Non-destructive testing of high-pressure gas pipelines

R. F. L u m b

A comprehensive and detailed assessment of the use of ndt
in the manufacture of h i g h - p r e s s u r e gas pipelines is given.
A s i m i l a r report of the ndt techniques applicable to the in-
spection of high-pressure pipeline girth welds is also p r e -
sented. These two major aspects of pipeline ndt are sub-
divided respectively into i) the different types of manu-
factured pipe and the ndt techniques available for their
examination, and ti) the various ndt methods used in the
inspection of pipeline girth welds.

A serious failure in a steel pipeline transmitting high-pres-
sure gas in bulk can disrupt supplies and incur costly r e -
pairs. Non-destructive testing is used to test pipe welds in
order to eliminate defects which could cause failure or
leakage. When considering pipeline inspection it should be
remembered that some ndt techniques can discriminate ex-
tremely fine defects, right down to the grain size of the
metal.
N D T IN PIPE MANUFACTURE
Most steel pipes for gas transmission are made by hot rotary
forging of pierced billets, or by forming plate or strip and
then welding either by submerged-arc or by electrical r e -
sistance. Pipes are usually ordered to one of the American
Petroleum Institute specifications, API 5L, API 5LX or API
5LS, with supplementary requirements if necessary.
Manual scanning although time-consuming is feasible since
the echo pattern from laminations tends to persist on the
oscilloscope screen and is easy to interpret. However, if
laminations are fragmented or 11e at an oblique angle to the
surface of the plate,there is no dlsttnct flaw echo, but merely
a loss of back echo. In most palse-echo equipment no account
is taken of this loss and hence transmission methods are pre-
ferable for plate inspection. Such methods normally require
mechanization with automatic recording of the results and
testing systems based on these methods have been installed
in some plate mills. I
In both transmission and pulse-echo testing,the probe area
represents the area of the plate under examination at any
instant. Shear-wave angle probes are used to detect lami-
nation but the method is not reliable,particularly for the

Submer~ed-arc welded pipe

Shrinkage of liquid metal on solidification results in p r i m a r y
piping in the ingot, and this can cause laminations oriented
in the plane of the plate or strip rolled from the ingot. Lam i -
nations can also a r i s e from secondary piping and from large
inclusions. Laminations can nucleate defects during welding
(Fig 1) or propagate to form a split in the weld (Fig 2). They
cannot be detected by radiography because of their orienta-
tion, but they can be detected by ultrasonics, or seen visually
when they occur as skin laminations.
The API specifications do not require non-destructive t e s t -
ing of the pate or strip before welding but ultrasonic testing
is mandatory in some customer requirements. In the Gas
Council specification, plates must be examined around the F i g 1 Lamination in plate nucleating defect in submerged
periphery of the developed size for welding, to ensure that arc weld
edges to be welded ar e free of laminations, and also a c r o s s
the diagonals.
The pulse-echo method has been used for most plate testing
specifications; for example, the British Heavy Steel Manu-
facturers' specification,or the G e r m a n Steelmakers' speci-
fication 072-57. This method cannot distinguish laminations
near the surface remote from the probe since the echoes
from them cannot be distinguished from the back echo. The
Gas Council specification r e q u i r e s that the plate be examined
from both surfaces, or that transmission methods be used.

M r L u m b is Senior Non-Destructive Testing Engineer at the

Gas Council Engineering Research Station,Killingworth,
Newcastle upon Tyne, England Fig 2 Lamination in plate running as split in weld

non-destructive testing November 1969 259

thin plates used in pipe manufacture. Laminations can also
be detected by ultrasonic L a m b waves, which can examine a
zone extending across some or all of the plate. L a m b waves
have been used on steel sheet 2 but they cannot be excited in
plates m o r e than 6 m m thick using standard equipment.3
Special equipment is n o w available for plate up to 1 2 m m
thick and has been installed in s o m e mills.
The main flaws that occur in submerged-arc welds are lack
of penetration between the inside and outside weld beads;
cracks; undercut or underfiU; and overflow (Fig 3). The A PI
standards require full-length examination of welds by
x-radiography or ultrasonics. Fluorescent screens or tele-
vision screens are permitted for radiography and tend to be
used since they are cheaper than radiographic film, although
less discriminating.
Fluoroscopy has been improved in recent years, with better
image intensifier tubes and cameras. Image quality indi-
cator levels are well within the 4 % required by A P I 5LX. 4
Fluoroscopy is used for weld inspection in s o m e EuropeanS, 6
and American 4 mills. However, the system is inherently less
sensitive to the m o r e critical flaws, cracks, lack of side-
wall fusion, and lack of penetration; and since it is not auto-
mated R is greatly dependent upon the integrity of the opera-
tor. Ultrasonics is m o r e sensitive to serious flaws and can
F i g 3 Defects in submerged-arc welded pipe
(a) Lack of penetration between inside and outside weld
runs
260 non-destructive testing November 1969
be automated. In g e n e r a l , E u r o p e a n m i l l s have tended to i~-
stall u l t r a s o n i c equipmentS"9; its use is m a n d a t o r y in the
Gas Council s u p p l e m e n t a r y s p e c i f i c a t i o n .
Fig 4 s h o w s the b a s i c method of operation. The region of
the o s c i l l o s c o p e t i m e b a s e c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the weld region
is analyzed e l e c t r o n i c a l l y and e c h o e s above the amplitude
of the r e f e r e n c e d e r i v e d f r o m the c a l i b r a t i o n block actuate
a r e l a y which can o p e r a t e visual or audible warnings, paint
s p r a y s , o r pen r e c o r d e r s . F i g 5 shows a pen r e c o r d of weld
c a l i b r a t i o n . In s o m e m i l l s only one p r o b e is used on each
side of the weld and in this c a s e detection of d e f e c t s o r i e n t e d
t r a n s v e r s e l y to the weld i s not p o s s i b l e . To e n s u r e c o r r e c t
l a t e r a l p o s i t i o n i n g of the p r o b e s on the weld, they a r e
mounted on a f r a m e which is then moved along the weld; a l t e r -
natively the pipe can be moved p a s t s t a t i o n a r y p r o b e s .
T h e r e a r e l i m i t a t i o n s in the s y s t e m . It i s difficult to keep
the p r o b e s a c c u r a t e l y positioned o v e r the weld s i n c e the
width and shape of the weld r e i n f o r c e m e n t vary and the welds
tend to ' w a n d e r ' . The t e s t i n g a r e a is l i m i t e d to r e d u c e c o n -
fusion between e c h o e s f r o m f l a w s within the weld and the
boundary of the weld r e i n f o r c e m e n t (Fig 4).
A r e a s n e a r the b o u n d a r y a r e s c a n n e d by the p r o b e on the op-
posite side of the weld. B e a m s p r e a d floods the weld c r o s s
(b) C r a c k i n g through weld. Grinding out failed to
r e m o v e defect
(c) Cracking at toe of weld
(d) U n d e r c u t o r underfill
section with sound energy thus complicating gating arrange- Transmitter 1 Receiver 1
ments, and R is doubtful whether a pronounced weld rein-
forcement is completely scanned. Acoustic coupling can be CRO display

