Semester II, 2017-18

Department of Physics, IIT Kanpur

PHY103A: Lecture # 4
(Text Book: Intro to Electrodynamics by Griffiths, 3rd Ed.)

Anand Kumar Jha

10-Jan-2018
 Notes
• The Solutions to HW # 1 have been posted.

• HW # 2 has also been posted.

• Office Hour – Friday 2:30-3:30 pm

• I am assuming that everyone has been receiving the

course emails.

• Course Webpage: http://home.iitk.ac.in/~akjha/PHY103.htm

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Summary of Lecture # 3:
• Line integral, surface integral, and volume integral
𝑏𝑏
• The fundamental Theorem 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
for derivative: � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑏𝑏 − 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎
𝑏𝑏
• The fundamental Theorem
� 𝛻𝛻𝑇𝑇 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = 𝑇𝑇 𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇(𝑎𝑎)
for Gradient:
𝑎𝑎 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

• The fundamental Theorem � 𝛻𝛻 ⋅ 𝐕𝐕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝐕𝐕 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚

for Divergence (Gauss’s theorem): 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

• The fundamental Theorem � 𝛻𝛻 × 𝐕𝐕 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = � 𝐕𝐕 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥

for Curl (Stokes’ theorem): 𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

• Coordinate systems: Spherical polar, and cylindrical

3
Dirac Delta function:
• Dirac delta function is a special function, which is defined as:
∞
𝛿𝛿 𝑥𝑥 = 0, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0
� 𝛿𝛿 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 1
= ∞, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 = 0 −∞

𝛿𝛿 𝑥𝑥

• Realization of a Dirac Delta function

2
1 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎
𝛿𝛿 𝑥𝑥 = lim exp −
𝑠𝑠→0 2𝜋𝜋𝑠𝑠 2 2𝑠𝑠 2

𝑥𝑥

• Example: What is the charge density of a point charge 𝑞𝑞 kept at the origin?
∞ ∞
𝜌𝜌(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞(𝑥𝑥); � 𝜌𝜌 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑞𝑞𝛿𝛿 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑞𝑞
−∞ −∞

4
Properties of a Dirac Delta function:
1
(1) 𝛿𝛿 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 𝛿𝛿(𝑥𝑥),
𝑘𝑘
(3) If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is a continuous function of 𝑥𝑥
∞ ∞
� 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)𝛿𝛿 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)𝛿𝛿 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)
−∞ −∞

(2) Dirac delta function centered at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 is defined as follows

𝛿𝛿 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 = 0, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0 ∞

= ∞, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 � 𝛿𝛿 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 1
−∞

(4) 3D Dirac delta function is defined as:

∞ ∞ ∞
3
𝛿𝛿 𝒓𝒓 = 𝛿𝛿 𝑥𝑥 𝛿𝛿 𝑦𝑦 𝛿𝛿 𝑧𝑧 � � � 𝑓𝑓 𝒓𝒓 𝛿𝛿 3 𝒓𝒓 − 𝒂𝒂 = 𝑓𝑓(𝒂𝒂)
−∞ −∞ −∞

5
 r�
Divergence of the vector field 𝐕𝐕 = 2
r
r� 2−𝑛𝑛
Recall Homework Problem 1.5. The divergence 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ rn = (n+1).
r
r� r� 0
So, for 𝐕𝐕 = r2 , 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐕𝐕 = 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ r2 = r3 = 0 (except at r=0 where it is 0/0, not defined

Let’s calculate the divergence using the divergence theorem:

� 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐕𝐕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝐕𝐕 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

Take the volume integral over a sphere of radius R and the

surface integral over the surface of a sphere of radius R.
r̂
� 𝐕𝐕 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = � ⋅ 𝑅𝑅2 sin𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑r̂ = � sin𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 4𝜋𝜋
𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 R2
Therefore,
� 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐕𝐕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝐕𝐕 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = 4𝜋𝜋
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

We find that 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐕𝐕=0 but its integral over a volume is finite. This is possible only if
r̂
𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐕𝐕 = 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ = 4𝜋𝜋 𝛿𝛿(𝐫𝐫)
r2
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 r�
Divergence of the vector field 𝐕𝐕 = 2
r
r� 2−𝑛𝑛
Recall Homework Problem 1.5. The divergence 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ rn = (n+1).
r
r� r� 0
So, for 𝐕𝐕 = r2 , 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐕𝐕 = 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ r2 = r3 = 0 (except at r=0 where it is 0/0, not defined)

