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INTRODUCTION
To begin with, I am immensely thankful to the Indian Psychiatric Society for bestowing the
honour on me—to deliver this prestigious oration. This oration has enabled me to pay my
tributes to Late Dr DLN Murthy Rao—the renowned psychiatrist who has helped many in the
Indian psychiatry to reach the present height. I wish to pay my gratitude and sincere thanks
to my teachers Late Professor B.B. Sethi, Professor A.K. Agarwal, Professor Narottam Lal,
Professor S.C. Gupta and Shri P.K, Sinha for their blessings and support. I feel extremely
privileged as I stand before you and focus on one of the most interesting topic in
psychiatry—‘Cognition’.
Cognitive psychology has become an important area of research in a number of psychiatric
disorders, ranging from severe psychotic illness such as schizophrenia to relatively benign,
yet significantly disabling, non-psychotic illnesses such as somatoform disorder.
INTRODUÇÃO
Para começar, eu sou imensamente grato à sociedade psiquiátrica indiana para conceder a
honra em mim-para entregar esta oração prestigiosa. Esta oração me permitiu pagar
minhas homenagens ao falecido Dr. DLN Murthy Rao — o renomado psiquiatra que ajudou
muitos na psiquiatria Indiana a atingir a altura atual. Desejo prestar minha gratidão e sincero
agradecimento aos meus professores, o falecido professor B.B. Sethi, o Prof. AK Agarwal, o
professor Narottam Lal, o professor S.C. Gupta e Shri P. K, Sinha pelas suas bênçãos e
apoio. Eu me sinto extremamente privilegiado como eu estou diante de você e se
concentrar em um dos tópicos mais interessantes na psiquiatria-' cognição '.
A psicologia cognitiva tornou-se uma importante área de pesquisa em uma série de
transtornos psiquiátricos, variando de doença psicótica grave, como a esquizofrenia para
doenças relativamente benignas, mas significativamente incapacitantes, não psicóticas,
como a somatoforme Desordem.
Research in the area of neurocognition has started unlocking various secrets of psychotic
disorders, such as revealing the biological underpinnings, explaining the underlying
psychopathology and issues related to course, outcome and treatment strategies.
This oration summarizes the studies investigating cognitive processing in different
psychiatric disorders, with an emphasis on recent concepts. I will also discuss the findings of
my team's research on neurocognitive deficits in mood disorder (including a high-risk group
study), schizophrenia, obsessive–compulsive disorder and somatoform disorder carried out
in the Department of Psychiatry, K.G. Medical University, Lucknow. Tracing the evolution of
neurocognitive science may provide new insights into the pathophysiology and treatment of
psychiatric disorders.
Pesquisas na área de neurocognição começaram a desvendar vários segredos de
transtornos psicóticos, como revelar os fundamentos biológicos, explicando a
Psicopatologia subjacente e questões relacionadas com as estratégias de curso, desfecho e
tratamento.
Esta oração resume os estudos que investigam o processamento cognitivo em diferentes
transtornos psiquiátricos, com ênfase nos conceitos recentes. Discutirei também os achados
da pesquisa da minha equipe sobre os déficits neurocognitivos no transtorno do humor
(incluindo um estudo em grupo de alto risco), esquizofrenia, transtorno
obsessivo-compulsivo e transtorno somatoformo realizado no departamento de psiquiatria,
a. Universidade médica, Lucknow. Traçar a evolução da ciência neurocognitiva pode
fornecer novos insights sobre a fisiopatologia e o tratamento dos transtornos psiquiátricos.
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COGNITION
Cognition in a broad sense means information processing. It denotes a relatively high level
of processing of specific information including thinking, memory, perception, motivation,
skilled movements and language. The hippocampus contains the neural circuitry crucial for
cognitive functions such as learning and memory. It refers to the perceptual and intellectual
aspects of mental functioning.
COGNIÇÃO
A cognição em um sentido largo significa o processamento da informação. Ele denota um
nível relativamente elevado de processamento de informações específicas, incluindo
pensamento, memória, percepção, motivação, movimentos qualificados e linguagem. O
hipocampo contém os circuitos neurais cruciais para funções cognitivas como a
aprendizagem e a memória. Refere-se aos aspectos perceptuais e intelectuais do
funcionamento mental.
