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Performances and Opportunities of an Engine 2012-01-0638

Published
Cooling System with a Double Circuit at Two 04/16/2012
Temperature Levels

Roberto Cipollone and Davide Di Battista

University of L'Aquila

Copyright © 2012 SAE International

doi:10.4271/2012-01-0638

reduced significantly and a further reduction is imposed by

ABSTRACT
In the last years, the design of internal combustion engines
(ICE) has evolved significantly, mainly because of the
changing demand of mobility, the need to limit the pollution
produced by vehicles, and recently, the opportunity to reduce
emissions of climate-altering gases.
Euro 6 (−55% of NOx and −10% particulate mass with
respect to Euro 5). This represented a strong incitement for
the technological innovation. To this reduction also followed
an increase of the engine performances traditionally attended
(torque, acceleration, specific power, fun to drive etc.)
realizing unexpected general results.

Among the more interesting technologies, those connected to

a revision of the engine cooling, as well as, in general, of the
thermal needs on board vehicle (oil cooling, intercooling of
the turbocharging air, EGR cooling, cabin conditioning…)
appear very promising, also because characterized by a lower
cost increase per unit of CO2 saved.

In this paper, the Authors present a mathematical model of an

internal combustion engine physically consistent that
appraises the performances of conventional and
unconventional engine cooling systems and the integration of
vehicle thermal needs. In particular, the Authors studied a
double cooling circuit, at two different temperature levels,
that allows several improvements in terms of engine warm Figure 1. carbon dioxide emissions on the fleet at 2010
up, fuel saving and air boosting.

The model has been applied to an existing engine whose
experimental characterization was done concerning the heat
rejection toward the cooling fluid. On this engine a double
circuit at two temperature levels has been proposed,
according to a layout which redistribute in an optimal way the
engine and vehicle thermal requirements.
With reference to European commitment on carbon dioxide
emissions, Figure 1 shows that the distance from the target
(130 g/km) of the European industry is still significant ([2]).
So important innovations are to introduce in various areas:
vehicle, engine, power transmission systems, auxiliary,
rolling resistance tires and drive behavior.

The introduction of such technologies, even though not really

INTRODUCTION clearly defined, requires important additional costs for
In the last two decades the emissions of primary pollutants by
ICEs, respecting the limits imposed by Euro standards are
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manufacturers (Figure 2) to reduce CO2 emissions, without
considering the additional costs for Euro 6 fulfillment.
The technical options regarding engine cooling and
optimization of on board thermal needs, seem to be among
the first practices to reach these targets. In fact, optimized
cooling and advanced cooling have an additional cost of
20÷40 € per point percent of CO2 saved. At the same time,
these options can manage more quickly engine warm-up,
reducing, also, the emissions of primary pollutants, so
successfully participating at two targets.
There are several papers that refer to the engine cooling
sector which investigate about the benefits on pollutant
reduction ([3]) and fuel consumption ([4], [5], [6]), as well as
reduction of warm-up time ([7], [8]) and improving
auxiliaries efficiency ([9], [10]).
Figure 2. additional manufacturer costs of technical
options to reduce CO2-emissions for an average
passenger car
One key point is an alternative drive for the cooling pumps
and a robust innovation concerning the temperature
regulation. Water pumps remained almost unchanged since
several decades (i.e. the water pump mechanically linked to
the engine shaft); similarly for the temperature control
(thermostat wax controlled).
New possibilities are offered by new components universally
used in other engineering sectors: their introduction in ICEs
suffers some difficulties. Such components - electric water
pumps, multi-way valves, etc. - would allow to refer to the
concept of “engine thermal management” instead of having,
as actually done, a pure passive engine cooling system. The
conviction that almost 65% of the harmful emissions are
produced in the “cold phase” of an ECE-EUDC cycle
resorted the attention toward the warm up time reduction, so
inviting to control the cooling temperature instead of waiting
for its natural warm up inside the engine. Cost reduction has
also stimulated the conception of “intermediate”
technologies.
A significant example is given by the electrification of the
water pumps which would give a wide possibility to control
engine warm up, till a complete and successful thermal
management. Due to the excessive cost increase, other
technological improvements have been proposed and are on
the market yet. They reach, more or less, the same
performances of fully actuated electric pump but have a
lower cost. So, considering the performances/cost increase
ratio they were preferred: this is the case of the pump
engaged by a friction wheel proposed by Dayco Europe s.r.l.
or the mechanical water pump by GPM GmbH with an on/off
controlled flow rate, or, again, the electromagnetic switchable
water pump clutch actuated by Litens Automotive Group
s.r.l. These solutions have the benefit to reduce warm up
time, even though they accept some energetic losses which
reduce the benefit. Those technologies are not widely
diffused and they still keep a unique cooling circuit which
introduces several limitations.
On the contrary, a slight interest has been reserved to the
concept of splitting the cooling circuit in order to have
different cooling temperature levels. Valeo and Fiat Research
Center presented in recent years very promising solutions -
Ultimate Cooling™ [11, 12], dual level heat rejection system
[18]- which realize a significant reduction of fuel
consumption but these technologies did not yet appear on the
market.
So, the cooling circuit even though it has an important
potential in terms of CO2 reduction and emission abatement,
remained almost “untouched” as it was several decades ago.
As known, it is usually designed for the needs of engine and
oil cooling; more recently for those of the EGR cooling too.
The heat removed is used for the cabin heating; the remaining
part is exchanged outside through the radiator. To this needs,
modern engines add the cooling of the turbocharged air (one
or two stages) and the heat removal of the condenser. Putting
together all these thermal requirements it would be very
difficult to fulfill them by a unique circuit at optimal
conditions. The temperature levels of these different thermal
needs cannot be properly matched each other.
Multiple cooling circuit would allow to reorganize all these
thermal requirements joining different function more
efficiently. Concerning this chance, the Authors present a
physically consistent mathematical model that allows to
represent engine cooling circuits, with single or multiple
temperature's level. So, it evaluates the performances of a
double temperature's level system varying the position of the
various heat exchangers and exploring the possibilities
related to different component layouts.
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Thanks to the physical representation of the process, the

