Analysis of Small-signal

Transistor Amplifiers
On completion of this chapter you should be able to predict the behaviour of given transistor
amplifier circuits by using equations and/or equivalent circuits that represent the transistor’s
a.c. parameters.

1 Reasons for Adopting this Technique

The gains of an amplifier circuit may be obtained by drawing the load
lines on the plotted output characteristics. However, for a number of
reasons, this is not a truly practical method.
(a) Manufacturers do not provide graphs or data to enable the
characteristics to be plotted.
(b) Even if such data were available, the process would be very time
consuming.
(c) Obtaining results from plotted graphs is not always very
accurate—much depends upon the skill and interpretation of the
individual concerned.
For these reasons an alternative method, which involves the use of
equations and/or simple network analysis, is preferred. This method
involves the use of the transistor parameters, the data for which is
provided by manufacturers. This information is most commonly
obtained from component catalogues produced by suppliers such as
Radio Spares and Maplin Electronics.

2 BJT Parameters
You should already be familiar with the d.c. parameters such as input
resistance (RIN), output resistance (ROUT), and current gain (hFE), and
their relationship to the transistor’s output characteristics. In addition,
an a.c. amplifier circuit may be redrawn in terms of the appearance of
the circuit to a.c. signals. This is illustrated in Fig. 1. 67
68 Analysis of Small-signal Transistor Amplifiers

VCC
C

C
b

RB RC
RS
Vce RC RL
RS

b
RB Vbe

Vce RL VS
VS Vbe

RL
(a) circuit (b) a.c. equivalent

Fig. 1

The a.c. equivalent circuit of Fig. 1(b) is useful in that the current flow
paths of the a.c. signal and the effective a.c. load can be appreciated,
but in order to analyse the complete amplifier circuit the load lines
would still need to be drawn on the characteristics. What is required is
a simple network representation of the transistor itself, which can then
be inserted into Fig. l(b) in place of the transistor symbol.
There are a variety of transistor parameters that may be used in
this way. Amongst these are Z-parameters, Y-parameters, hybrid

parameters, and h-parameters. For the analysis of small-signal audio
frequency amplifiers the use of h-parameters is the most convenient,
and will be the method adopted here.
Provided that the transistor is correctly biased and the input signal is
sufficiently small so as to cause excursions of currents and voltages
that remain within the linear portions of the characteristics, then the
transistor itself may be considered as a simple four-terminal network as
shown in Fig. 2.

i1 i2

ν1 Linear ν2
network

Fig. 2

The relationships between the four quantities of a linear network can

be expressed by a number of equations, two of which are:
1  Ai1  B 2 ..................[1]
i2  C i1  D2 ..................[2]
 Analysis of Small-signal Transistor Amplifiers 69

Examination of the units involved in these two equations reveals that A

must be an impedance (ohm), B and C are dimensionless (ratios), and
D must be an admittance (siemen). Since there is a mixture or hybrid
of units involved, they are known as the hybrid or h-parameters, having
the following symbols:

A  hi ohm; B  hr ; C  hf ; D  ho siemen

If the transistor is conected in common emitter configuration the two

equations would be written as follows

1  hie i1  hre 2
i2  h fe i1  hoe 2

If the transistor is connected in common base configuration then the

parameters would be hib, hrb, hfb and hob respectively.
The h-parameters are defined as follows:
hi: is the input impedance with the output short-circuited to a.c.
1
Thus, hi ohm
i1

hr: is the reverse voltage feedback ratio with the input open-circuited
to a.c.

1
Thus, hr
2

ho: is the output admittance with the input open-circuited to a.c.

i2
Thus, h0 siemen
v2

hf: is the forward current gain with the output short-circuited to a.c.

i2
Thus, h f 
i1

Notes:
1 In modern transistors hr is very small (104) so this parameter
will be ignored.
2 Just as conductance G  1/R siemen, so admittance, Y  1/Z siemen.
3 The h-parameters will vary with temperature, ageing and frequency.
For the analysis at this level we shall consider that they remain
constant.
4 Since the transistor is a current-operated device it is convenient
to represent its collector circuit as a current generator with its
‘internal’ impedance (1/ho) in parallel.
70 Analysis of Small-signal Transistor Amplifiers

Considering the amplifier circuit of Fig. 1, the complete h-parameter

equivalent circuit would be as shown in Fig. 3.

b c i2

i1
hie hfei1
RS
RB 1/hoe RL
ν1 ν2

νS

e e

Fig. 3

For practical purposes it may be assumed that the h-parameters will

have the same numerical values as their d.c. counterparts
i.e. hi  RIN ; h f  hF ; 1 / ho  ROUT

3 h-parameter Equations
Ignoring hr the original two equations may be written as:
1  hi i1…………...........…[1]
i2  h f i1  ho 2 ……………[2]

and using these equations the following results can be obtained.

hf
Amplifier current gain, Ai  (1)
1  ho RL

h f RL Ai RL
Amplifier voltage gain, A   (2)
hi (1  ho RL ) hi

Thus, knowing the values for a transistor’s h-parameters, the prediction

of amplifier gains can simply be obtained by either using the above
equations or by simple network analysis using the h-parameter
equivalent circuit.