Among the specific functions that may be assessed in determining the intactness or
adequacy of cognition are orientation, the ability to learn necessary skills, solve problems,
think abstractly, reason and make judgements, the ability to retain and recall events,
mathematical ability and other forms of symbol manipulation, control over primitive reactions
and behaviour, language use and comprehension, attention, perception and praxis.1
Cognitive deficits may result in the inability to:
Entre as funções específicas que podem ser avaliadas na determinação da intactência ou
adequação da cognição são a orientação, a capacidade de aprender as habilidades
necessárias, resolver problemas, pensar abstratamente, raciocinar e fazer julgamentos, a
capacidade de reter e recordar eventos, habilidade matemática e outras formas de
manipulação de símbolos, controle sobre reações e comportamentos primitivos, uso da
linguagem e compreensão, atenção, percepção e práxis. 1 os déficits cognitivos podem
resultar na incapacidade de:
• pay attention
• process information quickly
• remember and recall information
• respond to information quickly
• think critically, plan, organize and solve problems
• initiate speech
• Preste atenção
• processar informações rapidamente
• lembrar e recordar informações
• responder rapidamente à informação
• pensar criticamente, planejar, organizar e solucionar problemas
• iniciar a fala
Cognitive deficits have a relationship with different levels of the disease process, as depicted
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discussing specific cognitive deficits in different psychiatric disorders, the following cognitive
domains need to be elucidated.
Os déficits cognitivos têm uma relação com diferentes níveis do processo da doença,
conforme descrito na Fig. 12Antes de discutir déficits cognitivos específicos em diferentes
transtornos psiquiátricos, os seguintes domínios cognitivos precisam ser elucidados.
Image
Fig 1
Levels of disease process and types of assessments-relationship
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WORKING MEMORY
Working memory (WM) function is thought to be sustained by a network of temporary
memory systems. It plays a crucial role in many cognitive tasks, such as reasoning, learning
and understanding. It refers to the ability to hold the stimuli ‘online’ for a short time, then
either use it directly after a short delay or process or manipulate it mentally to solve cognitive
and behavioural tasks. WM involves active rehearsing, processing and manipulation of
information. WM seems to depend on the function of the prefrontal cortex.3
MEMÓRIA DE TRABALHO
A função memória de trabalho (WM) é pensada para ser sustentada por uma rede de
sistemas de memória temporária. Desempenha um papel crucial em muitas tarefas
cognitivas, tais como raciocínio, aprendizagem e compreensão. Refere-se à capacidade de
manter os estímulos ' on-line ' por um curto período de tempo, em seguida, usá-lo
diretamente após um curto atraso ou processo ou manipulá-lo mentalmente para resolver
tarefas cognitivas e comportamentais. WM envolve ensaios ativos, processamento e
manipulação de informações. A WM parece depender da função do córtex pré-frontal. 3
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EXECUTIVE FUNCTION
Executive function (EF) refers to the ability to use abstract concepts, to form an appropriate
problem-solving test for the attainment of future goals, to plan one's actions, to work out
strategies for problem-solving, and to execute these with the self-monitoring of one's mental
and physical processes. Executive skills are most important in dealing with novel or complex
situations. Physiologically, EF is linked to the cortical–subcortical circuits and frontal lobes.4
FUNÇÃO EXECUTIVA
A função executiva (EF) refere-se à capacidade de usar conceitos abstratos, para formar
um teste de resolução de problemas adequado para a consecução de metas futuras, para
planejar suas ações, para trabalhar estratégias de resolução de problemas e para
executá-las com o automonitoramento de um dos processos mentais e físicos. As
habilidades executivas são as mais importantes em lidar com situações novas ou
complexas. Fisiologicamente, a EF está ligada aos circuitos corticais-subcorticais e lóbulos
frontais. 4
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Some deficits including verbal memory and learning, visual memory, abstraction, attention
and language abilities have been found even in untreated, first-episode patients.40–43
Cognitive impairments differ according to the clinical symptomatology—the deficits may be
related more with disorganized and negative symptoms and less with psychotic
symptoms.44–48 There appears no pathognomonic neuropsychological profile in
schizophrenia, likely due in part to aetiological heterogeneity within the disorder.