model is also able to represent different engine cooling
layouts which reorganize the cooling flow passages inside the
engine. A preliminary cooling of the engine head followed by
a subsequent cooling of engine block would keep the head
colder and the block warmer with additional potential benefit
(split cooling system).

A cooling circuit with two temperature's levels can be

sketched as in Figure 3.

Figure 4. electric analogy of one cylinder: from the left,

the burned gas, the first metallic wall, the refrigerant, the
second metallic wall and external conditions. In the
Figure 3. double temperature level of engine cooling
upper side, the engine's head (two thermal equivalent
circuit: all the thermal needs can be reorganized in
masses) in thermal contact with the block.
relation to the most appropriate temperature's level

One of the two masses (M1) represents the inertia of the

The mathematical model was developed in a modular way on
an oriented software platform (Matlab - Simulink ®) and it is
easily opened to a model based control. This model goes deep
in terms of physical representation with respect to previous
works done by the Authors ([13, 14, 15, 16, 17]) and enriched
in modularity to predict multiple engine cooling temperature
levels and layouts.
THE ENGINE THERMAL MODEL
In the mathematical model, the engine is described through a
discrete lumped parameter model. Each cylinder is
represented by 4 metallic masses. Figure 4 shows an
equivalent scheme that illustrates, for one cylinder, through
an electric analogy, the properties of the thermal masses and
their connections.
The two couples of thermal masses, “M1” and “M2”, typify
engine's head and block, and they act as four thermal capacity
( , , and ). The differentiation between head
and block is useful to describe situations in which head's
cooling and block's cooling are separated (split system). It is
known, in fact, that an engine head a little bit colder would
allow an increase of the compression ratio, as well an engine
block a little bit warmer some potential benefits in terms of
friction losses.
metallic parts facing gases and cooling liquid; thermal
resistances allow to represent heat exchanges between burned
gas and coolant. The other thermal mass represents the inertia
of the metallic parts facing cooling liquid and external air
and, through two thermal resistances, the heat exchanged
between coolant and environment.
Figure 4 presents these thermal connections which allow to
move from gases to environment through equivalent
resistances (R). Relatively to the head, for example, the
mathematical model allows to represent the convective forced
process ( ), the conductive one ( ) and the metal's
capacitive properties ( ), the conductive ( ) and
convective ( ) process on the refrigerant fluid, which,
normally, fills a hollow space between cylinder and block.
Following the thermal flux direction, the considered
phenomena repeat themselves ( , , , , ). The
same processes can be referred to the block.
The heat exchange between head and block is realized only
with the conductive phenomenon, that is described by
thermal resistances .
On the side of the burned gases, the heat transfer is more
complex, due to the gas to wall forced convective coefficient.
This work considers Woschni correlation. The variation of the
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heat exchange surfaces (linked to the piston's motion) can be
evaluated with a modified Eichelberg approach [16] that
defines an average cycle heat transfer coefficient
Cm) and an equivalent temperature of the gas (n, Ce).
where S is the contact surface between head and block, L is
an equivalent length of conductive heat transfer.
(n,
Thermal resistances R2, R3, R4 and R5 and thermal masses
M1 and M2 allow to represent heat exchanges through
surfaces and capacitive properties from the gas and the
cooling fluid.