Worked Example 1
Q For the amplifier circuit of Fig. 4, (a) sketch the h-parameter equivalent circuit and, (b) determine the
amplifier current and voltage gains using (i) network analysis, and (ii) h-parameter equations.

The h-parameters are hie  1.5 k; hfe  90; hoe  50 ␮S

 Analysis of Small-signal Transistor Amplifiers 71

VCC  12 V

RB RC
68 kΩ 2.2 kΩ

RS

VS RL
600 Ω 10 kΩ

100 mV
rms

Fig. 4

A
hie  1.5 k; hfe  90; hoe  50  106 S

(a) The h-parameter circuit will be as shown in Fig. 5.

iS i1 i2 iL

RS 90i
600 Ω
RB hie 1/hoe RC RL
68 kΩ 1.5 kΩ 20 kΩ 2.2 kΩ 10 kΩ
ν1 ν2
νS
0.1 V
rms

Rin RL

Fig. 5

106 RC RL 2.2  10
(i) 1/hoe   20 k; RL’  ohm  k  1.8 k
50 RC  R L 2.2  10

hie RB 68  1.5
Input circuit: Rin    1.47 k
hie  RB 68  1.5
Using potential divider technique:
Rin 1.47
v1   v s volt   0.1 V
Rs  Rin 1.47  0.6
v1  71 mV

v1 71  103
i1   amp  47.3  A
hie 1 .5  1 03
Output circuit: 90i1  90  47.3  106  4.26 mA
Using current divider technique:
1 / hoe 20
i2  
 90i1 amp   4.26
1 / hoe  RL 20  1.8
i2  3.91 mA
72 Analysis of Small-signal Transistor Amplifiers

v2  i2 RL’ volt  4  103  1.8  103

v2 7.2 V
i2 3.91  103
Ai    82.7 Ans
i1 47.3  106
v2 7.04
Av    99 Ans
v1 71  103
hfe 90
(ii) Ai  
1  hoe RL’ 1  (50  106  1800 )
90
Ai   82.6 Ans
1.09
Ai RL’ 82.6  1.8
Av  
hie 1.5
Av  99 Ans

Thus, allowing for the cumulation of rounding errors in part (i), the results from
the equations agree with those from the network analysis.

The actual current that will flow in the load of the previous example
will not in fact be i2, but only a fraction of that, and is shown in Fig. 5
as iL. Thus the power delivered to the external load will be less than
the maximum possible. This problem may be minimised by the use of
a matching transformer connected between the load and the amplifier
circuit output terminals.

Worked Example 2
Q The transistor used in the circuit of Fig. 6 has the following h-parameters hie  2 k; hoe  60 ␮S;
hfe 100. Calculate (a) the amplifier current gain, (b) the actual power delivered to the external load,
and (c) the turns ratio required for a matching transformer in order to maximise the power delivered
to the load.

VCC

RC
R1 4.7 kΩ
120 kΩ

RS
600 Ω RL
R2
20 kΩ RE 5 kΩ
VS 1 kΩ
0.2 Vp-p

Fig. 6

A
hie  2 k; hoe  60  106 S; hfe  100
 Analysis of Small-signal Transistor Amplifiers 73

(a) The h-parameter equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 7.

iS i1 i2 iL

Rs 100i1
600 Ω
R1 R2 hie 1/hoe RC RL
ν1 120 kΩ 20 kΩ 2 kΩ 16.7 kΩ 4.7 kΩ ν2 5 kΩ

νS
0.2 Vp-p

Rin RL

Fig. 7

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Input circuit:    siemen    mS
Rin R1 R2 hie 120 20 2
1 1  6  60 67
  mS
Rin 120 120

so, Rin  1.79 k 

Rin 1.79
v1   vs   200 mV pk-pk
Rs  Rin 0.6  1.79

v1  150 mV pk-pk
v1 0.15
i1  amp   75 µA pk-pk
hie 2000

RC RL 4.7  5
Output circuit: RL’   k
RC  RL 4.7  5
RL’  2.42 k 
100i1  7.5 mA pk-pk
1 / hoe 16.7
i2   100i1   7.5 mA pk-pk
1 / hoe  RL’ 16.7  2.42

i2  6.55 mA pk-pk

i2 6.55  103
Ai  
i1 75  106
Ai  87.3 Ans
hfe 100
Check: Ai    87.3
1  hoe RL’ 1  (60  106  2420 )
RC 4.7
(b) iL   i2   6.55 mA pk-pk
RC  RL 9.7

iL  3.17 mA pk-pk
PL  I L2RL watt, where I L is the r.m.s. value
iL 3.17
so, I L   mA  1.12 mA
2 2 2 2
74 Analysis of Small-signal Transistor Amplifiers

