CHANAKYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

Final draft of project of Legal History

On

‘INDO ARYAN TRIBE’

Submitted to : Prof. Dr. Priyadarshini By: Aastha Agnihotri

Faculty of Legal History

Roll No: 1902

1stYearB.A.L.L.B.
 DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE

I, hereby, declare that the work reported in the B.A.L.L.B(Hons) Project Report titled “Indo
Aryan Tribe submitted at CHANAKYANATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY, PATNA is an
authentic record of my work carried under the supervision of Prof. Dr. Priyadarshini I have not
submitted this work elsewhere for any other degree or diploma. I am fully responsible for the
contents of my Project Report.

(Signature of the Candidate)

Aastha Agnihotri

B.A. L.L.B(Hons)

SEMESTER-1st

CNLU, PATNA

Dated:
 1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to show my gratitude towards my guide Professor. Dr. Priyadarshini, Faculty of
Legal History, under whose guidance, I structured my project.

I owe the present accomplishment of my project to our CNLU librarians, who helped me
immensely with the materials throughout the project and without whom I couldn’t have
completed it in the present way.

I would also like to extend my gratitude to my friends and all those unseen hands that helped me
out at every stage of my project.

THANK YOU,

Aastha Agnihotri

SEMESTER 1st

CNLU,Patna
 1. INTRODUCTION : ORIGIN
Our knowledge about the original home of the Aryans is still in a speculative stage. There has
been a great divergence of opinion in the matter of identification of the place wherefrom the
Aryans came into India. No firm conclusion is, therefore, possible in this regard. There were
many theories in this regard of which, two were discussed below

Theory of Europe as Original Homeland of Aryans :

The most important theory which held the field for a long time was that the Aryans originally
lived in Central Asia. The geographical distribution of the idioms of Indo-European speech-
family, therefore does suggest that the original home of the Indo-European is to be sought rather
in Europe than in Asia. Moreover of all the living Indo-European language of the present day, it
is Lithuanian and not Sanskrit (even if considered a living language) or any of its daughter
dialects,that has kept closest to the basic idiom reconstructed by comparative philology

These two fundamental facts make a strong prima facie case against the theory that India was the
original home of the Aryans1. Prof. Max Muller a great German scholar in his book ‘Lectures on
the science of languages ‘ proves Central Asia as the original homeland of Aryans. He is of a
openion that the information, regarding the early Aryans could be gathered from two main
sources . They are Vedic literature and the Iranian book Zend-Avesta . It is evident from the
study of these two works that some time in history the inhabitants of India and Iran must have
lived together because much affinity in the culture and civilisation of the two communities Is
discernible.The inhabitants of both the countries were nature worshippers . Agriculture and the
cattle breeding was their main occupation. The animals like horse were known to them .

These considerations prove that the original homeland must have been some where near Iran or
India . Taking into account the geographical position of the original homeland of the Aryans
,some historians have arrived at the conclusion that Central Asia was the original homeland of
the Aryans , where from they went to Europe, Iran and India.

2) The theory of India (Sapta-sindhu religion )as original home of Aryans :

1
R. C. Majumdar, The Vedic Age, p-206
In the last century the Bangali historian Dr. A.C. Das in his book “Rgvedic India”2 has tried to
prove that the Aryans did not come to India from outside , rather they were they were they were
the inhibitants of India . The Rgveda , which throws sufficient light on the customs and culture
of Aryans, gives no indication that the Aryans , gives no indication that the Aryans came to India
from outside . According to Rgveda the Aryans dwelt in the region of saptasindhu, which
comprised modern Punjab, Kashmir , Kabul and Gandhara . This region stretched from the river
Sindhu to the river Saraswati . Later on, they spread to other parts of India . In Puranas , there is
the description of Devasura (God-demons) war and Devas defeated the Asuras.Zenda-Avesta,
the religious book of the Iranians also records the same type of war . From these references we
can deduce the inferences that was probably Among the Aryans and Iranians in which the
Iranians were defeated and driven away.

2
See A.C. Das, Rgvedic India, 2nd ed., p.71
 2. Early Aryans Settlements
In around 1500 BC the Aryans, a traveling people from Central Asia settled in the upper scopes
of the Indus, Yamuna, and Gangetic fields. They talked a language from the Indo-European
family and worshiped divine beings like those of later time Greeks and northern Europeans. The
Aryans are especially critical to Indian history since they began the soonest types of the sacred
Vedas (orally transmitted writings of psalms of dedication to the divine beings, manuals of
giving up for their love, and philosophical hypothesis). By 800 BC the Aryans governed in a
large portion of northern India, periodically battling among themselves or with the people groups
of the land they were settling. There is no proof of what happened to the general population
dislodged by the Aryans. Actually, they might not have been dislodged at everything except
rather may have been consolidated in Aryan culture or left alone in the slopes of northern India.