A multi-cylinder engine can be represented replicating both

Therefore, the thermal resistance
(1) thermal masses and resistances. The model treats in the same
way the heat transfer between cooling fluid and environment
that happens through two correspondent masses whose
capacitive properties are lumped in and . Thermal
resistances which represents convective heat transfer between
(2) cooling fluid and metal and metal and environment are
defined in similar way.
can be expressed as:
Thermal energy storage is allowed by the capacities. For the
first thermal mass, equation (8) applies:

(3)

Relatively to the head, the equation (1) and (2) can be (8)
simplified being the surfaces constant during time.
The thermal flux exchanged are calculated according to:
Thermal resistances related to conductive fluxes are defined
considering a cylindrical geometry with properly defined
metallic thicknesses. They are:

(4)
where Ri are, respectively, R2, R3, R6 and R7, Di and Dj are
external and internal diameter of the cylinder part considered,
L represents the cylinder height.

Concerning heat transfer between metal and water, equation

(5) is used:

(5)
(9)

So:
Coolant moving inside the engine was considered without
capacity. There are two thermal states of the coolant for each
cylinder ( and ), so the values can be calculated
(6) after have defined the sequences of passes through the
engine, between the cylinders and, for each cylinder, between
The heat transfer between head and block is represented by head and block. The thermal power transferred to the coolant

considering the conductive resistance given by: and is (Figure 4):