Cognitive deficits and functional impairment manifest a specific pattern of relationship in
schizophrenia.
Alguns déficits, incluindo memória verbal e aprendizagem, memória visual, abstração,
atenção e habilidades linguísticas, foram encontrados mesmo em pacientes sem
tratamento, no primeiro episódio. 40 – 43
As deficiências cognitivas diferem de acordo com a sintomatologia clínica — os déficits
podem estar relacionados mais com sintomas desorganizados e negativos e menos com
sintomas psicóticos. 44 – 48 não aparece nenhum perfil neuropsicológico patognomônico
em esquizofrenia, provavelmente devido em parte à heterogeneidade aetiological dentro da
desordem.
Functional domain
Cognitive correlates
Social function
Declarative memory, vigilance, EF
Occupational functioning
EF, declarative memory, WM, vigilance
Independent functioning
EF, declarative memory, WM
EF: executive function; WM: working memory
Correlaciona cognitivo de domínio funcional
Função social ----- memória declarativa, vigilância, EF
EF de funcionamento ocupacional, -------memória declarativa, WM, vigilância
EF de funcionamento independente, --------memória declarativa, WM
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The deficits have been shown to correlate with both the number of affective episodes and
the overall duration of illness.65,71,73,74,76 Performance on memory and executive tasks
were most likely to correlate with illness episodes.
The relationships between mood and cognition are dynamic ones, with components that are
trait-dependent and others that are state-dependent. Because of their relatively static nature,
trait characteristics of cognitive and neurological manifestation may provide insights into core
brain anomalies that give rise to severe mood disorders.
Os déficits têm se mostrado correlacionar tanto com o número de episódios afetivos quanto
com a duração geral da doença. 65, 71, 73, 74, 76 o desempenho na memória e tarefas
executivas foram mais propensos a se correlacionar com episódios de doença.
As relações entre humor e cognição são dinâmicas, com componentes que são
dependentes do traço e outros dependentes do estado. Por causa de sua natureza
relativamente estática, as características do traço de manifestação cognitiva e neurológica
podem fornecer introspecções em anomalias principais do cérebro que dão origem a
desordens de modo severas.
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A major limitation is differing medication regimens. Patients with bipolar disorder usually
receive mood stabilizers (e.g. lithium, anticonvulsants) whereas patients with schizophrenia
often take antipsychotic medications. Also, it is impossible to assess the degree of the
patient's cognitive impairment if studies fail to include a normal control group.83,84
In a study conducted at our centre (tertiary-care psychiatric hospital), 15 stable maintained
schizophrenic patients and 15 euthymic bipolar-I patients attending the outpatient clinic were
compared with each other as well as with 15 age- and education-matched controls. Stable
schizophrenic patients were clinically assessed using the Positive and Negative Syndrome
Scale for Schizophrenia (PANSS) and Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS) while
euthymic patients were clinically assessed using the Young Mania Rating Scale (YMRS) and
HDRS. Neurocognitive assessments were done using the WCST, Spatial Working Memory
Test (SWMT) and CPT—all are computer-based. Stable schizophrenic patients performed
poorly on all the neurocognitive parameters as compared with both controls and bipolar
euthymic patients.
Euthymic bipolar patients showed a significant difference in the domain of EF compared with
normal controls, while the schizophrenic and bipolar euthymic patients were comparable.
Thus, our study suggested that bipolar patients in the euthymic/remitted phase also have
some types of cognitive processing deficits. Patterns of cognitive disturbances in tasks of EF
are similar in both the groups but are quantitatively more marked in schizophrenia. Euthymic
bipolar subjects showed significant impairment only on EF when compared with the control
group.85
Os pacientes bipolares eutímicos mostraram uma diferença significativa no domínio do EF
comparados com os controles normais, quando os pacientes eutímicos esquizofrênicos e
bipolares fossem comparáveis. Assim, nosso estudo sugeriu que os pacientes bipolares na
fase euthymic/remitiu igualmente têm alguns tipos de deficits de processamento cognitivos.