The Vedas, which are viewed as the center of Hinduism, give much data about the Aryans. The
real divine forces of the Vedic people groups stay in the pantheon of present-day Hindus; the
center customs encompassing birth, marriage, and demise hold their Vedic frame. The Vedas
additionally contain the seeds of awesome epic writing and philosophical conventions in India.
One illustration is the Mahabharata, an epic of the fight between two honorable families that
dates from 400 BC however likely draws on stories made substantially before. Another case is
the Upanishads, philosophical treatises that were created between the eighth and the fifth
hundreds of years BC.

As the Aryans gradually subsided into agribusiness and moved southeast through the Gangetic
Plain, they surrendered their seminomadic style of living and changed their social and political
structures. Rather than a warrior driving a tribe, with a tribal get together as a keep an eye on his
energy, an Aryan chief governed over the region, with its general public partitioned into genetic
gatherings. This structure turned into the start of the standing structure, which has made due in
India until the present day. The four standings that rise up out of this time were the Brahmans
(ministers), the Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers), the Vaisyas (shippers, ranchers, and merchants),
and the Sudras (craftsmen, workers, and workers).

It is generally believed that the Aryan came to India in groups that settled in the areas of North-
Western Province in Pakistan and the Punjab which they had then named Sapta-Sindhu or the
'Land of Seven Rivers', namely the Indus, the Sutlej, the Ravi, the Beas, the Chenab, the Jhelum
and the Saraswati. Later they called this area 'Brahmavarta' or the 'Land of Brahma'. The Aryans
were found to have been occupying the whole of the present region of Punjab from about 1500
BC
The Aryans pushed their way along the river Ganga and Yamuna from Sapta-Sindhu and
occupied the whole of Northern India from the Himalayas to Vindhayas. This area was called the
'Aryavartha' or 'The Land of Aryans'. The period between 100 BC and 600 BC during which the
Aryans settled in the Gangetic Valley, was known as the 'Later Vedic Period'. During this period
the Aryans occupied vast areas in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Bengal and other parts of
Northern India.

3. SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND ECONOMICAL LIFE

The family was regarded as the social and political unit. It was the nucleus of the social life of
the early Aryans. The father was the head of the family and he was known as “Grihapati”. The
Aryans had joint families.

The Aryans ate both vegetable and animal foods. Rice, barley, bean and sesamum formed the
staple food. They also ate bread, cake, milk, ghee, butter, and curd together with fruits. Fish,
birds, goats, rams, bulls and horses were slaughtered for their food. Slaughter of cow was
prohibited. They also drank intoxicating liquor, known as Sura, a brandy made from corn and
barley and the juice of soma plant

SOCIAL LIFE OF ARYANS

The family was regarded as the social and political unit. It was the nucleus of the social life of
the early Aryans. The father was the head of the family and he was known as “grihapati”. The
Aryans had joint families. The father had great authority over the children. Though the father
was kind and affectionate yet at times he became cruel towards his children. From Rig-Veda we
come to know about a father who blinded his son for his extravagance

 Society was tribal but egalitarian.

 Aryans were fair in colour and the one the inhabitants were dark in complexion. This
gave social distinction. The Dasas and Dasyus were treated as slaves and Shudras.
 The head of tribes were treated as superior. The society got divided into warriors, Priests,
People on same pattern with Iran and Shudras.
 Women slaves were involved in domestic purposes.
 Division according to the occupation is also known.
 Patriarchal Society: Rig Veda show a society where family was a basic unit headed by
Grahapati.
 Both men and women used clothes made of cotton and a large number of ornaments.
 Food items: wheat, barley, milk and milk products.
 Cows were considered sacred hence eating its meat was prohibited.
 Entertainment: Dance, music, chariot racing, horse racing were the time pass activities.
 Upper class women shared equal rights as men.
2) POLITICAL LIFE OF ARYANS

1.Administrative Divisions:

The lowest unit of the Rig-Vedic society was the patriarchal family. A number of families bound
together by ties of blood formed a clan, several class formed a district, and a number of districts
composed a tribe, the highest political unit. From the Rig Veda we come to know about some
administrative units termed as ‘grama’, ‘vis’, and the ‘jana’.