(10)
(7)
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(11)
where:
(12)
(13)
being ΔTcool the temperature rise of the coolant during the
pass-through the engine. and can be calculated by:
(14)
(15)
Wall temperatures are calculated according to a similar
approach. Relatively to the head, for example:
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
Relevant temperatures in the equations cannot be calculated
without specifying the coolant flow rate (eq. 12-13): such
flow rates depend on the hydraulic equilibrium between the
pump and the equivalent cooling circuit. Once flow rates are
known, temperature can be calculated according to the
following physical sequence. For a fixed engine speed and
torque, using a zero dimensional model average heat transfer
and coefficient and temperature are calculated (eq. 1 and 2).
When coolant flow rates are known, all the thermal
resistances can be calculated (eq. 3,4,5,6,7) and,
consequently, the thermal powers exchanged towards the
coolant (eq. 9,10,11,12,13,14,15). Coolant temperature
increase inside the engine is determined. Starting from the
correspondent steady quantities, thermal capacities of metals
are considered (eq. 8) and the dynamic model can be solved.
THE HYDRAULIC MODEL
The solution of the heat transfer in the engine requires the
knowledge of the coolant flows. These flows are the result of
the hydraulic equilibrium between pump head and the
pressure losses of the circuit. The only variable is the pump
speed, once this is specified, its characteristic curve is known.
Moreover, pump speed is obviously linked to engine speed.
Pressure losses inside tubes or related to flow passages are:
(20)
The pump characteristic curves, on the other end, is
expressed as in equation:
(21)
The pressure losses inside the thermostat will be:
(22)
where K depend on opening degree of thermostat itself, ϕ,
requires a specific model.
Following the rules for defining equivalent circuit of parallel
and series branches, it is possible to define the overall engine
circuit as a single hydraulic resistance; from this, it is
possible to calculate the working point of the pump and the
coolant flow rate at each branch.
THE THERMOSTAT MODEL
The thermostat model requires the knowledge of the
temperature of starting (TTh Start) and full opening (TTh End)
of the stem. Considering that it behaves like a 3-way valve,
the opening degree ϕ toward the radiator and the bypass
branch must be specified (ϕbypass, ϕrad). Knowing the
temperature inside the thermostat TTh it is possible to
calculate T% as:
(23)
and the percent stem position (Figure 5) x% as:
(24)
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being:
(25)
The knowledge of x% permits to determine the opening ratios
towards bypass and radiator according to:
(26)
Correspondent values for ϕ allow to specify in eq.22 pressure
losses.
Figure 5. opening positions of the thermostat stem
THE RADIATOR THERMAL MODEL
The thermal model of the radiator is in equation (27). Coolant
flow rate Q and temperature drop of the cooling fluid inside
radiator, which are proportional to the power exchanged
inside radiator, are linked to temperature increase of the air
flowing through by a coefficient Arad, which depends on the
air mass flow rate and cooling flow rate. The former requires
the solution of an aerodynamic model of the air which crosses
the radiator.
(27)
An aerodynamic model solves the equilibrium between
pressure losses of the air crossing the radiator and pressure
increase produced by the ram effect and, eventually, by the
fan when it is switched on. The flow rate is therefore given
by two contribution: a dynamic contribute related to the
vehicle speed, mrad,ram, and a fan contribute, mrad,f.
The first one was expressed as in equation:
(28)
The second one come from the equilibrium between the fan
head of the radiator and the pressure losses during its pass-
through.
(29)
Where coefficients arad, brad and crad are function of the fan
speed. This equilibrium permits to calculate the air flow rate
forced by the fan. In case of coexisting of both contributes:
(30)
Coefficient α < 1 when fan is on consider the disturb of the
fan itself to the dynamic contribute (Figure 6).
Figure 6. air flow rate passing through the radiator
THE HEAT EXCHANGERS THERMAL
MODEL
EGR cooler, air conditioning condenser and intercooling
exchanger are described as in equation (27).
Relatively to the cabin heater equation (27) becomes:
(31)
The air flow rate mcab is the result of a balance between the
fan head and the pressure drop of the air across the exchanger
itself. It is expressed in an equivalent form of the equation