~
drastically reduced by the probes riding up on weld spatter,
by crabbing of the scanning frame or loss of coupling water Fiaw echo
and by loose mill scale. The Gas Council specification re-
quires warning when acoustic coupling has fallen drastically,
/- ho from
einforcement
but most installations are not equipped for this. (((
Some mills have installed equipment incorporating auto-
matic gain control.5,s Electronic switching is used to moni-
Gate corresponding
tor periodically the direct echo frx)m probe I to probe 2 in to weld region
Fig 4 and the amplifier gain is adjusted automatically so
that constant energy is received at probe 2 (and vice-versa
with probe 2 transmitting and probe 1 receiving). This com-
pensates for loss of acoustic coupling but introduces an ad- Receiver 2 Transmitter 2
ditional variable since the transmitted energy is scattered a
to a greater or lesser extent by the weld reinforcement.
It is normal practice in European mills to carry out auto-
matic ultrasonic examination and to radiograph regions of
the pipe indicated defective. If the latter does not reveal an
objectionable flaw. the ultrasonic indication is ignored and
Transmitter 1 Receiver 2
the pipe is accepted. This procedure would accept cracks
of the type shown in Fig 1 which, because of their orienta-
tion, cannot be detected by radiography. The Gas Council
has now specified an alternative approach. Regions that give
an ultrasonic flaw indication should be examined radio-
graphically and by manual ultrasonics. If the original ultra- i i ~ ii \\
sonic indication was due to a defect shown by the radiograph
to be acceptable within the specification,or if the manual \
ultrasonic test reveals that the indication was a spurious ' - x
echo arising from a surface wave or from local weld geo- 111 I I

metry, then the pipe can be accepted: if the radiograph shows

an objectionable flaw, then the pipe is rejected. If there is ,
I/'JI
,,'/,\? \.
\
t
Gate
,
no explanation for the echo it is assumed to have arisen from
a defect adversely oriented for radiographic detection.

Ultrasonic flaw detection is the most suitable of the ndt tech-

niques currently available for examining both plate material
and submerged-arc welds. For plate inspection there seems Receiver'l Transmitter2
no logical alternative. For examination of seam welds, ultra-
sonics is both quicker than film radiography and more sensi- b
tive to crack-like defects, particularly those along or normal
to the weld bevel preparation.
Fig 4 Arrangement of probes in ultrasonic examination of
submerged-arc welded pipe for detection of (a) longi-
tudinally and (b) transversely oriented defects
S e a m l e s s pipe
T h e r e a r e two s o u r c e s of flaws in hot, r o t a r y - f o r g e d pipe.
I n h o m o g e n e i t i e s in the ingot such a s p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a r y
piping c a n be c a r r i e d f o r w a r d into the pipe d u r i n g forging
and c a n c a u s e f l a w s in a s i m i l a r m a n n e r to the f o r m a t i o n of
l a m i n a t i o n in s t e e l plate. Such f l a w s a r e likely to h a v e a
c o n s i d e r a b l e c o m p o n e n t o r i e n t e d in the plane of the pipe
wall. The r o l l s and the m a n d r e l c a n c a u s e s u r f a c e d e f e c t s
such a s t e a r s and laps, and s u c h d e f e c t s will h a v e s u b s t a n t i a l
o r i e n t a t i o n n o r m a l to the pipe wall. In addition, p i p e s and
t u b e s m a d e by working p i e r c e d b i l l e t s a r e p r o n e to e c c e n t r i c
wall thickness, the eccentricity varying along the length of
the pipe. Fig 5 Pen record of calibration reference weld w R h five
defects. The repeat test shows reproducibflRy
The APT specifications covering seamless line pipe, API 5L
and API 5LX, require neither non-destructive testing nor
wall-thickness measurement away from the pipe ends. In
some mills destructive tests are carried out on samples cut
from each pipe end to determine the presence of primary (and h e n c e i n d i r e c t l y on defects), e l e c t r i c a l conductivity and
pipe flaws. In APT 5A (casing,tubing, and drill pipe) non- p e r m e a b i l i t y , and t h e a n n u l u s b e t w e e n t h e pipe and t h e coil
destructive testing is optional,but in API 5AX (high-strength (and h e n c e the outside d i a m e t e r of the pipe). The a n a l y s i s
casing and tubing) non-destructlve testing of the full pipe to d e t e r m i n e which effect i s c a u s i n g any m o d i f i c a t i o n i s
length is mandatory. Magnetic particle, ultrasonic, or elec. c o m p l e x a n d c o n s i d e r a b l e w o r k h a s b e e n done on t h i s by the
tro-magnetic methods are permitted. Institute Dr FSrster.
Magnetic particle examination has littleor no sensitivity to The m e t h o d i s m u c h u s e d for s m a l l , n o n - f e r r o u s tubes, but
defects which do not break surface, and is unlikely to detect on f e r r o u s m a t e r i a l additional c o m p l i c a t i o n s a r i s e f r o m
laminar defects resulting from ingot piping. Although sur- m a g n e t i c p e r m e a b i l i t y . The i n i t i a l p e r m e a b i l i t y i s affected
face laps are amenable to magnetic crack detection, it would by r e s i d u a l s t r e s s l e v e l . Hot r o t a r y f o r g e d pipes m a y have
be difficultto apply the method to bore defects. v a r y i n g a m o u n t s of r e s i d u a l cold work depending on the
o r i g i n a l soaking c o n d i t i o n s a n d the t i m e t a k e n to c o m p l e t e
Eddy currents can be used to inspect seamless tubing. Very forging. T h e effect c a n be a l l e v i a t e d by applying a s a t u r a -
rapid inspection rates are possible with the encircling coil ting field and e q u i p m e n t i n c o r p o r a t i n g a u x i l i a r y s a t u r a t i o n
system. When pipe is passed though a coil fed with alterna- h a s b e e n i n s t a l l e d in s t e e l tube m i l l s , lo However, s a t u r a t i o n
ting current the resistive and reactive components of the b e c o m e s m o r e difficult a s pipe d i a m e t e r i n c r e a s e s and c a n -
coil are modified; the modification depends on dimensions not b e u s e d for pipe d i a m e t e r s g r e a t e r than 100ram. 11