Let’s calculate the divergence using the divergence theorem:

� 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐕𝐕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝐕𝐕 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

Take the volume integral over a sphere of radius R and the

surface integral over the surface of a sphere of radius R.
r̂
� 𝐕𝐕 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = � ⋅ 𝑅𝑅2 sin𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑r̂ = � sin𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 4𝜋𝜋
𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 R2
r̂
𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 2 ? ?
Therefore, r
� 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐕𝐕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝐕𝐕 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = 4𝜋𝜋
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

We find that 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐕𝐕=0 but its integral over a volume is finite. This is only possible if
r̂ r̂
𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐕𝐕 = 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ = 4𝜋𝜋 𝛿𝛿(𝐫𝐫) 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ = 4𝜋𝜋 𝛿𝛿(r) = 4𝜋𝜋 𝛿𝛿(𝐫𝐫 − 𝐫𝐫𝐫)
r2 r2
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A few more essential concepts:

1. The Helmholtz theorem

A vector field 𝐅𝐅 in elctrodynamics can be completely determined if:

(i) The divergence 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐅𝐅 is known

(ii) The curl 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐅𝐅 is known
(iii) If the field goes to zero at infinity.

For the proof of this theorem, see Appendix B of Griffiths

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 A few more essential concepts:

2. Scalar Potential:

If the curl of a vector field 𝐅𝐅 is zero, that is, if 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐅𝐅 = 0 everywhere, then:

b
(1) ∫a 𝐅𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 is independent of path. This is because of Stokes’ theorem

(2) ∮ 𝐅𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = 0 for any closed loop. � 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐅𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = � 𝐅𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥

𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

(3) 𝐅𝐅 is the gradient of a scalar function: 𝐅𝐅 = −𝛁𝛁V

• This is because Curl of a gradient is zero 𝛁𝛁 × 𝛁𝛁V = 𝟎𝟎

• The minus sign is purely conventional.
• The scalar potential not unique. A constant can be added to
V without affecting the gradient: 𝛁𝛁V= 𝛁𝛁(V + a), since the
gradient of a constant is zero.
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A few more essential concepts:

3. Vector Potential:

If the divergence of a vector field 𝐅𝐅 is zero, that is, if 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐅𝐅 = 0 everywhere, then:

(1) ∫ 𝐅𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 is independent of surface. This is because of the divergence theorem

(2) ∮ 𝐅𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = 0 for any closed surface. � 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐅𝐅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝐅𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

(3) 𝐅𝐅 is the gradient of a vector function: 𝐅𝐅 = 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐀𝐀

• This is because divergence of a curl is zero 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐀𝐀 = 0

• The vector potential is not unique. A gradient 𝛁𝛁V of a scalar
function can be added to 𝐀𝐀 without affecting the curl, since
the curl of a gradient is zero.
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Electric Field
Coulomb’s Law

Force on a test charge 𝑄𝑄 due to a single point charge 𝑞𝑞 is:

1 𝑞𝑞 𝑄𝑄
𝐅𝐅 = 2
r̂ (in the units of Newton)
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r
C2 Permittivity
𝜖𝜖0 = 8.85 × 10−12 of free space
N ⋅ m2

Force on a test charge Q due to a collection of point charges is:

1 𝑞𝑞1 𝑄𝑄 𝑞𝑞2 𝑄𝑄 𝑞𝑞3 𝑄𝑄

𝐅𝐅 𝐫𝐫 = r� + 2 r�2 + 2 r�3 + ⋯ = 𝑄𝑄𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫)
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r12 1 r2 r3

1 𝑞𝑞1 𝑞𝑞2 𝑞𝑞3

𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫) = r� + r� + r�3 + ⋯
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r1 2 1
r2 2 2
r3 2

Q: What is field (a vector function), physically?