Padrões de distúrbios cognitivos em tarefas de EF são semelhantes em ambos os grupos,
mas são quantitativamente mais marcados na esquizofrenia. Indivíduos eutímicos bipolares
apresentaram comprometimento significativo apenas na EF quando comparados com o
grupo controle. 85
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Although cortical dysfunction undoubtedly plays a role in the development of abnormal mood
states, the use of neuropsychological assessments as a tool to probe such dysfunction is
limited by a number of non-specific factors. Poor performance on neuropsychological tests
may be due to reduced motivation, non-cooperation or failure to remain engaged in a formal
test setting.75 Recently, cognitive assessments have been performed in bipolar patients
when they are euthymic. Studies of this nature aim to identify trait-dependent rather than
state-dependent neuropsychological deficits, which may be indicative of underlying
neurobiological disturbances associated with the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder.
Results from various studies are not consistent and therefore raise questions about the
generalization of the findings. Some studies fail to control for differences in age, gender and
premorbid intelligence between patients and control subjects.86 Euthymia is often poorly
defined.73,83 Different neuropsychological measures used by investigators to study
neurocognitive functions of bipolar disorder further limit the interpretability and
generalizability of the findings. Yet, patterns that emerge from the literature demonstrate the
fact that neurocognitive impairments form an important clinical component of bipolar illness
and are not merely epiphenomena.
A high incidence of psychosocial difficulties has been reported during remission, which
raises questions about so-called complete recovery. Patients in either acute manic or
euthymic states have demonstrated significant impairment on the Stroop test, a test for
EF.87
Os resultados de vários estudos não são consistentes e, portanto, levantam questões sobre
a generalização dos achados. Alguns estudos não controlam as diferenças de idade, sexo e
inteligência pré-mórbida entre pacientes e indivíduos do controle. 86 a Euthymia é
frequentemente mal definida. 73, 83 diferentes medidas neuropsicológicas utilizadas pelos
investigadores para estudar funções da desordem bipolar limitam mais a interpretabilidade e
o generalização dos resultados. No entanto, os padrões que emergem da literatura
demonstram o fato de que as deficiências neurocognitivas formam um importante
componente clínico da doença bipolar e não são meramente epifenômenos.
Uma alta incidência de dificuldades psicossociais tem sido relatada durante a remissão, o
que suscita questionamentos sobre a chamada recuperação completa. Pacientes em ambos
os Estados maníacos ou eutímicos agudos demonstraram comprometimento significativo no
teste de Stroop, um teste para EF. 87
Zubeita et al.88 found that euthymic patients did not show significant impairment on CPT,
however, on WCST patients committed more errors than healthy controls. The same study
also showed impairment in verbal memory, but not in non-verbal memory. Subjective
memory complaints are often reported during the euthymic state in bipolar patients.
Impairment of memory has been reported during the depressed, manic and euthymic phases
of the illness. Impairments in story recitation88 and word list recall69 have been recorded in
the euthymic phase.
In a study conducted at our centre on 30 patients meeting the DSM-IV criteria for bipolar
affective disorder, currently euthymic, were assessed using WCST for EF, CPT for
performance on continuous tasks administering and SWMT for spatial working memory.
Fifteen controls matched for age and sex were also assessed. All the patients and controls
were educated at least up to standard VIII. The patients’ performance was impaired on
WCST, implying poor EF as compared with controls, and indicating residual cognitive
deficits. The performance on tests of attention, concentration and memory was not
significantly different from that of the matched controls.89
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Keri et al.90 showed that the unaffected relatives of bipolar patients showed a greater
degree of verbal recall difficulties than a group of unrelated controls. Chowdhury et al.91
suggested deficits in the executive control of WM to be a trait deficit. Zalla et al.92 found that
the unaffected relatives of bipolar patients performed poorly on the Stroop test, i.e. a
dysfunction of anterior cingulate cortex. McDonough–Ryan et al.93 found significant
impairment on executive and non-verbal intelligence test—associated tasks in children with
at least one parent with bipolar disorder.