n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t i n g N o v e m b e r 1969 261
X - r a y and g a m m a r a y t r a n s m i s s i o n can b e used with a s c i n -
t i l l a t i o n c o u n t e r to e s t i m a t e pipe wall t h i c k n e s s . The a c c u r a c y
of s c i n t i l l a t i o n c o u n t e r s d e p e n d s on the s i z e of the count f o r
a given i n c r e m e n t of t h i c k n e s s , the count i n c r e a s i n g with the
t i m e the i n c r e m e n t i s in the b e a m . T h u s the count, and h e n c e
the a c c u r a c y , i n c r e a s e s with d e c r e a s i n g s c a n n i n g r a t e . When
large diameter pipes are scanned at realistic rates there is
a t e n d e n c y f o r e c c e n t r i c i t y to be a v e r a g e d out.
U l t r a s o n i c m e t h o d s c a n d e t e c t d e f e c t s o r i e n t e d both in the
p l a n e of, and n o r m a l to, the pipe wall. D e f e c t s in the p l a n e
of the wall c a n b e d e t e c t e d by u s i n g a c o m p r e s s i o n - w a v e
probe scanning at normal incidence. For defects oriented
n o r m a l l y to the wall the b e a m i s c o n v e r t e d to s h e a r - w a v e
and p r o p a g a t e d a r o u n d o r along the tube a s i l l u s t r a t e d in
F i g 6. The pipe i s r o t a t e d and m o v e d longitudinally r e l a t i v e
to the p r o b e s , thus giving a h e l i c a l scan.
The r e l i a b i l i t y of m e c h a n i z e d s c a n n i n g i s a function of a c o u s -
tic coupling and b e s t r e s u l t s a r e a c h i e v e d with i m m e r s i o n
coupling. T h e efficiency of a c o u s t i c coupling t h r o u g h l a r g e
c o l u m n s of w a t e r i s l o w e r but m u c h m o r e c o n s i s t e n t than
that t h r o u g h the thin liquid f i l m s u s e d in contact scanning.
I m m e r s i o n m e t h o d s a l s o e l i m i n a t e p r o b e w e a r and the need
f o r s p e c i a l l y c o n t o u r e d p r o b e s f o r e a c h pipe s i z e . Such Fig 6 Immersion ultrasonic inspection of seamless t u b e s or
m e t h o d s have b e e n u s e d in the USA s i n c e 195712 and the UK pipes. Probe A scans for longitudinally oriented de-
s i n c e 196413 to d e t e c t d e f e c t s l e s s than 2°L wall t h i c k n e s s . fects; probe B scans for circumferentially oriented
ones. On the oscilloscope display, T is the trans-
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , i m m e r s i o n coupling by a c o l u m n of w a t e r
mission pulse, R is the direct reflection from the tube
flowing between the p r o b e and the pipe c a n be used. With
surface and D is the direct echo. The gate for auto-
t h i s method, p r o b e r o t a t i o n s c a n n i n g is p o s s i b l e . Advantage
matic defect recording is set to cover D and ignore R
can be t a k e n of the s m a l l e r i n t e r t i a of the p r o b e s to i n c r e a s e
the s c a n n i n g r a t e and t h e r e f o r e the speed of i n s p e c t i o n by
about an o r d e r of m a g n i t u d e .
Although w a t e r c o l u m n s y s t e m s with r o t a t e d p r o b e s m i g h t
then be recorded in its position around the circumference.
be a little l e s s s e n s i t i v e than the total i m m e r s i o n method,
Chart length can be m a d e proportioned to pipe length, there-
they a r e well c a p a b l e of e x a m i n a t i o n to l e v e l s r e q u i r e d for
by facilitating defect location and extent in relation to pipe
line pipe. i s R o t a t i n g p r o b e d e v i c e s have b e e n u s e d for i n -
length and variation in wall thickness around and along the
spection of pipe for s o m e y e a r s . 11, 14
pipe. Fig 7 shows the form of ultrasonic record. Alterna-
When an u l t r a s o n i c b e a m p r o p a g a t e s r a d i a l l y through the tively, information can be monitored in go/no-go fashion to
pipe wall, the t i m e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n s u c c e s s i v e back e c h o e s provide a paint spray at positions of significant defect.
r e f l e c t e d f r o m the b o r e s u r f a c e i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l to
Ultrasonic testing is preferred for wall thickness measure-
the wall t h i c k n e s s . If the f i r s t back echo i s u s e d to t r i g g e r
ment particularly as the observations can be arranged to
a high speed e l e c t r o n i c c o u n t e r whose f r e q u e n c y is such t h a t
indicate the presence of laminations as well. Magnetic
it will produce a count of 100 d u r i n g the t i m e t a k e n to r e -
crack detection techniques presently available are not able
ceive 4 e c h o e s in l i n ( 2 5 . 4 r a m ) thick plate and a s u b s e -
to cope conveniently with the examination of the bore surface
quent b a c k echo i s used to stop the counter, a count p r o p o r -
and the method would have low sensitivity to stringer defects
tional to the wall t h i c k n e s s is produced. By c h a n g i n g the within the wall. Although advantage is taken of the potential
f r e q u e n c y of the c o u n t e r o s c i l l a t o r it is p o s s i b l e to change
for high inspection speeds in eddy current testing on small
the t h i c k n e s s r a n g e e x a m i n e d o r a c c o m m o d a t e d i f f e r e n t
diameter tubing, ultrasonic techniques are preferred at
m a t e r i a l s . I n f o r m a t i o n f r o m the c o u n t e r can be fed to a
present for larger diameter pipe. Ultrasonic systems to de-
c h a r t r e c o r d e r t h e r e b y r e c o r d i n g continuously the wall t h i c k -
tect all objectionable defects are available and inspection is
n e s s . L a m i n a t i o n would be r e c o r d e d a s an a b r u p t l o c a l i s e d
mainly a problem of engineering suitable equipment. Inspec-
r e d u c t i o n in wall t h i c k n e s s .
tion speeds up to 12ft/min (0.031m/s) are possible without
F o r d e t e c t i o n of c r a c k s and l a p - l i k e defects, the flaw d e - prejudicing confidence in the test is, thereby keeping pace
t e c t o r o s c i l l o s c o p e display i s gated (Fig 6). The d e f e c t can with production rates.

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. . . . /_~._

__
.

_
,

~'-.-~
. . . . .

.-
. .

._=~
. . . . . . : . ~ _ . _ _ " __'T ,, -
-I
,,i~ ' '. ,~' .--

Thickness~ ~ Lamination Eccentricity

of walt Specified
thickness thickness

Tubetength

F i g 7 R e c o r d of u l t r a s o n i c e x a m i n a t i o n of s e a m l e s s pipe

262 n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t i n g N o v e m b e r 1969
E l e c t r i c resistance welded pipe
Relatively little Electric Resistance Welded (ERW) piping
h~ts been used in gas transmission pipelines in Britain. The
type of defect usually responsible for failure is a lack of
fusion with associated oxide film, as illustrated in Fig 8.
Non-destructive testing of l a r g e r diameter ERW pipes is Wetd
normaUy r e s t r i c t e d to examination of the weld region.
line
Systems s i m i l a r to those used for examination of submerged
arc welded seams can be employed, although the arrange-
ments for tracking the probes with respect to the weld rein-
forcement are not applicable. Due to problems associated
with accurate weld tracking it is necessary that small
variations in weld-probe separation should only cause ac-
ceptably small variations in defect detection sensitivity.
In one mill, probe angles of 66-65 ° give most satisfactory
results and coverage of the weld depth is best achieved by I
using two probes each side of the weld (Fig 9). 16 Such a I
system is also relevant to the ultrasonic examination of sub-
m e r g e d - a r c welded pipes.
Ultrasonic testing is well suited to examination of ERW pipes
for reasons s i m i l ar to those supporting its use on submerged
arc seam welds. A means for the automatic indication of
loss of acoustic coupling would be an advancement in many
equipments being used.