The ‘grama’ consisted of several families. It was under a headman known as ‘gramani’. During
war or battle he used to lead the soldiers from his village. He attended the meetings of the
‘Sabha’ and ‘Samiti’. Several villager formed a ‘vis’. It was placed under a ‘visapati’. He was a
military leader.

A group of ‘vishes’ formed a ‘jana'(tribe) whose members were bound together by real or
supposed ties of kinship. ‘Gopa’ was the head of one ‘jana’. Rig Veda mentions about various
tribes such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Krivis, Tritsus. But the tribes which acquired great importance
are the Purus, Trigvasas, Yadus, Aus and Drahyus. Several janas formed a ‘janapada’ or
‘kingdom’. The ‘Rajan’ or the king was the head of the Janapada.

2. Form of Government:

Monarchy was the normal form of Government. Kingship was hereditary. But there was a sort of
hierarchy in some states, several members of the royal family exercising the power in common.
There were references of democratic form of government and their chiefs were elected by the
assembled people.

3. The King:

The kingdom was small in extent. The king enjoyed a position of pre-eminence in the tribe.
Kingship was hereditary. He was anointed by the priest as king in the ‘Abhishka’ Ceremony. He
wore gorgeous robes and lived in a splendid palace, gaily decorated than a common building.
The king had the duty to protect the life and property of his people. He was required to be ‘Indra’
in valour, ‘Mitra’ in kindness and ‘varuna’ in virtues.

The sacred duty of the king was the protection of the tribes and the territory and maintenance of
priests for the performance of sacrifices. Maintenance of law and order was his principal duty.
He maintained justice with the help of Purohitas. He collected tributes known as “Bali” in kind
from his subjects.

4. Officials:

In the work of administration the king was assisted by a number of functionaries like the
Purohita (priest), the senani (general) the Gramani (village headman) and the spsa (spies).
Purohita was the most important officer of the state.
5. The Army:

The army was mainly consisting of Patti (infantry) and Rathins (chariots). The weapons used by
the soldiers were bows, arrows, swords, axes and spears. These weapons were made up of irons.
The soldiers were organised into units known as Sardha, Vrata and gana.

6. Popular Assemblies:

The Rig Veda mentions the names of two popular assemblies known as Sabha and Samiti.
Though the king enjoyed substantial power yet he was not an autocrat. In the work of
administration he consulted these two bodies and act according to their decision. Sabha was a
select body of elders. The head of the sabha was known as ‘Sabhapati’.

The Sabha advised the king on administration. It also functioned as a court of law and tried the
cases of criminals and punished them. The Samiti was the most popular assembly and included
common people. The head of Samiti was known as ‘Pati’ The Samiti mainly dealt with the
political business of the state. It also used to elect the king. In the early Vedic Age the Sabha and
Samiti had a commendable role to play as the political organisation of the aryans.

 Group of families or Kula forms a village or a Grama which is headed by Gramani.

 Group of villages is called Vis. The head of the Vis is Vishyapati.
 Jana or tribes were the highest in the political organisation. Few examples of Jana are
Bharatas, Yadus, Matsayas and Purus.
 The head of the Jana were Rajan or the king who were assisted by priest or commanders
of army.

3. ECONOMICAL LIFE OF ARYAN

1.Agriculture

The Aryans were pastoral people and agriculture was their chief livelihood. Lands raised for
cultivation were called ‘Urvara’ or ‘Kshetra’. The normal method for ploughing fields was by a
means of a pair of oxen tied to the yoke.

The primary crops were wheat and barley. Every member of the family normally worked at the
fields and agricultural processes, like filling the soil, cutting of grooves, sowing the seeds,
cutting of corn with sickle were known to them.

They were also familiar with utilisation of manures.

Reference in Rig-Veda shows, that agriculture was the principal occupation of the people. They
ploughed the field by means of a pair of oxen. Rig-Veda even mentions that twenty four oxen
were attached to a plough share at the same time to plough the land. The ploughed land was
known as Urvara or Kshetra. Water was supplied into the fields by means of irrigation canal. Use
of manure was known to them. Barley and wheat were mainly cultivated. Cotton and oil seeds
were also grown. Rice was perhaps not extensively cultivated. Agriculture was their main source
of income.