However, not all studies of ‘at risk’ relatives of bipolar patients have reported the presence of
cognitive deficits.94–96
The plastic changes associated with a mood-driven disturbance of attention may adversely
affect cognition particularly in the acute stage of the bipolar illness. Analysis of
executive-type cognitive traits may constitute a key endophenotype (vulnerability marker) for
genetic studies of bipolar disorder.97
We conducted a study to assess neurocognitive functions in 10 first-degree healthy relatives
of patients with bipolar disorder and compared them with 10 age-, gender- and
education-matched healthy controls with no family history of any neuropsychiatric disorder.
In this study, EF assessed using WCST showed that healthy first-degree relatives of patients
with bipolar disorder completed less categories and committed more perseverative errors
than did normal controls, i.e. they had impaired EF.
On CPT, attention and concentration abilities were found to be significantly impaired; and
first—degree healthy relatives of bipolar patients committed more mistakes (errors of
commission), had more missed responses (errors of omission) and took more time to
respond then normal controls.
For spatial working memory on SWMT, healthy first-degree relatives of patients with bipolar
disorder were found to be significantly impaired (scored less correct responses) at 0 sec
delay (i.e. error in recognition) but no significant differences were reported between subjects
(relatives) and controls at 20 sec delay (i.e. no error in recall). No significant differences were
seen regarding non-adjacent errors at 0 sec and 20 sec delays.98
The evidence suggests that the presence of cognitive dysfunction in bipolar affective
disorder is a core and enduring deficit of the illness. The association between cognitive
impairment and the number of affective episodes suggests that each affective episode is not
biologically benign and early diagnosis followed by active treatment could potentially reduce
cognitive morbidity. Future studies are required employing a variety of study designs such as
the use of high-risk groups and first-episode patients, in conjunction with longitudinal
assessments. Understanding the mechanism that underlies mood and cognition may help to
devise better treatment options to address dysfunctions during euthymia.
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COGNITION IN DEPRESSION
Numerous studies have demonstrated the presence of neuropsychological deficits in actually
depressed patients with verbal and visual memory as well as EF.99–101 The decrement in
cognition has been attributed to reduced motivation, attenuated attentional capacity,
impaired concentration, intrusive thought and slowness. Cognitive deficits are more
pronounced in melancholic than non-melancholic depression.102Prominent cognitive
disturbances may be one of the presenting symptoms of depression. Drevets et
al.103showed reduced blood flow to the subgenual area of the prefrontal cortex in bipolar
and unipolar depression. Core cognitive deficits may be present in unipolar depression
which is independent of the depressed state.87
COGNIÇÃO NA DEPRESSÃO
Numerosos estudos demonstraram a presença de déficits neuropsicológicos em pacientes
realmente deprimidos com memória verbal e Visual, bem como EF. 99 – 101 o decréscimo
na cognição tem sido atribuído a motivação reduzida, atencionais atenuados capacidade,
concentração prejudicada, pensamento intrusivo e lentidão. Os deficits cognitivos são mais
pronunciados em melancólico do que a depressão não-melancólico. 102os distúrbios
cognitivos proeminentes podem ser um dos sintomas de apresentação da depressão.
Drevets et al. 103apresentaram fluxo sanguíneo reduzido para a área subgenual do córtex
pré-frontal em depressão bipolar e unipolar. Os deficits cognitivos do núcleo podem estar
atuais na depressão unipolar que é independente do estado deprimido. 87
In the acute phase of depression, patients produce more errors of attention compared with
matched controls.104 Austin et al.105 showed impairment in EF in the Trail Making Test,
part B, which worsened with the level of depression. Verbal memory impairment, such as
story recitation and word list recall, has been reported.88,105
Non-verbal memory has also been reportedly impaired in depressed patients.106 Implicit
non-declarative memory has not been found to be impaired in depressed patients.107
We carried out a study at our centre on 30 patients with depression and 15 matched
controls, and compared their performance on the tests of EF, attention–concentration and
WM. The findings of the study suggest that depression induces significant impairment in the
abilities of sustained attention as shown by the fewer correct responses and more missed
responses (errors of omission), and this impairment increases with severity. The number of
wrong responses, however, was similar in controls and patients (errors of commission).