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF PIPELINE GIRTH WELDS

API 1104 does not specify that all welds be examined. In-
stead, 'the use of radiographic inspection and the frequency
of its use shall be at the option of the company'. In normal
circumstances it has been the practice to aim for 10°L.
Vvhere the integrity of a pipeline is vital, as in high p r e s s u r e
gas transmission systems in Britain, it is difficult to support
a philosophy other than 100% inspection especially as inspec-
tion is not a large proportion of the total cost of the pipeline.
Where operating conditions are less onerous, however, it may
be possible to relax on the size and type of defect p e r m i s -
sible.
Fig 9 System for ultrasonic testing of large diameter ERW
pipe. Probes are staggered to prevent beam inter-
ference and the system uses beam spread to cover
the complete weld section.
(a) Probe lay-out (b) Beam paths. Probe positioned
to scan (E) external and (I) internal part of weld s e c -
tion

Radiography
Characteristic defects of pipeline welding are: slag, such as
wagon tracking; elongated piping in root; scattered piping and
porosity; burn-throughs in the root; lack of root penetration;
lack of side wall fusion; and cracks, which invariably break
the bore surface in the heat affected zone.
Except for the last two defects, the remainder are amenable
to detection by radiography. Cracks which have 'opened'
Fig 10 Crack detected by good radiographic practice only
can be detected reliably but 'tighter' cracks, even though
reasonably favourably oriented (Fig 10), a r e only detectable
by optimum practice. Some cracks (Fig 11) may not be r e -
vealed at all.
Assuming good workmanship, radiographic quality depends
on the choice of p a r a m e t e r s controlling the contrast and de-
finition of the radiograph, the detection of defects improving
with increasing contrast and fine definition. Contrast can
be assessed in t e r m s of the thickness sensitivity which can
be conveniently estimated by image quality indicators.

Fig U Crack not detectable by radiography

There are two types of image quality indicator, namely

Fig 8 Lack-of-fusion defect in ERW pipe
stepped wedges and wires. However, indicators other than
these have been devised; one such indicator is merely a
single thickness plate with drilled holes. The thickness is
changed to cover a range of pipe wall thickness and, for
example, wall thicknesses in the range 3/sin to S/sin
(9. 525mm-15.875mm) are radiographed against an indi-
cator plate thickness of 0. 010in (O. 254mm). Hence, for the
thicker pipe the thickness sensitivity is ~ 2.7%. The A m e r i -
can Petroleum Institute 0kPI) indicator, though having the
advantage of being go/no-go and hence convenient to use
under site conditions, is considered to be too limiting par°
ticularly as the mandatory minimum requirements vary to
such an extent with pipe wall thickness.