(29).
EGR cooler and air intercooler are expressed by:
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(32)
(33)
where mEGR and ma are the flow rate of re-circulated gas and
charge air. A/C condenser is represented according to the
following equation:
(34)
where kcond is a constant which in a simple way takes into
account the heat transferred in the A/C condenser in the
superheated and sub-cooling phases of the A/C refrigerant. In
fact, the refrigerant entering the condenser is a superheated
vapor and the relative heat must be extracted by the
condenser before the condensation takes place. After the
condensation of the refrigerant, a subsequent sub-cooling can
be done inside the condenser too, mainly in off design
conditions. The first contribution (de-super-heating and the
second one sub cooling are from a quantitative point of view
smaller than the heat of condensation: equation (34) considers
this introducing a factor kcond which usually increases the
heat of vaporization/condensation.
THE COOLANT THERMAL DYNAMICS
The tank, always present in a circuit, introduces an inertial
thermal effect. It was represented as:
(35)
Tin is the temperature of inlet flow to the tank; Tcoolant the
temperature of the water that goes out of the tank. The
heating of the water is, so, instantaneous during the heat
transfer phases (inside the engine, across the heat exchangers,
etc.); it leads to Tin and equation (34) introduces a delay with
respect the exit temperature.
MODEL INTEGRATION
Engine thermal model (eq.
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19), engine
hydraulic model (eq. 20,21,22,23,24,25,26.), heat exchangers
thermal model (eq. 27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34) have been
simultaneously solved in order to represent the thermal and
hydraulic equilibriums. The sequence of the heat exchangers,
the cooling circuit layout and the distribution of the coolant
flow inside the engine can be specified to represent different
design solutions.
THE DOUBLE TEMPERATURE LEVEL
Traditional circuit is represented in Figure 7. Only one circuit
is present and different components realize a typical layout.
The circuit layout correspond to a real vehicle, previously
characterized by the Authors ([13,14,15,16,17]). The
temperature levels that characterize all the elements depend
on the position on the circuit and the amount of the heat
exchanges.
Figure 7. traditional cooling circuit layout of the engine
1.4 DV4-TED on a Citroen C3
In Figure 8 the layout proposed by the Authors. The original
circuit is split in two separate circuit. The high temperature
cooling needs have been placed on the first circuit whose
temperature is thermostat-controlled; the second circuit fulfill
the low temperature thermal requirements and the proposal
does not include a temperature controlling device. The
following considerations apply:
• The circuit at high temperature supplies the EGR cooler, the
first stage of intercooler, the parallel of the oil cooler and the
engine and, finally, the first radiator. The circuit at low
temperature provide at the cooling of the A/C condenser, the
cabin heater and the eventual second stage of intercooler.
• Concerning the A/C condenser, it has a non-negligible
negative impact on traditional layout: the condenser is in the
vehicle's front end, while the evaporator in under the
dashboard. This necessarily requires long refrigerant lines,
and the probability that the refrigerant leaks to the ambient is
real. A liquid cooler condenser, with respect to the traditional
air cooler is also characterized by reduced dimension with
respect to the traditional solution in which the condenser was
a radiator placed in front of the engine. So, the management
of the heat surfaces in the front end is quite easier; a unique
low and high temperature radiator is needed having a
conventional technology. An interesting room of
improvement is expected if the two temperature levels are
integrated [11, 12].
• The two pumps in Figure 8 have working conditions
varying in more limited range and, so, their efficiency is
closer to maximum efficiency conditions. This applies, more
significantly, for the first high temperature circuit in which
pressure losses and flow rates are higher; on the other hand,
the second circuit could be easily managed by a proven
technology of an electrical water pump.
• Eventually, the two cooling loops permit a double level of
intercooling, because of the two temperature level of the
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loops. This will produce a high degree of intercooling,

improving the volumetric efficiency of the engine.