2.Taming of Animals

Cattle and cow were held in high esteem and were seen as goddesses. There was nothing like
money to buy things- one had to exchange their cattle or any other valuable. Cows were
considered holy by the Aryans. Cows and oxen were functional for agriculture also.

Milk was one of the fundamental drinks of the Aryans and hence they gave a lot of importance to
the cows. Cows were also used as unit of value in the batter system, predominant during that
time.

Besides cows, goat, sheep, buffalo were also domesticated by the Aryans.

3.Trade and profession

The professions of goldsmith, carpenter, blacksmith, weavers etc., were rather widespread. The
barter system was prevalent during the Rigvedic period.

The reference of ‘Niska’, a type of coin is also found.

Roads were constructed for trade and commerce. The Aryans also utilised ships and boats for
shipping of goods.

 The main occupation of the people was cattle rearing and their wealth was measured in
number of cattle.
 They practiced agriculture by clearing the forests.
 Metals used were copper, iron and bronze.
 Few people worked as goldsmith, potters, spinners and carpenters.
 The tax levied in the Vedic Period was Bali and Bhaga.
 Gold coins called Nishka were used for transaction.
 Rivers were used for transportation.
 They used Barter system.

4. ARTS, SCIENCE AND RELIGION

The Aryans wore dresses made from cotton, wool and deer skin. The garments consisted of three
parts—an undergarment called ‘nivi’, a garment called ‘Vasa’ or ‘Paridhan’ and a mantle known
as ‘adhivasa’, ‘atka’ ‘dropi’. The garments were also embroidered with gold. Both men and
women wore gold ornaments.
The women used ear-rings, neck-lace, bangles, anklets. These ornaments were sometimes
studded with precious stones. Both men and women oiled and combed their hair which war
plaited or braided. The men kept beard and moustache but sometimes also shaved them.

The Aryans ate both vegetable and animal foods. Rice, barley, bean and sesamum formed the
staple food. They also ate bread, cake, milk, ghee, butter, and curd together with fruits. Fish,
birds, goats, rams, bulls and horses were slaughtered for their food. Slaughter of cow was
prohibited. They also drank intoxicating liquor, known as sura, a brandy made from corn and
barley and the juice of soma plant.

In the Rig-Vedic age great importance was given to education. There were Gurukulas which
imparted education to the disciples after their sacred-thread ceremony. Entire instruction was
given orally. The Vedic education aimed at proper development of mind and body. The disciples
were taught about ethics, art of warfare, art of metal and concept of Brahma and philosophy, and
basic sciences like agriculture, animal husbandry, and handicrafts.

1. Arts
It is generally supposed that the Aryans did not know the art -of writing. It was because of this
that they used to memorise the Vedic texts and hand them down from generation to generation.
Yet, that the Aryans were adept in composing poetry goes without saying. The Rik Samhita was
the finest expression of the art of poetry of the Aryans

2. Science

The Aryans were highly developed in the art of house building. Reference to large palace with a
thousand pillars and doors testifies to the highly developed knowledge of architecture on the part
of the Aryans. They were also expert in the science and medicine. The medical men used to rely
on mantras, besides medicines, for the cure of diseases. Reference to iron leg pre-supposes the
knowledge of science of surgery among the Aryans.

The Aryans were also expert astronomers. The Science of Astronomy had been very much
developed at that time. This can be realised from the naming of some of the stars and planets by
the Aryans.

3. Religion

The religion of the early Aryans was a form of nature-worship. They worshipped numerous
Gods, like Sky, Surya (Sun), Indra, Varuna, Prithvi (earth), Agni (sacrificial fire), Vayu (Wind),
Usha (dawn) and Aditi (mother of Gods or sometimes cow) etc. The rivers like Ganga and
Saraswati were also considered to be goddesses.
The Vedic religion evolved into the Hindu paths of yoga and vedanta. Divinities of the early
Aryans can be divided into three categories viz.- Celestial Gods, Atmospheric Gods and
Terrestrial Gods. This illustrates that the Aryans had faith in a great number of Gods. But there is
also mention in the Rigveda that the unity of the God-head was also recognised by the Aryans.
The various deities worshipped, were considered by them to be the manifestation of the Supreme
Being.

The Aryans offered sacrifices to the Gods to appease them. This was generally accomplished by
chanting verses, which was done by calling a priest who helped common man perform these
rituals. The common man performed simple sacrifices, offering milk, ghee, grain etc. But
majestic sacrifices, such as the Ashvamedha were made by kings.