non-destructive testing November 1969 263

W h e n using the step wedge or graded wire image quality in-
dicators, it should be realised that the two types have dif-
ferent responses to thickness sensitivityfi7 Consequently
when thickness senstitivity requirements are specified they
should be related to a type of image quality indicator.
Many f a c t o r s o t h e r than w o r k m a n s h i p influence r a d i o g r a p h i c
contrast. For pipeline radiography, radiation energy is
p r o b a b l y the m o s t i m p o r t a n t . A b s o r p t i o n of r a d i a t i o n by
s t e e l d e c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s i n g e n e r g y ; the a b s o r p t i o n c o -
efficient at 150kV is about 3 t i m e s that at 700kV. F o r o p t i -
m u m d e t e c t i o n of s m a l l c h a n g e s in t h i c k n e s s the a b s o r p t i o n
should be a s high a s p o s s i b l e so t h a t l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e s in
e x p o s u r e , c o n s i s t e n t with a r e a s o n a b l e amount of e n e r g y
being t r a n s m i t t e d to p r o v i d e a r e a l i s t i c o v e r a l l e x p o s u r e ,
r e s u l t at the film. G a m m a r a d i a t i o n f r o m an zS~Iridium
s o u r c e is a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u i v a l e n t to x - r a y s g e n e r a t e d at
700kV i s and h e n c e will not be a b s o r b e d sufficiently to give
good c o n t r a s t s e n s i t i v i t y . F o r wall t h i c k n e s s e s typical of
pipelining, x- r a y s g e n e r a t e d at about 150-175kV have r e a s o n -
able a b s o r p t i o n .
When p a n o r a m i c e x p o s u r e t e c h n i q u e s a r e employed, p r o d u c -
tivity c a n be i m p r o v e d by u s i n g r o l l - p a c k e d film which h a s
much t h i n n e r lead s c r e e n s 4 - - u s u a l l y l e s s than 0 . 0 0 1 i n
(0. 0254mm). T h e r e will b e s o m e l o s s of c o n t r a s t c o m p a r e d
with c o n v e n t i o n a l c a s s e t t e p r a c t i c e u s i n g s c r e e n s 0. 004in
(0. 1016mm) thick, but it i s p r o b a b l y m a r g i n a l and j u s t i f i e d
by the d e c r e a s e in s e t t i n g - u p t i m e .
I n c r e a s i n g developing t e m p e r a t u r e a n d / o r t i m e s i g n i f i c a n t l y
i n c r e a s e s c o n t r a s t . P r o p r i e t a r y types of d e v e l o p e r m a t c h e d
to p r o p r i e t a r y f i l m s m a y a l s o i m p r o v e c o n t r a s t . However,
i n c r e a s i n g d e v e l o p m e n t a l s o r e s u l t s in i n c r e a s i n g g r a i n i n e s s
and h e n c e l o s s of definition.
P i p e l i n e r a d i o g r a p h y is i m p l e m e n t e d u s i n g d i r e c t type f i l m s ,
e i t h e r the slow, f i n e - g r a i n e d types, o r the m e d i u m s p e e d
types. D i f f e r e n c e s in c o n t r a s t between p r o p r i e t a r y f i l m s a r e
s m a l l and the effect of the d e v e l o p e r i s p r o b a b l y of equal o r
m o r e c o n s e q u e n c e . C o n t r a s t i n c r e a s e s with film d e n s i t y and
c u r v e s of the f o r m shown in F i g 12 c a n be d e r i v e d f r o m the
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c u r v e s of f i l m s . T r a n s l a t e d into p i p e l i n e
r a d i o g r a p h y p r a c t i c e , the c u r v e s d e m o n s t r a t e that the f i l m
density should be as high as can be conveniently viewed. For
normal radiographic viewing screens the range should be
2.7 to 3.2. R is clear that the m i n i m u m film density allowed
by API 1104, ie 1.5, is inadequate and the mandatory mini-
m u m should be higher, probably about 2.2 or 2.5 in the weld
area.
Detection of defects or, m o r e particularly, correct identifica-
tion of defects from the radiographic image requires that the
delineation of the shadow is sharp. It has been the practice
to assess definition subjectively as the wire and the step
wedge indicators have little or no response to changes in
definition. Recently, an image quality indicator comprising
13 closely spaced pairs of platinum wires has been devised .7
at the Central Electricity Research Laboratories (CERL).
There are essentially three sources of unsharpness in
radiographic images: geometric unsharpness, Ug, resulting
from the finite size of radiation sources; unshar~pness in the
film, Uf, resulting from the kinetic energy of the radiation;
grain size of the emulsion and degree of development; and
unsharpness resulting from the intensifying screen, U s.
Attempts have been m a d e to determine the contribution of
the various sources to the total unsharpness, U t, and expres-
sions of the form:
Ut = (Ug ~ + Uf 2 + Us2)l/2
or U t = (Ug 3 + Uf 3 + Us3) 1/3
have b e e n p r o p o s e d .
Radiographs on pipelines are m a d e under onerous conditions,
but nevertheless it should be possible to avoid vibration and
other forms of relative m o v e m e n t of the source and film
during exposure so that the total Ug is the penumbra effect.
In pipelining, geometric unsharpness is not large.
264 n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t i n g N o v e m b e r 1969
Given good w o r k m a n s h i p , the kinetic energy of the r a d i a t i o n
h a s the g r e a t e s t effect on definition in p i p e l i n e r a d i o g r a p h y .
The a c t i v e c o n s t i t u e n t of r a d i o g r a p h i c film i s a fine s u s -
p e n s i o n of g r a i n s of s i l v e r halide. One quantum of r a d i a t i o n
i s usually sufficient to e n s u r e that a c o m p l e t e g r a i n i s d e -
v e l o p a b l e b e c a u s e , on c a p t u r e of the quantum, an e l e c t r o n i s
e m i t t e d f r o m the halide ion with sufficient e n e r g y to l i b e r a t e
s e c o n d a r y e l e c t r o n s f r o m o t h e r halide ions, t h e r e b y r e n d e r -
ing t h e m d e v e l o p a b l e also. When the r a d i a t i o n h a s h i g h e r
e n e r g y than that r e q u i r e d f o r i o n i s a t i o n , the e x c e s s is t r a n s -
f o r m e d into k i n e t i c e n e r g y of the e l e c t r o n which m a y then
be e j e c t e d into the s u r r o u n d i n g e m u l s i o n with a velocity suf-
ficient to r e a c h an a d j a c e n t grain, thus it in turn r e n d e r i n g
it developable. In t h i s way the image s p r e a d s , c a u s i n g u n -
s h a r p n e s s . As the r a d i a t i o n e n e r g y i n c r e a s e s above a t h r e s h .
hold v a l u e (about 175kV) the r a n g e of the e l e c t r o n s and h e n c e
the i n h e r e n t u n s h a r p n e s s i n c r e a s e s .
The g r a i n size of the film h a s little o r no effect on the in-
h e r e n t u n s h a r p n e s s . The g r a i n s a r e r a n d o m l y d i s t r i b u t e d
in the e m u l s i o n so that o v e r a d j a c e n t s m a l l a r e a s of film
s u b j e c t to an i d e n t i c a l e x p o s u r e t h e r e will be subtle c h a n g e s
in d e n s i t y . When a film i s viewed, a s u b j e c t i v e i m p r e s s i o n
of d i f f e r e n c e s in d e n s i t y is obtained, c o m m o n l y r e f e r r e d to
a s g r a i n i n e s s . G r a i n s a r e s m a l l in size c o m p a r e d with in-
h e r e n t u n s h a r p n e s s so that the effect i s a n a l a g o u s to ' n o i s e '
(as in e l e c t r o n i c c i r c u i t s etc) s u p e r i m p o s e d on the u n s h a r p -
ness. Graininess, therefore, further confuses appreciation
of the detail, and for pipeline r a d i o g r a p h y the slight p r o d u c -
tivity penalty i n c u r r e d by u s i n g f i n e - g r a i n e d film i n s t e a d of
m e d i u m - s p e e d film a p p e a r s justified.
An i m p o r t a n t side effect of u n s h a r p n e s s i s that when the u n -
s h a r p n e s s is g r e a t e r than the width of a flaw, the c o n t r a s t
r e s u l t i n g f r o m the flaw i s r e d u c e d f r o m i t s t h e o r e t i c a l
value, the g r e a t e r the u n s h a r p n e s s the g r e a t e r the c o n t r a s t
reduction. F o r d e t e c t i o n of tight c r a c k s the c o n t r a s t m a y
be so r e d u c e d t h a t the change in tone i s below the t h r e s h o l d
for detection.
C o m p a r i s o n s of t e c h n i q u e ( x - r a y s , g a m m a r a y s , f i l m s , and
p a n o r a m i c o r double wall e x p o s u r e ) have b e e n m a d e on a
~6
.>
._,2
~s
m
i.
u
=a
C
~6 L.
0 E
-=3 0
L.
0
0
D
cu
ul
a
Is
L)
I I I I
1 2 3 /* 5
Density
1 ~ 12 Effect of film densRy on radiographic contrast sen-
sitivRy. D4, D7 and D10 are Gevaert films and S
is a salt screen type film
range of defective welds. Attention has been concentrated
initiallyon the larger diameter, thicker wall pipes used for
the natural gas grid system. Exposures have been made at
15in (0. 381m) source to film distance, and at 30in (0. 762m)
to film distance to simulate the panoramic and the double
wall, single image techniques. Development was standard-
ised for 4rain at 68°F (20°C).
Some observations are presented in Table I. With the double
wall, single image technique the contrast was obtained after
the radiation had passed through two wall thicknesses. How-
ever, as only one wall thickness was examined, the thickness
sensitivity is calculated in respect of one wall thickness.
The effect of limiting contrast sensitivityon detection of
defects is illustrated in Fig 13 which indicates the order of
undetected lack of penetration which would remain in panor-
amic g a m m a radiography. More severe lack of penetration
would escape detection when using double wall, single image
techniques because of the inherently lower contrast sensiti-
vity. The additional effect of unsharpness on detection of
defects is illustrated in Fig 10 which shows a root under-
bead crack which is easily detected and identified by x-radio-
graphy, but barely detectable and not interpretable by g a m m a