• During engine warm up, starting from a cold engine (and

vehicle), the cabin interior heating represents a problem
because it requires heat which is unavailable. The cabin
heating itself will decrease the temperature of the coolant, so
delaying the engine warm up which is taking place. The
presence of a second circuit (even though the temperature is
low) could improve the cabin warm up being this circuit
separated from that which refers to the engine and being the
heat removed from the compressed air still present. Figure 9. engine torque vs speed: thermal power
exchanged for head and block

In Figure 10 a comparison between measured and predicted

power exchanged toward the coolant is presented. Predicted
curves refer obviously to the sum of the data in Figure 9. In
spite of the great complexity of the model and several
uncertainties (theoretical and experimental) seems quite
satisfactory demonstrating the model's capability in
representing real engine behavior.

Figure 8. double temperature layout

RESULTS
A preliminary validation of the model has been done in order
to verify the capability to reproduce the main thermal aspects.
Reference has been made to 1.4 DV4-TED whose thermal
power was measured in steady state condition. All the engine
operating conditions were predicted using the mathematical
model, so reproducing the experimental activity done on a
test bench. All the maps stored inside the ECU, which control Figure 10. engine torque vs speed - comparison between
main engine processes (fuel injection, EGR rate, boost measured and calculated data for thermal power
pressure, etc…) were used inside the model to represent real exchanged inside the engine
engine behavior.

Figure 9 shows the results concerning the thermal power An additional critical comparison is shown in Figure 11 in
exchanged in engine head and block as a function of engine which the coolant temperature increase inside the engine
speed and torque as predicted by the model. For a given measured and predicted have been represented. The overall
engine speed and torque, eq. uncertainty was ± 2 %. The comparison is also a very severe
(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23, test: cooling fluid temperature is predicted with an error of
24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35) are solved and relevant 5%.
processes predicted. Among them, the thermal power
exchanged by engine head and block (four contribution, So the modeling can be used as a virtual engine in order to go
being a 4 cylinder engine). Isopower lines have been fitted. deep into the single or double cooling temperature level.
The thermal powers exchanged in Figure 9 have been
evaluated by measuring the flow rate and temperature
differences at head/block exit and inlet, respectively. The
uncertainty when measuring flow rate by means of a turbine
flow meter was ± 3 % and ± 2 % that concerning the chrome
vs constantan thermocouple sensor, in the temperature range
in which the sensor operates. So, the overall uncertainty can
be estimated ± 5 %.
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Figure 11. torque vs speed - comparison between
measured and calculated data for water temperature
increase inside the engine
Figure 12 shows a comparison between coolant temperature
in case of an engine with cast iron head and one with an
aluminum head. A warm up time reduction of 15% is
demonstrated in the second case due to the reduced thermal
capacity when aluminum is used.
Figure 12. comparison between an engine with
traditional cast iron head and one with aluminum head
The performances of the two cooling circuits (with respect to
the conventional solutions) have been evaluated making
reference to the ECE-EUDC cycle set by the EC since 1991.
A sequence of engine operating conditions (torque and engine
speed) which represents this cycle has been preliminarily
identified and therefore used in the comprehensive modeling.
Fixing tire rolling resistance and dimensions, aerodynamic
coefficient of the vehicle, the speed ratio which correspond
two different gears and the vehicle mass the mechanical
power requested to run an ECE-EUDC cycle, can be
calculated according to:
(36)
where m is the vehicle mass, a its acceleration, ρ the air
density, Sfront the vehicle frontal area, C1 the tires roll
resistance coefficient and Cx the vehicle aerodynamic
coefficient.
The mission profile specifies how the velocity vehicle
changes during time. For a proper set of data, Figure 13
shows the mechanical power requested to run the ECE-
EUDC cycle.
Figure 13. instantaneous and mean propulsive power of
a Citroen C3 based on a ECE-EUDC cycle
At a given power value, knowing the engine speed (from the
gear ratio) the instantaneous torque is determined and the
percent load calculated. By specifying engine load and speed
changing during time, the model calculates all the quantities
related to the engine thermal states, cooling circuits and
component behavior (eq.
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,2
4,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35). So, starting from an
initial cold state, temperature, flow rates, heat exchangers,
pressure drops, etc…, are calculated till to the reaching of a
steady thermal state in which relevant quantities remain
constant or change according to a periodical stabilized state.
Following these working engine sequences, the thermostat
will open so redistributing coolant flow rates toward
branches. The equivalent pressure loss seen by the pump
changes during time and different hydraulic working
equilibrium are reached. When all these quantities are
calculated, heat fluxes are predicted inside the engine (among
cylinders and portions of engine head) and also heat
exchangers in terms of heat exchanged.
According to this, engine warm up during the EUDC-ECE
cycle has been predicted considering the conditioning unit
(A/C) switched off. Making reference to the cooling
temperature, Figure 14 shows the behavior of the traditional
cooling circuit and of that in Figure 8a).
The high temperature circuit (HT) and the traditional one
stabilize at 80°C which is the opening thermostat
temperature; the equilibrium temperature is due to the
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radiator heat exchange. The low temperature (LT) circuit, on front area increase. The power required to drive the additional
the other hand, presents temperature oscillations inside a electric water pump is negligible, considering the low flow
range of 30-40°C. Periodicity is given by the sequence of EC- rate and head. In a mean working point, typical flow rate
EUDC cycle and the absence of a regulating device. The could be lower than 30 l/min, and pressure drop close to 0.7
intervention of a 3 kW A/C condenser produces a mean bar. So, the fluid dynamic power requested is about 30-35 W.
temperature increase keeping the same temperature For a pump efficiency equal to 0.45, the shaft power will be
oscillations. It is evident the benefit in terms of main cooling 70-80 W.
fluid warm up. Figure 14 shows the warm up time reduction
of the high temperature circuit due to:
• the presence of the first stage intercooler which warms the
cooling fluid (not present in traditional circuit);
• the reduction of the cooling flow rate obtained with respect
to the traditional circuit.