Moreover the Aryans envisioned the human spirit of the Gods and therefore, each God had a
human form. No reference of idol worship is found. It appears that they despised image-worship.
The Aryans were broadly optimists and hence sorrier facets of life have not been underlined in
their religion. They were full of heartiness and their mindset towards life was full of optimism
and aspiration.

Hindus claim that the Hindu scripture was composed sometime around 3000 BCE by several
sages in direct contact with their god, Krishna. They claim that there is no evidence that outsiders
– Aryans – invaded the Indus Valley and brought Hindu scripture with them. They blame the
notion of this invasion on Christian scholars from the 19th century.

It is not clear as to when writing was learnt by the Aryans. But after it became widespread, some
Brahmins (priests) considered it a sacrilege to change from communicating their religion orally.
Some other Brahmins supported the innovation, and they put traditional Aryan stories into
writing, in what became known as the Vedas – Veda meaning wisdom.

The Vedas have been described as reflecting a rural lifestyle of the Aryans as opposed to the
more urban culture of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa civilization.

The Vedas implied that humanity is basically good, and, in contrast to the view of sin in West
Asia, sin among the Hindus was viewed as a force from outside oneself – an invader. Hinduism’s
Vedas saw evil as the work of demons that might take the form of a human or some other
creature, which could be removed by the prayers and rituals of priests.
 5. STATUS OF WOMEN
Male and Female, the two basic components of our human society, depend upon each other and
each one of them constitutes about half of the population. The status of women refers to her
position in the network of social role structure, privileges, rights and duties. It refers to her rights
and duties in family and social life. The status of a woman is generally measured in the
comparative amount of prestige and respect accorded to her with that of man.

The status of Hindu women in India has been fluctuating. It has gone through several changes
during various historical stages. Historically speaking, women in India have passed through two
phases of their life – the period of subjugation and the period of liberation. At times she has been
suppressed and oppressed and at times she is regarded as the deity of the home.

The Aryans evidently preferred male child to female child. However, females were as free as
their male counterparts. Education was equally open for boys and girls. Girls studied the Veda
and fine arts. Women never observed purdha in the Vedic period. They enjoyed freedom in
selecting their mates. But divorce was not permissible to them. In the family, they enjoyed
complete freedom and were treated as Ardhanginis.

In domestic life women were considered to be supreme and enjoyed freedom. Home was the
place of production. Spinning and weaving of clothes was done at home. Women helped their
husbands in agricultural pursuits also. Husband used to consult his wife on financial matters.

Unmarried daughters had share in their fathers’ property. Daughter had full legal rights in the
property of her father in the absence of any son. Mother’s property, after her death, was equally
divided among sons and unmarried daughters. However, married women had no share in father’s
property. As a wife, a woman had no direct share in her husband’s property. A widowed mother
had some rights.

The woman was regarded as having an equally important share in the social and religious life
because a man without woman was considered as an inadequate person. She regularly
participated in religious ceremonies with her husband. There were many scholars who composed
hymns of Rig Veda. Lopamudra, Gargi and Maitreye were the pioneers among them.
Lopamudra, the wife of Agasti rishi, composed two verses of Rig Veda.

It may be concluded that during vedic period the status of women was not unequal to that of
men. Women got the same education as men and participated in the philosophical debates.

While speaking about woman and her relation to man, Manu says “Women must always be
honoured and respected by the father, brother, husband and brother-in-law who desire their own
welfare, and where women are honoured, there the very Gods are pleased, but where they are not
honoured, no sacred rite even could yield rewards”.
Manu observes that the family, in which women suffer, is bound to be ruined, while the family in
which women are happy is bound to prosper. He further enjoins that every person is to maintain
peace with the female members of the household. He also advises every householder to treat his
daughter as the highest object of tenderness and honour mother as the most venerable person in
the world.

6. ARYAN EXPANSION IN LATER VEDIC CIVILISATION

The spread of Aryans over the whole of India completed before 400 B.C. Of the new kingdoms
in the east, the most important were Kurus, Panchalas, Kasis, Kosalas and Videhas.

Gradually, the Aryans moved towards South India. It is believed that their southern movement
began during the period of Brahmana literature, about 1000 B.C.; and went on steadily till they
reached the southernmost extremity of the Peninsula in or sometime before the fourth century
B.C.

