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It is undeniable that the world around you is about communication. So, what is communication?
Communication is always a two-way process, involving creation and exchange of meaning. It has at
one end the initiator of the message and, at the other end, the receiver, who must be prepared to listen
and understand the message, in order to make communication possible.
Communication is the process of conveying the wishes, ideas, and feelings of one person to
another. It also means the correct reception of all these as closely as possible to the way in which
they were meant.
Even if it is a two-way process, the responsibility for the effectiveness of communication is the
sender’s, who has the duty to check with the receiver if the message has been correctly heard and
understood.
1. Categories of communication
According to the number of people involved in the act of communication, we can divide
experiences of communicating into four categories.
We communicate within ourselves, we convey the message and we are also the person receiving
the communication when, for instance, we reflect on our tomorrow’s plans and intentions.
Groups of people can be small groups and large groups. As they have different purposes, they also
behave differently (for instance, a group of students behaves differently from a group of people
gathered for a conference).
Communication has functions such as: to warn, to inform, to advise, to entertain, to explain, to
describe. We perform the act of communication to a certain end, having in mind needs we want to
satisfy.
The message has an impact on the receiver. He listens, compares, analyses, judges, reacts, thinks up
an answer as a reaction. When encoding and decoding the message, the two ends of the
communication process, the sender and the receiver are influenced by social status, beliefs, age, sex,
culture, personal experiences. These filters can flaw, block or even interrupt communication.
they have incomplete communication skills, e.g. they are good listeners but poor speakers or vice
versa,
they cannot relate to and empathise with people,
they do not know enough about the subject,
they give incomplete information, on purpose or by mistake
they give too much information on the topic.
Sometimes language can be a barrier because of which the message cannot be understood. This can
be caused by:
foreign accent,
dialect (People from Transylvania understand with difficulty those from the south of Romania,
who speak very fast),
jargon (It is used by people sharing a common experience: medical, scientific, young generation,
technical jargons. Sometimes, it is used deliberately to convey the impression of privileged
knowledge),
words with ambiguous meaning (E.g. the so-called false friends: to be infatuated means to be in
love).
b. Psychological aspects.
There might be personality or emotional problems, which prevent the communicator from giving a
clear message and the listener from hearing it. There may be:
a personality clash between the two parties, when the speaker is very aggressive, and the listener
very passive, shy or vice versa,
emotional/loaded words, which express emotion, and provoke both the communicator’s and the
listener’s attitudes, opinions, and prejudices (e.g. when you call a black person a “nigger”, instead
of an “Afro-American”).
c. Physical situations
Under certain circumstances, physical situations can also interfere with the communication process.
These situations are:
5. Types of communication
• verbal
• non-verbal
• symbolic.
The conveying of a clear message depends on both verbal/non-verbal communication, as the speaker
establishes both a conscious and a subconscious rapport with his audience.
1. The verbal communication consists of the words we use to transmit the message. It is important
but not essential as, according to statistics, it accounts for only 10% of the effectiveness of the
presentation. By words you can manipulate, convince, influence your audience. This channel of
communication is addressed to the audience’s mind.
The non-verbal and the symbolic channels of communication are related to the presenter’s delivery
skills (90% of the effectiveness). Ultimately, the success of the presentation is provided by the
presentation style, rather than the content of the speech.
2. The non-verbal communication is a range of non-verbal signals (the way you use your voice
to emphasize certain words, the animation and what you express with your face, the way you
move your body and the gestures you make, charisma,) organized into:
body language. It tells a lot about people’s feelings, attitudes and intentions (gesture, gaze, facial
expression, posture, body contact and body proximity, touch),
paralanguage (pitch of voice-how high or low your voice is, pace of speech - how fast you speak).
The non-verbal communication modifies and underlines the verbal message. It existed before the
verbal transmission of messages, being a primary code of communication. This type of language is
based on culture, and it presents cultural differences. Think about how different the correct
behaviours are in the Japanese culture, the American one, the standards in the Middle East. Issues
such as gestures, the way you use your space - outward moving gestures or not, being the initiator of
the discussion, eye contact or lack of eye contact, vary culturally.