radiography. Root under-bead cracks mid root undercut occur
at the same posRion in the weld. However, cracks usually
extend far through the weld thickness (often more than half
way through) whereas undercut is rarely more than I m m
deep. Also, undercut is usually an order of magnRude wider.
Hence the two defects are discriminated on the radiograph
by the fact that the crack image in comparison to the undercut
image is narrower and has a greater density difference with
respect to the surrounding weld metal.
It has been mentioned previously that when the unsharpness
is greater than the width of the defect the contrast sensiti-
vRy is reduced from its theoretical value. As cracks of the
type shown in Fig 10 are typically 0.025ram wide there is
a reduction in contrast in both x- and g a m m a radiography,
but the reduction will be greater by a factor of about 2 with
g a m m a radiography because of its greater unsharpness.
Undercut is usually wider than the unsharpness in both
x- and g a m m a radiography and thus unsharpness reduces
the density differential which is utilised in discriminating
between the two images. Also, the image of the crack will
appear wider in g a m m a radiography, making the subjective
distinction between undercut and unsharpness more difficult.
Table 1 Radiographic technique and effect on defect detection
WELD TECHNIQUE CONTRAST
DIN IQI*
%
X-rays. Panoramic 1.25
exposure. 160kV
A
From 30in(0. 762m) ),-rays. 192Ir source. 2.1
OD by %sin(15. 875mm) Panoramic exposure
wall pipe
(Fig 12)
y - r a y s . 192Ir source. 2.8
Double wall exposure
B
From 30in(0.762m) X-rays. Panoramic 1.75
OD by 5/sin(15.875mm) exposure. 150kV
wall pipe
(Fig 10)
~-rays. 192Ir source. Not
Panoramic exposure measured.
BWRA
IQI
2.4%
* The image quality indicator (IQI) results are averaged from a number of tests on the same pipe
Fig 13 Lack of root penetration in a stovepipe weld which
would remain undetected in panoramic gamma radio-
graphy
R is clear that x-radiography provides a superior method of
examination of a pipeline weld than does g a m m a radiography.
As a result the probabilRy of detecting cracks is significantly
increased. Also, there is an appreciable reduction in the
rate of cutting-out or repairing of welds having acceptable or
no defects because the radiographer is more confident of the
interpretation.
Having once established the parameters the expertise re-
quired to produce radiographs on a pipeline is only moderate.
Environmental conditions, however, have mitigated against
quality workmanship. Under site conditions it is difficult
to maintain developer at the correct temperature. There is
often pressure on the operator to keep pace with the weld-
ing crews and weather and the state of the easement m a y be
adverse. SuRable equipment and planning should overcome
these problems. The more difficultproblem is the repeti-
tiveness of the procedure, causing the operators to lose con-
centration and to pay gradually less attention to detail.
The philosophy for, and descriptions of, the radiographic
procedures which have been used on pipeline inspection are
covered comprehensively in the IRerature. 2o The most
c o m m o n practice has been to examine a sample of the butts
(usually about 10%) using g a m m a rays from an Iridium iso-
tope and a double wall, single image technique. For most
pipe sizes it is necessary to take three exposures to cover
the circumference of the weld as the length of weld which
can be covered in one exposure (the diagnostic film length)
is limited by 'fade' at each end.
CALCULATED INTERPRETATION
UNSHARPNESS
0.1 Lack of penetration clearly
visible for 6in(0. 152m)
0. 172 Lack of penetration only
visible for 3tn(76.2ram).
Fig 12 from section not
detectable
0.170 Lack of penetration only
visible for 1/2in(12.7ram)
0.1 Root under-bead crack ll/2in
(38. Imm), clearly visible
and detectable
0. 175 Something just visible when
site of defect known. Inter-
preted as root undercut
otherwise
non-destructive testing November 1969 265
Panoramic techniques have been used on some of the larger
diameter pipes. The source is held in a spider arrangement
and positioned on the pipe axis, tbe films being placed around
the butt. In this way the complete butt can be radiographed
in one exposure, which itself is shorter than one of the ex-
posures required in the double wall, single image technique
b e c a u s e the r a d i a t i o n only h a s to p r o p a g a t e t h r o u g h one wall
of t h e pipe. In p r a c t i c e it i s only p o s s i b l e to have s o u r c e p o s i -
tioning by p e r s o n n e l i n s i d e p i p e s of 30in (0. 762m) d i a m e t e r
and above, and e v e n t h e n c o n d i t i o n s m u s t be good. C r a w l e r
d e v i c e s m e c h a n i c a l l y p r o p e l l e d t h r o u g h the pipe and having
the e x p o s u r e o p e r a t e d f r o m a n e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l a r e a v a i l a b l e .
T h e i r u s e c a n extend the r a n g e of p a n o r a m i c r a d i o g r a p h y
down to 16in (0.406m) d i a m e t e r a s well a s i m p r o v e p r o -
ductivity. D e s i g n e d for u s e on l i n e s down to 18in (0. 457m)
d i a m e t e r a c r a w l e r s y s t e m h a s b e e n u s e d on 42in (1. 067m) and
36in (0. 914m) d i a m e t e r p i p e l i n e s in B r i t a i n and is o p e r a t i n g
s a t i s f a c t o r i l y . X - r a y c r a w l e r s a r e a v a i l a b l e on the Conti-
nent which h a v e b e e n u s e d on 16in (0. 406m) d i a m e t e r l i n e s z3.
F o r p i p e s of t h i s o r d e r of s i z e t h e d e s i g n l i m i t a t i o n l i e s in
the difficulty of p a s s i n g the c r a w l e r s t h r o u g h the f o r g e d 3D
b e n d s ( r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e of t h e bend axis is t h r e e t i m e s
the pipe d i a m e t e r ) u s e d in p i p e l i n e s in B r i t a i n . Most c r a w l e r
d e s i g n s b a s e l o c a t i o n with r e s p e c t to the weld to be e x a m i n e d
on a g a m m a r a y s o u r c e but a r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t u s e s e l e c -
t r o m a g n e t i c s i g n a l s i n s t e a d . 25 On p i p e l i n e s w h e r e the r a t e
of welding is low and the high c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t on c r a w -
l e r s is c o n s e q u e n t l y not v i a b l e , x - r a y s e t s c a n be c l a m p e d
onto the outside of the pipe and r a d i o g r a p h y i m p l e m e n t e d by
the double wall, s i n g l e i m a g e t e c h n i q u e .
G a m m a r a d i o g r a p h y h a s b e e n f a v o u r e d for p i p e l i n e r a d i o -
g r a p h y b e c a u s e of its c o n v e n i e n c e and l o w e r c a p i t a l c o s t .
S o u r c e c o n t a i n e r s a r e m o r e c o m p a c t , p o r t a b l e and r o b u s t than
x - r a y g e n e r a t o r s and do not r e q u i r e a p o w e r supply. The
t e c h n i c a l a d v a n t a g e s in u s i n g x - r a d i o g r a p h y a r e b e i n g
a p p r e c i a t e d and in r e c e n t y e a r s x - r a d i o g r a p h y h a s b e e n
u s e d on p i p e l i n e s .
P o s i t i o n i n g f r o m the c e n t r e of the weid cap is only a p p r o x i -
m a t e as the weld is not n e c e s s a r i l y s y m m e t r i c a l about the
c e n t r e line t h r o u g h the root. Even with p r e m a r k i n g it is
difficult for an o p e r a t o r to s i t e a c c u r a t e l y an u l t r a s o n i c p r o b e
in the o v e r h e a d position, whilst at the s a m e t i m e being h i m -
self in m u c h a p o s i t i o n that he can view the flaw d e t e c t o r
screen accurately.
F o r t h i n n e r pipes the s m a l l e r s c a l e r e d u c e s the d i f f e r e n c e s
in b e a m path and p r o b e p o s i t i o n for d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e t w e e n
the v a r i o u s f e a t u r e s of the root. Also, the weld m u s t be
e x a m i n e d with the p r o b e - w e l d d i s t a n c e i n c r e a s e d to avoid
confusion b e t w e e n e c h o e s f r o m the weld and t h o s e f r o m p r o b e
n o i s e . T h i s i n c r e a s e s the effect of b e a m s p r e a d and m a y
lead to e x t r a n e o u s e c h o e s f r o m the cap r e i n f o r c e m e n t . It
h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d that the l i m i t i n g t h i c k n e s s for u l t r a s o n i c
e x a m i n a t i o n i s 8 m m 26 and this would a p p e a r r e a s o n a b l e .
T h e r e a r e f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t i o n s in i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o c c a s i o n e d
by the pipe m a n u f a c t u r i n g and welding p r o c e d u r e s . The skip
d i s t a n c e and b e a m path length (Fig 14) v a r y a s the wall t h i c k -
n e s s v a r i e s . V a r i a t i o n s in wall t h i c k n e s s between n o m i n a l l y
the s a m e c l a s s e s of s u b m e r g e d - a r c welded pipe a r e upto 10%-
15% but in s e a m l e s s pipe a +10% v a r i a t i o n along the length
o r a r o u n d the c i r c u m f e r e n c e at a given p o s i t i o n along the
length is c o m m o n . Although it is p o s s i b l e to m e a s u r e wall
t h i c k n e s s a c c u r a t e l y by u l t r a s o n i c s , it is not f e a s i b l e in p r a c -
tice for the o p e r a t o r to m e a s u r e wall t h i c k n e s s c o n c u r r e n t l y
with s c a n n i n g the weld. P l a t e s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s can give
r i s e to c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n s in b e a m angle. 28 Weld s p a t t e r ,
which when p r e s e n t is on a v e r a g e about 0 . 0 3 i n (0. 762mm)
high, c a n r e d u c e the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the coupling and also
a l t e r b e a m angle by lifting p a r t of the p r o b e off the p l a t e .
C RO diptoy