But the Aryan colonization in the South was not as complete as in the north. With the progress of
the Aryans in Northern India, their centre of civilization was shifted towards the East. The
territory between the Saraswati and Ganga Rivers was the seat of Aryan civilization.

Political Organisation

1. Rise of Big States

With the progress of Aryan settlements in the eastern and southern parts of India, the small tribal
states of the Rig Vedic period were replaced by powerful states.

Many famous tribes of the Rig Vedic period like the Bharatas, Parus, Tritsus and Turvasas
passed into oblivion and new tribes like the Kurus and Panchalas rose into prominence. The land
of the Yamuna and Ganga in the east became the new home of the Aryans and rose into
prominence.

2. Growth of Imperialism

With the emergence of big kingdoms in the Later Vedic Age, the struggle for supremacy among
different states was of frequent occurrence. The ideal of “Sarbabhauma” or universal empire
loomed large in the political horizon of ancient India. Sacrifices like Rajasuya and Asvamedha
were performed to signify the imperial sway of monarchs over the rivals. These rituals impressed
the people with the increasing power and prestige of the king. The Rig Vedic title of “Rajan” was
replaced by impressive titles like Samrat, Ekrat, Virat, Bhoja, etc. These titles marked the growth
of imperialism and feudal ideas.

3. Origin of Kingship

There were two theories regarding the origin of kingship. The Aitareya Brahmana explained the
rational theory of election by common consent of origin of kingship.

And the Taittiniya Brahman explained the divine origin of kingship. It explained how Indra,
“though occupying a low rank among the gods, was created their king by Prajapati.”

4. Growth of Royal Power

The king had absolute power. He became the master of all subjects. He realized taxes like “bali”,
“sulka” and “bhaga”.

The Satapatha Brahmana described the king to be infallible and immune from all punishment.
The “Sabha” of the Rig Vedic Period died. The king sought the aid and support of the Samiti on
matters like war, peace and fiscal policies. There are references to the Samiti sometimes, in the
context of electing or re-electing a king.

The authority of the government in the later Vedic period was perhaps more democratic in the
sense that the authority of the leaders of the Aryan tribes was recognized by the king. However
in spite of the existence of the popular assemblies, the powers of the King went on increasing,
due to the growth of large territorial states.

The growth of royal power was largely reflected in the enlarged outrage of the king. In the work
of administration the king was assisted by a group of officers who were known as Ratnins
(Jewels). They included the Bhagadugha (collector of taxes), the Suta (charioteer), the
Akshavapa (superintendent of gambling), the kshattri (chamberlain), the Govikartana (king’s
companion in the chase), the Palogala (courtier) the Takshan (Carpenter), the Rathakara (Chariot
marker) in addition to the ecclesiastical and military officials like the Purohita (chaplain) the
senani (general), and the Gramani (leader of host or of the village).

In the Later Vedic Period, the Gramani was both a civil and military officer. Gramanis weres the
medium through which the royal power was exercised in the village. Adhikritas were the village
officers, and were lowest in the rank.

The king administered justice. Occasionally, he delegated his judicial power to Adhyakshas. In
the villages, Gramyavadins (Village judges) and Sabhas (courts) decided the cases. Punishments
for crimes were severe.
The father was the head of the property of the family. In case of inheritance of property, the law
of primogeniture was applied. By this rule the eldest son would inherit the property of the
deceased father. Neither the women nor the sudras had any right to property.

Social Organisation

The later Vedic society came to be divided into four varnas called the Brahmanas,
Rajanyas or Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Shudras.
6.3. Status of Women In Later Vedic age
The status of women gradually declined during the post-Vedic period. In course of time, the girls
were denied of formal education. The marriageable age of girls came down to 8 or 10 years.
Thus the incidence of pre-puberty marriages increased and child-wives without education
became the order of the day.

The amount of gift in the marriage was nominal. Therefore, it did not create any problem in the
settlement of marriage. There are conflicting opinions about the wife’s position in the household.

Manu Smriti, which certainly go against her interests. Women are deprived of the Upanayana
ceremony and thereby of education. Manu relegates her to an entirely subservient position. He
preaches self-negation as the highest ideal of a wife. She is asked to serve and worship her
husband even if he is not a person of all virtue and character. Since service and worship of the
husband are the primary duties of a wife, by so performing she can hope to attain heaven.

Manu deprives women of her economic rights also. He says, “A wife, a son and a Slave, these
three are declared to have no property, the wealth which they earn is for him to whom they
belong”.