A: We don’t really know. At this level, field is just a mathematical

concept which is consistent with the physical theory
11
(electrodynamics). Also, we know how to calculate a field.
Electric Field

Electric field due to a single point charge 𝑞𝑞 is:

1 𝑞𝑞
𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫) = r̂
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r2

Electric field due to a collection of point charges is:

1 𝑞𝑞1 𝑞𝑞2 𝑞𝑞3
𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫) = r� + r� + r� + ⋯
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r12 1 r22 2 r32 3

Electric field due to a continuous charge distribution is:

1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫) = � r̂
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r2

For a line charge 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜆𝜆 𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

For a surface charge 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜎𝜎 𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
For a volume charge 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜌𝜌 𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We know how to calculate electric fields due a charge distribution, using Coulomb’s
12
law. We’ll now explore some tricks for calculating the field more efficiently.
Electric Flux and Gauss’s Law:
Electric field 𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫) due to a single point charge 𝑞𝑞 at origin is:
1 𝑞𝑞
𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫) = 2
r̂
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r

Electric field is a vector field. One way to represent a

vector field is by drawing a vectors of given magnitude
and directions.

Another way to represent a vector field is by drawing

the field lines:
(i) Field lines emanate from the positive charge and end
up on the negative charge or go up to infinity.

(ii) The density is the filed lines is proportional to the

strength of the field.
13
Electric Flux and Gauss’s Law:
Electric field 𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫) due to a single point charge 𝑞𝑞 at origin is:
1 𝑞𝑞
𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫) = 2
r̂
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r

The electric flux is defined as

Φ𝐸𝐸 = � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 is proportional the number of field lines
passing through an area element 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚

When the area 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 is perpendicular to the field 𝐄𝐄

the dot product is zero.

14
Electric Flux and Gauss’s Law:
Electric field 𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫) due to a single point charge 𝑞𝑞 at origin is:
1 𝑞𝑞
𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫) = 2
r̂
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r

The electric flux due to a point charge 𝑞𝑞 at origin through a

spherical shell of radius R.

𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋
1 𝑞𝑞 2
𝑞𝑞
Φ𝐸𝐸 = � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = � � 2
r̂ ⋅ 𝑅𝑅 sin𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃r̂ =
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝜃𝜃=0 𝜙𝜙=0 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖 0 𝑅𝑅 𝜖𝜖0

15
Electric Flux and Gauss’s Law:
Electric field 𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫) due to a single point charge 𝑞𝑞 at origin is:
1 𝑞𝑞
𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫) = 2
r̂
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r

The electric flux due to a point charge 𝑞𝑞 at origin through

any enclosing closed surface is
𝑞𝑞
Φ𝐸𝐸 = � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 =
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝜖𝜖0

16
Electric Flux and Gauss’s Law:
Electric field 𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫) due to a single point charge 𝑞𝑞 at origin is:
1 𝑞𝑞
𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫) = 2
r̂
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r

The electric flux due to a collection of point charges

through any enclosing closed surface.

Φ𝐸𝐸 = � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 =? ?
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

𝒏𝒏 𝒏𝒏 𝒏𝒏
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖
=� � 𝐄𝐄𝒊𝒊 . 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = � � 𝐄𝐄𝒊𝒊 . 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = �
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝜖𝜖0
𝒊𝒊=𝟏𝟏 𝒊𝒊=𝟏𝟏 𝒊𝒊=𝟏𝟏

𝑄𝑄enc This is the Gauss’s law in the integral form:

� 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 =
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝜖𝜖0 The flux through a surface is equal to the total
charge enclosed by the surface divided by 𝜖𝜖0
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Electric Flux and Gauss’s Law:

𝑄𝑄enc This is the Gauss’s law in integral form.

� 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 =
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝜖𝜖0

𝑄𝑄enc Using divergence

� 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐄𝐄 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚
Or, � 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐄𝐄 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = theorem
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

1 For a volume
𝑄𝑄enc = � 𝜌𝜌 𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Or, � 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐄𝐄 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝜌𝜌 𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Charge density
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝜖𝜖0

𝜌𝜌
𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐄𝐄 =
𝜖𝜖0 This is the Gauss’s law in differential form

Gauss’s law doesn’t have any information that the Coulomb’s does not contain. The
importance of Gauss’s law is that it makes calculating electric field much simpler and
provide a deeper understanding of the field itself.
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Electric Flux and Gauss’s Law:

𝑄𝑄enc This is the Gauss’s law in integral form.

� 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 =
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝜖𝜖0

Q: (Griffiths: Ex 2.10): What is the flux through the shaded face of the cube due to the
charge 𝑞𝑞 at the corner
� 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 ? ?
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

Answer: 𝑞𝑞
24 � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 =
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝜖𝜖0

1 𝑞𝑞
� 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 =
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 24 𝜖𝜖0
19