The former contribution is responsible of a warm up

reduction close to 25%; same reduction is associated with
flow rate decrease. An overall 50% of warm up time
reduction can be easily reached. In the Figure 14 the
traditional circuit and the one of high temperature - figure 8a)
- (with or without intercooler) are represented. The absence
of air intercooler reduce the need of cooling and the opening
toward the radiator reduces too. Following the same concept,
the traditional layout requires more cooling by the radiator.
Figure 14. cooling water's temperature of the high
temperature and low temperature circuits compared with
the one of the traditional case
Thermal stabilization of the high temperature and
conventional circuits is due to the thermostat opening whose
dynamics is represented in Figure 15, the radiator branch is
not fully opened due to the reduced thermal power exchanged
by the engine.
The second circuit goes naturally toward its equilibrium
without any thermostat being the heat requirements of the
second stage intercooler (if present), A/C condenser, cabin
heater and LT radiator well balanced. In the case studied LT
radiator can be designed at 10 kW, so it can be easily
integrated with the high temperature one without significant
Figure 15. opening degrees of the thermostat toward
radiator
The faster cooling water warm up drives a faster metallic
component heating which improves the combustion process.
Figure 16 shows for cylinder 1 and 4 the head temperature:
an engine warm up time decrease is reached of the order of
50% with respect to the traditional circuit. The same figure
shows also an additional feature which is strictly related to
the flow rate reduction. Considering that the maximum
temperature difference inside the engine is between cylinder
1 and 4, this temperature difference is increased when
considering the high temperature cooling circuit. Being the
same thermal power exchanged at the gas side, this
phenomenon can be related only to the flow rate reduction. It
is important to remark that the temperatures of the metallic
parts of the engine and that of the oil remain almost
unchanged due to the split of the two circuits: so, as
preliminary consideration it can be excluded a modified wear
rate of the components in relative motion. Nevertheless, the
aspect is so important that a more detailed study should be
done, but being the problem close to aspects that difficultly
can be theoretically approached, an experimental activity
seems to the Authors more appropriate.
In the case shown the mean temperature difference associated
to the traditional circuit is close to 3°C which doubles when
the other option is used. Care must be taken if the flow rate
reduction became greater, mainly when the engine run at
higher load conditions.
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Figure 16. metal “M1” temperature of the head for
cylinders 1 and 4 in both cases (single and double
circuit)
Same consideration applies when considering a temperature
difference between head and block. The circuit characterized
by a lower flow rate exhibits a higher temperature difference
between head and block. Figure 17 shows the behavior for
the first cylinder.
Figure 17. metal “M1” temperatures of head and block
for first cylinder in both cases studied
Figure 18 shows the behavior of the metal temperature when
the sequence of cylinder cooling inside engine is changed
with respect to the original one. In this case, the original one,
the water entering the engine block is divided in four parts:
each part cools the cylinder and, after, the head. Inside the
head the four streams join and exit from the engine. The
modified sequence corresponds to a single stream which
cools the head and after returns inside the engine to cool the
block. This reverse sequence tends to cool a little bit more the
head and to have the block a little bit warmer. Both these
effects are positive, permitting a slight increase of the
compression ratio (efficiency) and a higher oil temperature
which means lower friction losses. Figure 18 catches this
aspect: it is referred to the first cylinder of the engine and
compare the two layout: the head's temperature decreases,
while the block temperature remains almost constant. This
produces a decrease of the temperature difference between
head and block and also this is a positive effect.
One aspect of the double cooling layout must be further
investigated. With respect to the original situation, the double
circuit produces a decrease in the mass flow rate cooling the
engine: this aspect can be seen in Figure 19 which refers to
the hydraulic equilibrium of the two circuits when a NEDC
cycle is done. Being the engine cooled by a smaller flow rate
this could require a radiator with enhanced performance. In
fact, keeping the same radiator, when the flow rate decreases
the convective heat transfer decreases too and a bigger
radiator or an enhanced one could be needed. The behavior of
existing radiator in off design condition is taken into account
by the term Arad (Q, mrad) in eq.27. So, the simulation of the
engine cooling, when a reduced flow rate crosses the radiator,
considers this off design situation.
Figure 18. metal “M1” temperature of the first cylinder
with a different sequence of cooling inside engine
between head and block (single circuit layout).
Figure 20 reports the temperature difference of the cooling
water across the radiator. The figure has been evaluated
keeping fixed the engine working point (the thermal power
exchanged by the radiator remains constant), switching off
the radiator fan (considering the only ram effect which carries
air toward the radiator) and changing the cooling flow rate in
order to understand the existing radiator's capability to
properly work even in presence of very low flow rate. For
each flow rate, of course, corresponds a different steady
engine temperature, being the thermal resistances modified
by the cooling flow rate. It is evident that the temperature
difference increases as the flow rate decreases, matching the
correct heat exchanged by the engine to the cooling water and
by this to the external air. The radiator used in the simulations
(which corresponds to a theoretical modeling of the real one)
is, therefore, able to realize a thermal stabilization of the
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engine even considering a great cooling flow rate variation
(from 40 l/min to 140 l/min).
Figure 19. pumps flow rates
So, in the case under study, when the engine load would
increase and the coolant flow rate would decrease below than
40 l/min, the need of an enhanced radiator could be justified.
One additional interesting feature of a double circuit cooling
is the opportunity to put on the second circuit the A/C
condenser. In the traditional system, the condenser is cooled
by ambient air and it takes place in front of the vehicle, where
enough air speed is available. So, the condensing temperature
of the fluid cannot be lowered; this requires an excessive size
radiator increase. Actual temperature of the condensing fluid
is between 90°C and 100°C.
Figure 20. off design radiator performances
In this novel configuration, instead, the condenser could be
liquid cooled by the circuit at low temperature, at a
condensing temperature significantly lower (not over 60°C).
The higher heat transfer coefficient allows to use a small
condenser which can be more easily installed on board. The
higher specific heat of the cooling liquid (compared the one