It appears that Manu had a very poor opinion about women. According to him women should be
guarded against her evil inclinations. Otherwise she will bring sorrow to both the families. He
also observes that if a woman is chaste, it is because she has not found a proper man, place and
opportunity. He, therefore, calls her a ‘Pramada a temptress. So, he wants woman to be under the
surveillance of father in her childhood, her husband in her youth and her sons after the death of
her husband. He declares in unequivocal terms that no woman deserves independence.

There are two schools of thought regarding the status of women in ancient India. One school has
described women as the ‘equals of men’, while the other school holds that women were held not
only in disrespect but even in positive hatred.

Female infanticide arose from the general Vedic attitude towards women. The large dowries
prescribed by the Vedas (see the section of dowries below) meant that a girl was seen as a
burden. The woman who gave birth to a daughter was ashamed, and much stigma attached to a
lady who only gae birth to daughters. Hence infanticide arose as a convenient way of getting rid
of the burden.

Child marriage of daughters 5-6 y old was common due to the custom of dowry and to avoid
scandals.

when the bride's family cannot pay up to the amount demanded by the in-laws. Often the in-laws
make demands in excess of those made at the time of marriage. When the deadline specified runs
out, the bride is burned in often gruesome fashions.
An Aryan husband could at any time accuse his wife of infidelity. In case the wife protests her
innocence, the council of village elders would then order an ordeal by fire. The accused wife
would be required to pass through a blazing flame. Not just death, but any signs of burns would
be taken as a sign of guilt and the wife would then have to undergo the penalty for infidelity

Adultery carries the death sentence in Aryan law, so either way she would have to pay with her
life for her husband's or elders' mere suspicions.

The wife could suffer corporal punishemnt for very minor offences. Aryan husbands cut off the
ears and nose of their wives if they left the house without their prior permission. The death
penalty was prescribed for Aryan women guilty of infidelity. The Manu Smrti, the most
authoritative Indo-Aryan law-book, states

` When a woman, proud of her relations [or abilities] deceives her husband ( with another man ),
then the king should [ensure that] she be torn apart by dogs in place much frequented by people.

If a wife, proud of the greatness of her relatives or (her own) excellence, violates the duty which
she owes to her lord, the king shall cause her to be devoured by dogs in a place frequented by
many. VIII.372. Let him cause the male offender to be burnt on a red-hot iron bed; they shall put
logs under it, (until) the sinner is burned (to death).'

RESTRICTIONS ON WOMEN
Women and Sudras can, in the Aryan-Vaishnava system, have no property:

A wife, a son, and a slave, these three are declared to have no property; the wealth which they
earn is (acquired) for him to whom they belong.

Aryan women had to wear a face-veil when going out. As usual, several observers, seeing Arab
women veiled, assumed it must be due to Muslim `contamination'. They are not aware that Arabs
practice this due to the Judeo-Christian influence (cf. the Catholic nuns and the Medieval tiara),
and are ignorant of Indian scriptures. Sanskrit literature mentions the

` The practice of using veils by women, particularly in well-to-do families, was in vogue.

The Vedas prescribe that a dowry be given by the bride's family to the groom. The Rig Veda
states that cows and gifts given by the father of the bride to the daughter accompanied the bride's
procession.

It may be thought that only the absence of the husband could temporarily alleviate the condition
of Aryan women. Alas, even then she ws under constant suspicion. To prevent nightly intrigues,
she cannot even sleep alone:
" whilst her husband is absent, she shall sleep with one of her female relatives and not alone "
Women and Sudras were declared to be unfit for study of the Vedas. Upananyan is not allowed
for women. Divorce cannot be initiated by women. Even if the wife ran away from the harsh
husband, she could never get remarried.

The Aryans, upon their invasion of India ca. 1500 B.C. introduced the horrific custom of sati, ie.
the burning of a woman after the death of her husband. When performed singly it is referred to as
sati, when performed en masse by all the women and daughters of a town in anticipation of their
widowhood (eg. when the men were to fight a battle against all odds), it is known as jauhar. It is
sanctioned by their most sacred texts, and was practiced from the fall of the Semito-Dravidian
Indus Valley civilization to the modern age.

CONCLUSION
Foreigners from the north are believed to have migrated to India and settled in the Indus Valley
and Ganges Plain from 1800-1500 BCE. The most prominent of these groups spoke Indo-
European languages and were called Aryans, or “noble people” in the Sanskrit language. These
Indo-Aryans were a branch of the Indo-Iranians, who originated in present-day northern
Afghanistan. By 1500 BCE, the Indo-Aryans had created small herding and agricultural
communities across northern India.