Panoramic x-radiography is barely feasible wRhout crawler Left Right

devices due to the difficulty of manoeuvring manually the
cumbersome x-ray sets and control units inside a pipe.
Because of the potential for increased use of x-radiography a
Accept
on pipelines there has been considerable development effort
applied recently to x-ray crawlers. Crawler design has fol-
lowed one of two philosophies; a self-contained unit powered
by batteries giving a range of a mile (1. 609kin) or more, 24-26
or a unR powered by an external power supply having a more b
limited range 2°, 2 7 However, crawlers powered from an Accept untess extensive
external source are compact, considerably lighter,and poten-
tially better able to negotiate tight bends and gradients. - ~'~ % .i ..~ j ~
-

c Reject
Ultrasonics
W e l d s a r e u s u a l l y e x a m i n e d by a p u l s e - e c h o r e f l e c t i o n t e c h -
nique. B e f o r e t e s t i n g the weld, it i s n e c e s s a r y to check for
l a m i n a t i o n s in the p l a t e which m i g h t d i v e r t the b e a m f r o m
i t s t h e o r e t i c a l path. d Accept unless extensive

D e f e c t s c a n be indentified m o s t r e l i a b l y by a c c u r a t e p o s i -
t i o n i n g of the s o u r c e of the d e f e c t echo, p r e f e r a b l y d u r I n g ~'~ ~ .~ r ~
s c a n n i n g f r o m m o r e t h a n one d i r e c t i o n . The m o s t s k i l l e d of
o p e r a t o r s m i g h t b e able to gain addtional i n f o r m a t i o n on d e - Accept
e
fect type f r o m the shape of the echo on the o s c i l l o s c o p e
s c r e e n , but the d i s p l a y on b a t t e r y o p e r a t e d flaw d e t e c t o r s
u s e d in daylight is not s u f f i c i e n t l y d i s t i n c t for the t e c h n i q u e
to b e e m p l o y e d on p i p e l i n e s .
f Reject
The m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t d e f e c t s o c c u r in t h e root of the weld,
w h e r e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e t w e e n s o u r c e s of echo r e f l e c t i o n i s
m o s t difficult. P e r f e c t l y a c c e p t a b l e g e o m e t r i c f e a t u r e s f ~ f

s u c h a s h i - l o or full root penetration c a u s e e c h o e s of c o m -

parable m a g n i t u d e to t h o s e f r o m root u n d e r b e a d c r a c k s o r f
Reject
l a c k of penetration. The d i s c r i m i n a t i o n f r o m p o s i t i o n i n g is
v e r y c r i t i c a l a s i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g 14 f o r 1/2in (12.7ram)
t h i c k n e s s pipe. The d i f f e r e n c e s in b e a m p a t h i n d i c a t e d a r e
on the l i m i t of a c c u r a c y f o r r e a d i n g b a t t e r y o p e r a t e d u l t r a -
sonic f l a w d e t e c t o r s u n d e r p i p e l i n i n g conditions. It is a l s o
F i g 14 I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of e c h o e s f r o m weld root
evident that accurate positioning of the p r o b e with r e s p e c t
to the weld c e n t r e line is n e c e s s a r y and it h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d (a) N o r m a l root p e n e t r a t i o n (b) E x c e s s i v e root p e n e -
t h a t the r e q u i r e d a c c u r a c y can only b e a c h i e v e d by p r e - t r a t i o n (c) L a c k of root p e n e t r a t i o n (d) S u c k - b a c k
m a r k i n g f r o m the pipe e n d s b e f o r e welding 26. (e) H i - l o (f) W a g o n - t r a c k s (g) Root u n d e r - b e a d c r a c k

