount of
effort was saved using logarithms, how could the heavy calculations necessary in the sciences
ever have taken place without logs.

Then the world changed. The pocket calculator appeared. The logarithm remains an important
mathematical function but its use in calculating has gone for ever.

Here is the challenge. What will replace the calculator? You might say that this is an unfair
question. However let me remind you that Napier invented the basic concepts of a mechanical
computer at the same time as logs. The basic ideas that will lead to the replacement of the pocket
calculator are almost certainly around us.

We can think of faster calculators, smaller calculators, better calculators but I'm asking for
something as different from the calculator as the calculator itself is from log tables. I have an
answer to my own question but it would spoil the point of my challenge to say what it is. Think
about it and realise how difficult it was to invent non-euclidean geometries, groups, general
relativity, set theory, .... .

References
General bibliography of about 700 items

Article by: J J O'Connor and E F Robertson

Mathematics is the science of numbers. To be precise, the Merriam-Webster
dictionary defines mathematics as the science of numbers and their
operations, interrelations, combinations, generalizations, and abstractions
and of space configurations and their structure, measurement,
transformations, and generalizations. Additionally, there are several different
branches of mathematical science, which include algebra, geometry and
calculus.

Mathematics is not an invention. Discoveries and laws of science are not

considered inventions since inventions are material things and processes.
However, there is a history of mathematics, a relationship between
mathematics and inventions, and mathematical instruments themselves are
considered inventions.

According to the book Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times,

mathematics as an organized science did not exist until the classical Greek
period from 600 to 300 BC. There were, however, prior civilizations in which
the beginnings or rudiments of mathematics were formed.

For example, when civilization began to trade, a need to count was created.
When humans traded goods, they needed a way to count the goods and to
calculate the cost of those goods. The very first device for counting numbers
was of course the human hand, in which fingers represented quantities. And to
count beyond ten fingers, mankind used natural markers, rocks or shells.

From that point, tools such as counting boards and the abacus were invented.
Here then is a quick tally of important developments introduced throughout
the ages, starting from A to Z.

ABACUS

One of the first tools for counting invented, the abacus was invented around
1200 A.D. in China.

ACCOUNTING

The innovative Italians of the Renaissance (fourteenth through sixteenth

century) are widely acknowledged to be the fathers of modern accounting.

ALGEBRA

The first treatise on algebra was written by Diophantus of Alexandria in the

3rd century AD. Algebra comes from the Arabic word al-jabr an ancient
medical term meaning "the reunion of broken parts.''
ARCHIMEDES

Archimedes was a mathematician and inventor from ancient Greece best

known for his discovery of the relation between the surface and volume of a
sphere and its circumscribing cylinder, for his formulation of a hydrostatic
principle (Archimedes' principle) and for inventing the Archimedes screw (a
device for raising water).

DIFFERENTIAL

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz(1646-1716) was a German philosopher,

mathematician and logician who is probably most well known for having
invented the differential and integral calculus. He did this independently of Sir
Isaac Newton.

GRAPH

A graph is a pictorial representation of statistical data or of a functional

relationship between variables. William Playfair (1759-1823) is generally
viewed as the inventor of most of graphical forms used to display data,
including line plots, the bar chart and the pie chart.

LOGARITHMS AND THE DECIMAL POINT

John Napier was the Scottish mathematician who invented logarithms and the
decimal point.

MATH SYMBOL

In 1557, the "=" sign was first used by Robert Record.

In 1631 came the ">" sign.

PYTHAGOREANISM

Pythagoreanism is a school of philosophy and a religious brotherhood believed

to have been founded by Pythagoras of Samos, who settled in Croton in
southern Italy about 525 BC. The group had a profound effect on the
development of mathematics.

PROTRACTOR

The simple protractor is an ancient device. As an instrument used to construct

and measure plane angles, the simple protractor looks like a semicircular disk
marked with degrees, beginning with 0º to180º.
The first complex protractor was created for plotting the position of a boat on
navigational charts. Called a three-arm protractor or station pointer, it was
invented in 1801 by Joseph Huddart, a U.S. naval captain. The centre arm is
fixed, while the outer two are rotatable and capable of being set at any angle
relative to the center one.

SLIDE RULERS

Circular and rectangular slide rules, an instrument used for mathematical

calculations were both invented by mathematician William Oughtred.

ZERO

Zero was invented by the Hindu mathematicians Aryabhata and Varamihara

in India around or shortly after the year 520 A.D.
Girolamo Cardano
This is a picture of Girolamo Cardano. He lived in the 16th Century and is
known as the "Father of Probability". He lived in Italy and was a rennaissance
mathematican. He made many contributions to the field of Algebra and is
credited with introducing binomial coefficients and the binomial theorem
(which you will learn in Acc. Math I next year). He was very smart but
considered strange and weird by many people and he didn't have very many
friends. He was always short of cash, but he was an accomplished gambler and
chess player, and he made enough money doing that to support himself. He
discovered many of the properties of probability and even wrote a book on
probability called "Liber de ludo aleae", but the book was not published until a
hundred years later after he died. In the years after he died, mathematicians
began to understand more about the theory of probability and they recognized
how much Cardano had actually contributed to the field. Thus, he earned the
title of "Father of Probability".

Why I choose Girolamo Cardano?

I choose him because he’s the “Father of Probability” he was my favorite mathematician he
discovered many properties of probability.