Reaction time also increases due to depression, which further increases with severity.
Significant impairment in spatial working memory after a delay (error in recall) is seen as
compared with controls, its extent, however, is similar across the variable severity.
Visuospatial and visuoconstructional deficits are among the most consistent findings in
neuropsychological assessment studies of patients with OCD.114,115
OCD patient groups have shown impairment on numerous tests of non-verbal memory
including visual reproduction and delayed recognition of figures, maze learning and
intermediate and delayed figure copying. Most studies suggest that encoding and retrieval
are impaired in OCD, while storage of information remains intact. Some studies suggest that
deficits in encoding of new information are primarily responsible for these performance
problems.111,116 Savage et al.117 indicate that retrieval is also faulty, while storage is
intact. Deckersbach et al.118 reported that OCD patient groups have deficits in the implicit
memory domain of procedural learning in dual task condition. This finding was interpreted as
consistent with frontostriatal dysfunction.
Patients with OCD often function remarkably well in their daily lives, despite severe
symptomatology and cognitive difficulties, which are apparent only on specific testing. In
contrast to non-verbal memory deficits, verbal memory is generally preserved in studies of
patients with OCD.115,119,120 Patients with OCD demonstrate normal general intelligence
and language abilities. Different subtypes of OCD may have varying neuropsychological
deficit profiles.121
In a study we aimed to evaluate the EF, spatial working memory and performance on
continuous tasks of 30 patients with OCD compared with 30 normal matched healthy
controls, and to observe the effect of severity and duration of psychopathology on them.
Os pacientes com TOC muitas vezes funcionam notavelmente bem em suas vidas diárias,
apesar de graves sintomatologia e dificuldades cognitivas, que são evidentes apenas em
testes específicos. Em contraste com os deficits não-verbais da memória, a memória verbal
é preservada geralmente nos estudos dos pacientes com TOC. 115, 119, 120 pacientes
com OCD demonstram a inteligência geral normal e habilidades da língua. Diferentes
subtipos de TOC podem ter diversos perfis de déficit neuropsicológico. 121
Em um estudo, objetivou-se avaliar a EF, memória de trabalho espacial e desempenho em
tarefas contínuas de 30 pacientes com TOC em comparação com 30 controles normais
pareados saudáveis, e observar o efeito da severidade e duração da psicopatologia neles.
Findings of the study suggested that OCD induces significant impairment in the EF as lesser
categories were completed and more perseverative errors were committed by patients, and
that the degree of impairment increases with the severity of the illness.
OCD induces significant impairment in sustained attention abilities, as shown by fewer
correct responses and more missed and wrong responses; the degree of impairment does
not increase with severity.
Reaction time was, however, not significantly different between the patients and controls.
Significant impairment in spatial working memory was seen as compared controls after a
delay (error in recall); its extent also increased with increasing severity. The patients
performed similar to controls at 0 sec (recognition).
No effect was found of the duration of illness on performance in any of the domains.
Ascertaining whether cognitive impairment is a function of the present disease state or a
long-term stable trait has both heuristic and clinical implications.122
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In a study between 1 May and 31 July 2004, we assessed 20 patients who met the ICD-10
criteria for somatoform disorder by using the test for EF on WCST, performance on
continuous task on CPT and spatial working memory on SWMT. Fifteen controls (age-,
education- and gender-matched) were also assessed. All the patients and controls were
educated at least up to standard VIII. The patients’ performance was impaired on WCST
implying poor EF as compared with controls. The performance on tests of
attention-concentration was also significantly poorer than that of the controls. On the SWMT,
however, significant difference was found only in delayed retrieval and not in immediate
recall. The study suggested that enduring cognitive deficits in EF, attention-concentration
and memory may be contributing to the poor psychosocial functioning in patients with
somatoform disorders.131
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COGNITIVE DEFICITS IN OTHER PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS
Studies related to neuropsychological dysfunction are invading many other psychiatric
disorders as well. Some important psychiatric disorders are discussed below.