266 n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e t e s t i n g N o v e m b e r 1969
l~lot~'withstandingthe difficulties of technique and environment,
cracks can and have been detected by ultrasonics on pipe-
lines and in this context the method has been of value. What
is more doubtful is the consistency and r e l ia b i li ty of manual
ultrasonic examination of pipeline girth welds.
Ultrasonic testing on girth welds was originally conceived
as a means of deciding which welds to radiograph. Should
the radiograph prove c l e a r it was the practice on most
lines to accept the radiographic evidence and ignore that from
ultrasonics. Now that pipelines a r e being examined 100%
by radiography, the role of ultrasonics in Britain has changed
to that of detecting the root under-bead crack which might
escape detection by radiography, and assisting in the inter-
pretation of images at the root region of the radiograph.
It is desirable that an ultrasonic testing system for girth
welds should incorporate mechanised scanning and con-
comitant automatic analysis and recording of observations.
The advantages are that interpretation r e l i e s l e s s on the
human element, the inspection is consistent and as reliable
as the equipment (which can be measured and monitored),
a permanent record of the results is provided, and the test
may be quicker.
F r o m consideration of the accuracy with which the probes
must be maintained in relation to the weld during scanning,
and of the v e r y small increments in beam path length which
would have to be 'gated', an automated inspection a r r a n g e -
ment based on the pulse-echo reflection technique as used
in manual examination does not seem feasible.
The Engineering Research Station is working on a system
employing the alternative approach of ultrasonic t r a n s m i s -
sion. F i g 15 illustrates the principle of the system. The two
probes, A and B ar e sited on opposite sides of the weld at the
1/2 skip distance. Probe A acting initially as a t r a n s m i t t e r
emits a beam which, after passing through the weld root, is
received directly by the probe B (acting as a receiver). By
electronic switching (say at 100Hz) the role of the probes
is r e v e r s e d and probe B becomes the tr a n s m i tt e r and probe
A the r e c e i v e r . The received signal from the two probes is
added to give an output at each cycle. Reflection from hi-lo
or excessive penetration might reduce but not eliminate the
direct reflection, whereas a c r a c k will preclude transmission
of any part of the beam which it intercepts. Thus the absence
of output from the combined signal Is indicative of a root
under-bead crack or other form of deep root defect.
The system has the advantage of being essenti'tlly fall-safe.
If, for example, the coupling of one or both probes fails, a nfl
Probe A Probe B
Probe A
L
Probe B
b
Probe A Probe B
c
Probe A transmits
Probe B receives
Fig 15 Potential use of ultrasonic transmission for detection of root under-bead crack
(a) Acceptable weld (b) Hi-lo acceptable unless s e v e r e (e) Root under-bead crack not acceptable
output and hence a fault condition will be obtained. The a c -
curacy of set-up is not limiting and e r r o r s in probe siting of
]/sin (3.175mm) could be accommodated. The size of the
smaUest detectable crack, assuming it is g r eat er in length
than the width of the probe, depends on the height of the
beam in the root. Probes giving a beam line-focused on the
root would facilitate detection of sm al l er cracks.
Surface cr ack detectimz
Root under-bead cracks break the surface of the pipe in the
bore, and can be detected by surface crack detection methods.
The two common methods used are penetrants, and magnetic
crack detection. On a pipeline, magnetisatinn can be applied
conveniently by a U-section permanent magnet straddling the
weld. Although both methods are very sensitive under ideal
conditions, the penetrant system requires scrupulously clean
surfaces and is open to abuse. Magnetic crack detection is
therefore p r e f e r r e d for pipeline applications. Interpretation
of the observations is not a problem except for the confusion
which might ar i se from the tendency of sharp changes in root
profile to give a slight cr ack indication. In cases of doubt
the profile can be smoothed by grinding. Although the systems
for providing permanent r eco r d s of magnetic crack detec-
tion29, 30 are too time-consuming for routine use on pipe-
lines, they ar e available for use in special circumstances
when required.
An eddy current system of surface crack detection which
reduces the test to one operation has been developed by the
Admiralty Materials Laboratory. 31 w is known as the
AMLEC system. Some tests c a r r i e d out at the Engineering
Research Station on stovepipe welds have been encouraging.
The crack detection systems considered upto present r e -
quire access to the bore surface. Magnetic crack detection
is applied from the outside surface of stovepipe welds tn
Russia 32, variations in magnetic field being detected on tape.
It is claimed that the method can be used on wall thicknesses
upto 12ram but the image of the defect at this depth is likely
to be so spread as to preclude discrimination between defect
types.
NDT of CO 2 welds
Work in Holland, 26, 33 the USA=o and at the Engineering
Research Station has shown that COz welds ar e prone to
lack of side wall fusion and, where more than one pass is
employed, lack of inter-run fusion. Lack-of-fusion defects
and particularly lack of inter°run fusion ar e adversely oriented
for radiography and detection requires some other form of
inspection.
CRO display
l
Probe B transmits Summed
Probe A receives signals
non-destructive testing November 1969 267
Ultrasonics is a logical alternative, but for reasons outlined
previously there a r e lhnitatinns to its use at present. Radio-
graphy should be used a s the p r i m a r y inspection on all p i p e -
line welds. Compared with manual ultrasonic testing it is
at least a s quick to apply and, if panoramic techniques can
be used, it is more than an o r d e r of magnitude quicker. It
gives a permanent r e c o r d and, except for interpretation, it
requires much l e s s expertise and is probably cheaper.
X-rad/ography is much superior to gamma radiography for
the wall thicknesses encountered in pipeline radiography.
The better contrast sensitivity and lower inherent unsharp-
hess results in some cracks being detectable and i n t e r p r e -
table on x-radlography that cannot be discerned using gamma
rays. Crawler devices enable panoramic exposure to be used
allowing butts to be radlographed at rates of 15 or 20 p e r
hour. F o r low r a t e s of butt weld completion, c r a w l e r s a r e
not economic, but double wall, single image x-radiography
can be used.
RatlonaUsation of the inspection of stovepipe and conven-
tional welds, simply reduces the problem to that of detecting
the root under-bead crack, p a r t i c u l a r l y in the thicker walled
pipes. X-radlography will detect reliably all other significant
defects with the possible exception of lack of side wall fus-
ion, whilst gamma radiography will detect most other signi-
ficant defects. A complementary examination aimed s p e c i -
fically at the root under-bead c r a c k is required. Of the
methods available at present the r e s u l t s of magnetic crack
detection from the bore of the pipe can be accepted with the
greatest confidence. Because of difficulty of a c c e s s the
method can only be applied on pipelines of 30in (0. 762m)
diameter and above. F o r s m a l l e r diameter pipes having a
wall thickness above 0.3in (7.62ram), ultrasonic techniques,
in spite of their limitations, should be used. The long term
solution is for an automated ultrasonic test providing a
record to be used a s a supplement to radiography.
Pipelines laid by more than one pass of COz welding a r e
prone to lack of side wall fusion and lack of inter-run fusion.
F o r wall thicknesses above 0.3in (7.62ram) a more c o m p r e -
hensive test incorporating scans (preferably separately) of
beth the root region and the remainder of the weld section is
necessary. Radiography alone is probably adequate on pipes
with a wall thickness l e s s than 0.3in (7.62ram), but in any
case it is doubtful whether ultrasonics would prove reliable
enough.
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