PL  (1.12  103 )2  5000

PL  6.3 mW Ans
(c) For maximum power transfer, RL must match the parallel combination of
1/hoe and Rc—call this Rp.
16.7  4.7
Rp  k   3.67 k 
16 .7  4 .7
N p2
Rp  RL ohm
Ns
Np Rp 3.67
so,  
Ns RL 5
Np
 0.856 : 1 Ans
Ns

4 FET Parameters and Equivalent Circuits

Since a FET has an extremely high input impedance then its input
circuit may be represented simply as an open circuit. Also, being a
voltage operated device it is convenient to represent the output circuit
as a voltage source with the internal resistance (rds) in series with it.
The small-signal equivalent circuit will therefore be as shown in Fig. 8.
The FET parameters rds and gm should already be familiar to you.
RL
From Fig. 8: Vo   gm rdsVi volt
RL  rds

Vo g r R
 A  m ds L (3)
Vi RL  rds

but in practice, rds RL , so

Vo g r R
 m ds L
Vi rds
and, A  gm RL (4)

G
d D

rds

Vi gmrdsVi V0 RL

S S

Fig. 8
 Analysis of Small-signal Transistor Amplifiers 75

Worked Example 3
Q The FET used in the amplifier circuit of Fig. 9 has parameter values of rds  80 k and gm  4 mS.
Calculate (a) the amplifier voltage gain, and (b) the effective input resistance of the amplifier circuit.

VDD
R1
56 kΩ RD
2 kΩ
RG
1 MΩ

RL
V0 3 kΩ
Vi RS
R2
1 kΩ
4.6 kΩ

Fig. 9

A
rds  80  103 ; gm  4  103 S; RL  3 k
RD RL 32
(a) For this circuit, the effective a.c. load, RL’  ohm  k
RD  RL 5
RL  1.2 k 

and since rds RL , then equation (4) may be used

so, Av  gmRL  4  103  1.2  103

Av  4.8 Ans

In order to check the validity of using the approximation of equation (4),

we can also calculate the gain using equation (3) and compare the two
answers.

gmrds RL’ 4  103  80  103  1.2  103 384 000

Thus, Av   
rds  R L
’ 80  103  1.2  10
03 81 200
Av  4.73, which confirms the validity of equaation (4)

Note that a FET amplifier provides very much less voltage gain than a
comparable BJT amplifier.

(b) Looking in at the input terminals, for a.c. signals, the gate resistor
RG is in series with the parallel combination of R1 and R2, as shown
in Fig. 10.
R1 R2 56  4.7
Rin  RG  ohm  106 
R1  R2 60.7
Rin  1.0043 M Ans (say 1 M )
76 Analysis of Small-signal Transistor Amplifiers

RG
Rin

R1 R2

Fig. 10

Thus, the inherently high input resistance of the FET is preserved in the amplifier
circuit by the inclusion of RG.

5 Practical Implications
It should be borne in mind that when designing an amplifier circuit, the
results of the equations as shown in this chapter give only theoretical
answers. If an amplifier circuit thus analysed is then constructed and
tested, the actual gain figures achieved may well be different to those
predicted. There are a number of reasons for this: the resistors will
have actual values depending upon how close to tolerance they are,
and the transistor parameters cannot be guaranteed to be exactly those
quoted by the manufacturer. Indeed, manufacturers recognise this by
quoting minimum, maximum and typical values for such parameters
as hf. In calculations the typical value is normally used. Thus the
mathematical analysis should be considered as only the first step in the
design process, and component values will then need to be adjusted in
the light of practical tests.

Summary of Equations
hf
BJT amplifier: Current gain, Ai 
1  ho RL

Ai RL
Voltage gain, Av 
hi
Power gain, Ap  Ai Av

FET amplifier: Approx. voltage gain, Av  gmRL

gm rds RL
or, more accurately, Av 
rds  RL
 Analysis of Small-signal Transistor Amplifiers 77

Assignment Questions
1 The h-parameters for the transistor used in the VCC
circuit of Fig. 11 are hfe  250, hie  5 k, and
hoe  40 S. 3.9 kΩ
56 kΩ
(a) sketch the h-parameter equivalent circuit
and hence, or otherwise,
(b) calculate the amplifier current, voltage
and power gains.