Newly detoxified alcoholics exhibit relatively intact verbal and general intellectual abilities,
but impaired non-verbal abilities.143,144
Deficits exist in novel problem-solving, abstract reasoning, and learning and recalling
information.144,145 Deficits in perceptual–motor abilities, abstract reasoning, and
non-verbal learning and memory can persist for months or years.145–147
Neuropsychological test findings with substance-dependent populations also might influence
the design of treatment programmes.143,148
Os alcoólicos recentemente desintoxicados exibem habilidades intelectuais verbais e gerais
relativamente intactas, mas as habilidades não verbais comprometidas. 143, 144 déficits
existem na nova resolução de problemas, raciocínio abstrato, e aprendendo e recordando
informações. 144, 145 Os déficits nas habilidades perceptuais – motoras, raciocínio abstrato
e aprendizagem não-verbal e memória podem persistir por meses ou anos. 145 – 147 os
achados de testes neuropsicológicos com populações dependentes de substâncias também
podem influenciar no desenho do tratamento programas. 143, 148
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CONCLUSION
Although the range of cognitive problems can be diverse, there are several cognitive
domains, including executive, attentional and memory, that appear most frequently at risk.
Without a doubt, there is more to be learned about the specificity of cognitive impairment
across disorders, the relationship of these deficits with the underlying psychopathology and
neuroanatomy of these disorders, and the impact of the impairments on treatment
implications. Early identification of these dysfunctions would provide considerable benefit to
patients and suggest ways of coping with these dysfunctions.
Conclusão
Embora a escala de problemas cognitivos possa ser diversa, há diversos domínios
cognitivos, incluindo o executivo, o atenção e a memória, que aparecem o mais
freqüentemente em risco. Sem dúvida, há mais a ser aprendido sobre a especificidade do
comprometimento cognitivo entre as desordens, a relação desses déficits com a
Psicopatologia subjacente e a neuroanatomia dessas desordens, e o impacto das
deficiências no tratamento Implicações. A identificação adiantada destas disfunções
forneceria o benefício considerável aos pacientes e sugeriria maneiras de lidar com estas
disfunções.
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Acknowledgments
Prayers, rather than thanks, need to be offered to the Almighty God, my parents and my
teachers—the blessings bestowed by them have paved the way for my existence and
achievements so far.
I am immensely thankful for the caring attitude of my family, who always stood by my
side—at times, sacrificing their personal needs for me and my work.
Words to thank my colleagues, friends, students and all other associates are few, who
perpetually helped me in my progress of learning.
I am especially thankful to Professor Roy Abraham Kallivayalil, Dr Rajul Tandon, Dr Manisha
Mishra, Dr Mohan Dhyani, Dr Sachin Sharma, Dr Amol Pargaonkar, Dr Anand Pratap Singh
and a very dear friend Shri P.K. Sinha for their useful suggestions and inputs.
Last, but not the least, I am thankful to all the patients who participated in the studies
conducted by our team.
Confirmações
As orações, ao invés de agradecimentos, precisam ser oferecidas ao Deus todo-poderoso,
meus pais e meus professores — as bênçãos concedidas por eles abriram o caminho para
minha existência e conquistas até agora.
Sou imensamente grato pela atitude carinhosa de minha família, que sempre ficava ao meu
lado — às vezes, sacrificando suas necessidades pessoais para mim e meu trabalho.
Palavras para agradecer aos meus colegas, amigos, estudantes e todos os outros
associados são poucos, que perpetuamente me ajudaram no meu progresso de
aprendizado.
Estou especialmente grato ao professor Roy Abraham Kallivayalil, Dr. Rajul Tandon, Dr.
Manisha Mishra, Dr. Mohan Dhyani, Dr. Sachin Sharma, Dr. Amol Pargaonkar, Dr. Anand
Pratap Singh e um amigo muito querido Shri PK Sinha por suas sugestões úteis e insumos.
Por último, mas não menos importante, sou grato a todos os pacientes que participaram dos
estudos conduzidos por nossa equipe.
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"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2913637/":
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