These migrations took place over several centuries and likely did not involve an invasion, as
hypothesized by British archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler in the mid-1940s. Wheeler, who was
Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India from 1944 to 1948, suggested that a
nomadic, Indo-European tribe, called the Aryans, suddenly overwhelmed and conquered the
Indus River Valley. He based his conclusions on the remains of unburied corpses found in the
top levels of the archaeological site of Mohenjo-daro, one of the great cities of the Indus Valley
Civilization, whom he said were victims of war. Yet shortly after Wheeler proposed his theory,
other scholars dismissed it by explaining that the skeletons were not those of victims of invasion
massacres, but rather the remains of hasty burials. Wheeler himself eventually admitted that the
theory could not be proven.

The Vedic Period refers to the time in history from approximately 1750-500 BCE, during which
Indo-Aryans settled into northern India, bringing with them specific religious traditions. Most
history of this period is derived from the Vedas, the oldest scriptures in the Hindu religion, which
were composed by the Aryans in Sanskrit.

Vedic Civilization is believed to have been centered in the northwestern parts of the Indian
subcontinent and spread around 1200 to the Ganges Plain, a 255-million hectare area (630
million acres) of flat, fertile land named after the Ganges River and covering most of what is
now northern and eastern India, eastern parts of Pakistan, and most of Bangladesh. Many
scholars believe Vedic Civilization was a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan, or Indus
Valley, cultures.
The Indo-Aryans in the Early Vedic Period, approximately 1750-1000 BCE, relied heavily on a
pastoral, semi-nomadic economy with limited agriculture. They raised sheep, goats, and cattle,
which became symbols of wealth.

The Indo-Aryans also preserved collections of religious and literary works by memorizing and
reciting them, and handing them down from one generation to the next in their sacred language,
Sanskrit. The Rigveda, which was likely composed during this time, contains several
mythological and poetical accounts of the origins of the world, hymns praising the gods, and
ancient prayers for life and prosperity.

Organized into tribes, the Vedic Aryans regularly clashed over land and resources. The Rigveda
describes the most notable of these conflicts, the Battle of the Ten Kings, between the Bharatas
tribe and a confederation of ten competing tribes on the banks of what is now the Ravi River in
northwestern India and eastern Pakistan. Led by their king, Sudas, the Bharatas claimed victory
and merged with the defeated Purus tribe to form the Kuru, a Vedic tribal union in northern
India.

After the 12th century BCE, Vedic society transitioned from semi-nomadic to settled agriculture.
From approximately 1000-500 BCE, the development of iron axes and ploughs enabled the Indo
Aryans to settle the thick forests on the western Ganges Plain.

This agricultural expansion led to an increase in trade and competition for resources, and many
of the old tribes coalesced to form larger political units. The Indo-Aryans cultivated wheat, rice
and barley and implemented new crafts, such as carpentry, leather work, tanning, pottery,
jewelry crafting, textile dying, and wine making.

Economic exchanges were conducted through gift giving, particularly between kings and priests,
and barter using cattle as a unit of currency. While gold, silver, bronze, copper, tin, and lead are
mentioned in some hymns as trade items, there is no indication of the use of coins.

The invasion of Darius I (a Persian ruler of the vast Achaemenid Empire that stretched into the
Indus Valley) in the early 6th century BCE marked the beginning of outside influence in Vedic
society. This continued into what became the Indo-Greek Kingdom, which covered various parts
of South Asia and was centered mainly in modern Afghanistan and Pakistan.

In conclusion we may say that the Aryan migration, if there was one, was part of a series of
migrations of different nomadic communities and races that came either peacefully or through
force to the Indian subcontinent by land or by sea during the early human migrations between
10000 BCE – 5000 BCE before the Sindhu Saraswathi civilization reached its peak and settled
there. Over time those communities created a rich tapestry of social, religious and cultural
diversity that is peculiarly and uniquely Indian.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. India’s Ancient Past by R. S. Sharma.

2. Advanced History of India by RC Majumdar, HC Raychaudhuri and Kalilinkar Datta.

3. The Penguin History of Early India from Origin to 1318 by Romila Thapar
4. www.wikipedia.com
5. www.legalservice.com
6. www.anceint .eu/Aryan.html
7. www.iranicaonline.org/aryans