VCC 0.2 V V 4.7 kΩ

pk-pk
1
500 Ω 7.5 kΩ

4.7 kΩ
120 kΩ

Fig. 13
5 The parameters for the FET in Fig. 14 are
V0
0.25 V V1 rds  85 k and gm  4.1 mS.
pk-pk
(a) calculate the amplifier voltage gain, and
(b) the power dissipated in the external 15 k
load.
Fig. 11
VDD  30 V

2 The circuit of Fig. 11 is now reconnected so that

the transistor is connected in common base 56 kΩ 10 kΩ
configuration. If the common base parameters 1.2 MΩ
hib and hob are 100  and 20 S respectively,
(a) sketch the equivalent circuit, and V1
15 kΩ
(b) calculate the amplifier current, voltage 3V
pk-pk 4.7 kΩ
and power gains. 4.7 kΩ

3 Figure 12 shows a simply biased common

source FET amplifier, where the transistor
parameters are gm  3 mS, and rds  75 k.
Calculate the amplifier voltage gain.
VDD
15 kΩ
Fig. 14
6 For the two equivalent circuits shown in
Figs. 15(a) and (b), sketch the amplifier circuits
that they represent, showing component
values, and also identify the values for the
transistor parameters in each case.

90 kΩ
120 V1
5 kΩ
V1
20 kΩ
1.2 MΩ 6.8 kΩ
1 MΩ RS

(a)

i1
Fig. 12
50i1
600 Ω 82 kΩ
10 kΩ 25 kΩ 4.7 kΩ 10 kΩ
3 kΩ
4 The transistor of the amplifier circuit shown
in Fig. 13 has the following parameters:
hie  2.5 k, hfe  120, and hoe  100 S. V1

Sketch the equivalent circuit and determine

the amplifier current and voltage gains, and the (b)
power dissipated in the external 7.5 k load. Fig. 15
78 Analysis of Small-signal Transistor Amplifiers

Supplementary Worked Example 1

Q Calculate the minimum value of hfe required for the transistor in Fig. 16 in order that a power
of 3.5 mW is dissipated in the 10 k load resistor. The values for hie and hoe are 4 k and 50 µS
respectively.

VCC

4.7 kΩ
100 kΩ

0.25 V 600 Ω 10 kΩ
pk-pk

Fig.16

The h-parameter equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 17. Since RB hie then the
shunting effect of RB will be negligible, and it has therefore been omitted from
the calculation.

hie  4000 ; hoe  50  106 S; Vi  0.25 V pk-pk; Po  3.5  103 W

i1

hfei1

RB hie 1/hoe RC RL
VS V1 100 kΩ 4 kΩ 20 kΩ V2 4.7 kΩ 10 kΩ

0.25 V
pk-pk

Fig. 17

V22
P0  watt so V2  P0 RL volt  3.5  103  10 4
RL
V2  5.916 V
hie 4
V1   Vs volt pk-pk   0.25
hie  Rs 4.6
V1  0.21 7V pk-pk
0.217
7
so, V1   76.8mV r.m.s.
2 2

V2 5.916
Voltage gain required, Av  V  0.768
1

Av  77
 Analysis of Small-signal Transistor Amplifiers 79

hfe RL 1/hoe  RL 47

Av  where RL    3.2 k 
hie (1  hoe RL ) 1 / hoe  RL 14.7
Av {hie (1  hoe RL )} 77{4(1  50  106  3.2  103 )}
so, hfe  
RL 3.2
hie  112 Ans

Supplementary Worked Example 2

Q The FET in the circuit of Fig. 18 has rds ⴝ 50 k and gm ⴝ 5 mS. Determine the value of the output
voltage, V2, and the power developed in the 25 k load.

A
rds  50  103 ; gm  5  103 S

VDD  40 V

39 kΩ
100 kΩ

V2 25 kΩ
V1 2 MΩ
4V
pk-pk 2.2 kΩ

Fig. 18

RD RL 25  3.9
RL  ohm   15.2 k 
RD  RL 25  3.9

Now, since rds is NOT RL , then the approximate equation for voltage gain
should not be used, hence

gmrds RL 1.5  103  50  103  15.2  103

Av  
rds  RL 65.2
Av  17.48
Thus, V2  17.48  4 V pk-pk  70 V pk-pk
so, V2  24.75 V Ans
V22 24.752
P0  watt 
RL 25  103
P0  0.2 mW Ans

Note that had the approximate equation Av  gm RL been used in this case an
error of about 22% would have resulted in the value for Av. This would be an
unacceptably large error.

The approximate form of the equation should be used only when rds is at least
10 times larger than RL .
80 Analysis of Small-signal Transistor Amplifiers

Answers to Assignment Questions

1 (b) Ai  210; Av  197; Ap  41 370
2 (b) Ai  0.91; Av  42.8; Ap  39
3 25.7
4 Ai  95.5; Av  98.1; Po  6.5 mW
5 Av  24.6; Po  45.4 mW