of the air) would permit to decrease the condensing
temperature around 70°C, increasing, consequently, the COP
of the refrigerating cycle, reducing its compression work. A
detailed analysis of this feature is outside of the aim of this
paper and it is under analysis by the Authors. Nevertheless, a
preliminary result could be done. Making reference to a
Citroen C3 car, the mean mechanical power of the ECE-
EUDC cycle is equal to 6 kW (equation 36). Considering a
conditioning power of 5 kW, the double temperature level
system could produce a compressing work reduction of 250
W and a fuel consumption decrease of about 4%.
CONCLUSIONS
Cooling technologies of reciprocating internal combustion
engines could be significantly improved in order to
participate to pollution reduction, fuel economy and CO2
reduction as well. The intervention in this area is feasible,
reliable and characterized by all the requirements requested
by an engine application. The cost increase, also, seems to be
attractive, being the possible new cooling technologies
among those characterized by the lowest cost-performance
ratio.
Thanks to a comprehensive engine modeling, the paper
describes the advantages produced by a double cooling
circuit, set up at two temperature levels.
In usual cooling circuits the temperature level is fixed at
80-100 °C and the overall layout is designed for the needs of
engine, that is remove heat from it, from lubricating oil and
from exhaust gas recirculation. The temperature stabilizes at
a value which are not suitable to fulfill all the other thermal
needs: cabin heating can be easily done too, but the A/C
condenser requirements and turbocharged air cooling (second
stage) cannot be efficiently obtained.
Two separate circuits with a double temperature level allow
to distribute more efficiently the engine and vehicle thermal
needs with a great potential energy and pollution saving.
All the high temperature thermal needs are fulfilled on the
high temperature circuit which is at the same temperature
than conventional cooling circuit: they are engine, oil and
EGR cooling. The turbocharged air cooling (first stage) and
cabin heating too, they have temperature levels which match
with this circuit. The second circuit at low temperature (35-45
°C) has the advantage to:
• remove heat from the A/C condenser: this allows to adopt a
liquid cooled condenser which can be mounted close to the
engine and close to the cabin: so, the dimensions of the
condenser decrease, the quantity of the refrigerating fluid is
reduced. Considering that the operating pressures of the A/C
system match closer each other, the overall reliability
increases. The risk of pollution decreases too. Thanks to the
fact that the pressures at the condensed can decrease, the
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Liverpool, Sunday, September 09, 2018
efficiency of the A/C system increases, saving mechanical
energy absorbed from the shaft;
• the presence of the second circuit allows to reduce the liquid
cooling flow rate of the first circuit and this reduces warm up
times of the oil and of the engine, producing a strong benefit
during the test for engine approval.
So, the double temperature technology will allow to consider
all the thermal needs of a car (engine & vehicle) within a
system approach and it invites to optimize the thermal needs
together, instead of searching for different and separate
optimums. Considering that, for instance, the A/C system
requires mechanical energy from the shaft, any optimization
which increases COP reflects in terms of fuel saving. Cabin
comfort is, as well, an important marketing element of a
vehicle, so any technology which rises up cabin warm up (or
cooling) would be appreciated.
The architecture of the high temperature circuit is not very
different from the traditional one (in particular regarding its
pump, radiator, thermostat) so it would not be so difficult to
set it. Moreover, the low temperature circuit could make use
of a small (electric) water pump resorting the very proven
technologies of mass production circulating pumps. The more
critical aspect which is related to the need of two radiators
could be partially solved by integrating them in a unique
component with a frontal area requirement not greater than
the actual situations. The power absorbed by this electric
water pump does not contribute significantly in terms of fuel
consumption.
The model is comprehensive and it has been developed in
order to keep the main engineering aspects of engine cooling
and cooling circuit layout. Multi-cylinder engines are
represented in a lumped parameter form (thermal masses) and
heat fluxes among cylinders and engine head and block by
means of thermal resistances which considers all the thermal
processes occurring. The possibility to specify the cooling
fluid pathway inside the engine simply connecting in
different ways thermal masses and resistances, allows for the
differentiation between cylinders and head's cooling. The
model includes, also, a physical representation of the heat
exchangers usually present on vehicle's board and main
components (thermostats, valves, etc…). This “thermal
model” is coupled with an hydraulic model which solves the
equilibrium between pump and circuits, including pressure
losses inside main components (pipes, engine paths,
thermostat, heat exchangers, etc…): in this way a great
flexibility in terms of cooling layouts is reached. Some
components, like radiator, requires an additional equilibrium
between fan head and pressure losses across the radiator,
including ram effect due to the vehicle speed. The
equilibrium gives the air flow rate crossing the radiator.
The model was initially set up in order to represent the
traditional layout of the 1.4 DV4 TED engine on a Citroen C3
and main thermal data such as heat exchanged toward cooling
fluid vs. engine speed and load, cooling temperature increase
through the engine, etc… The good level of representation
the model has toward all relevant thermal processes gave to it
the possibility to be used as virtual engine.
A double cooling circuit at two temperature levels has been
implemented and compared with the traditional cooling
circuit. Main improvement are:
• a sensible reduction in warm up time of the metallic masses
(and cooling fluid) of the order of 20 % which is further
increased to 50 % if a liquid charged air inter cooling is
considered;
• a rearrangement of the low and high heat exchangers
temperature on the two circuits: the radiator of the low
temperature circuit can be integrated in the high temperature
one, avoiding the use of additional front area;
• the low temperature circuit does not require a thermostat,
being its equilibrium reached among the different thermal
requirements;
• the presence of a low temperature cooling circuit allows a
dual stage air intercooling with several benefits on engine
performance and, mainly, a liquid cooled condenser of the
A/C unit: the lower condensation temperature produces a
COP increase and an energy saving close to 5% of the energy
required to run a NEDC cycle.
No relevant engine or vehicle modifications are requested, so
the double circuit technology appears really suitable to
participate to the ICE evolution.
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mEGR
EGR mass flow

mcond
A/C refrigerant flow rate

Mcoolant
Coolant mass

V
Vehicle velocity

λref
Condensing latent heat of A/C refrigerant

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