This type of communication is difficult to manipulate, as it can betray feelings or attitudes such as
your lack of interest or enthusiasm. In case the body language transmits a message that conflicts with
the verbal one, the speaker loses credibility. The nonverbal communication is addressed to the
audience’s heart.
3. The symbolic communication is related to the way you dress, is addressed to the audience’s eyes,
and is easy to manipulate.
Example. When running for a certain important position, candidates who have charisma, a well-
controlled body language and dress appropriately (symbolic language) have more chances when they
present their ideas on TV. The candidates who lack all these count on their verbal messages, and
prefer to speak on the radio, rather than appear on television.
What have you learnt?
a. What is communication?
b. How can we divide communication by the number of people involved?
c. What are the functions, needs and purposes of communication? Give examples.
d. Describe the stages of the communication process.
e. How can we classify communication according to the channels used?
f. What are communication filters or barriers?
2. Analyze a friend’s communication acts for half an hour. Were the messages meant to inform,
persuade, advise?
3. Read the following fragments. List the types of communication from the point of view of the
number of people involved and the channel chosen.
“What are you doing here?” she cried, grabbing Mary’s arm and pulling her away.
“I turned the wrong corner and couldn’t find the way back to my room,” explained Mary. “And then
I heard someone crying”.
“You heard nothing of the sort!” snapped Mrs. Medlock. “Now come along back to your nursery or
you’ll be punished!”
Mary felt herself being pushed and pulled up one corridor and down another. Then she was showed
through the doorway of her room.
“Now, you stay where you’re told or you’ll find yourself locked up. I’ve got enough to do here
without looking after you too.”
Once Mrs. Medlock had slammed the door, Mary threw herself down on the bed, red with rage.
Gritting her teeth, she insisted, “There was someone crying! There was! And I’m going to find out
who or what it is!” (Frances Hodgson Burnett, The Secret Garden, p. 52).
The purser looked at the anxious frowning face of Mr. Botibol and he smiled, knowing quite well
what the man was driving at. “Well, you see, the captain has a little conference with the navigating
officer, and they study the weather and a lot of other things, and they make their estimate.”
Mr. Botibol nodded, pondering this answer for a moment. Then he said, “Do you think the captain
knew there was bad weather coming today?”
“ I couldn’t tell you, the purser replied. He was looking into the small black eyes of the other man,
seeing the two single little sparks of excitement dancing in their centres. “I really couldn’t tell you,
Mr. Botibol. I wouldn’t know.”
“If this gets any worse it might be worth buying some of the low numbers. What do you think?” The
whispering was more urgent, more anxious now. (Roald Dahl, Completely unexpected Tales, p. 62).
II. Listening/Reading Skills
Communication is a two-way process. While one half is involved in speaking, the other half is
listening and trying to understand the message. Effective communication exists between two people
when the receiver interprets and understands the sender’s message in the same way the sender
intended it.
1. Listening v reading
The audience is made of listeners, not readers. Two obvious consequences of this fact are the speed
with which you deliver the speech and the constant clarification process - signalling, recapping,
summarizing.
The listener’s thoughts are distracted by a lot of things. A reader can reread a sentence, a
paragraph or even an entire chapter. If your mind wanders, you can take a break and then return to
your book and make an effort to focus again. Listeners only have one chance to understand what
you are saying, they cannot re-listen to the speech.
Readers can vary the speed of their reading and, if the material is complex or unfamiliar, they can
stop, refer to a dictionary, discuss with other people. Listeners can’t vary the pace of the speaker’s
delivery.
Readers can anticipate and read in order to see the general idea, and then, read again what is
relevant. During a presentation, only the speaker can see the general idea and have a complete
picture.
The main responsibility for the message belongs to the speaker. The person or the people receiving
the communication are also responsible for the message to get across effectively. As we have said,
two people are involved in the dialogue: the speaker and the listener. Therefore, we should give the
skills involved in listening the attention they deserve.
We take it for granted that we listen all the time. We may think we listen to what people say, we
listen to the radio or TV but how much do we really hear? Listening is not simple. Most of us have
very poorly developed listening skills. We live in a visual world, which absorbs us in its images and
we forget to listen. Another cause for not listening properly is the stress and pressure we face daily.
Finally, lack of interest leads to lack of communication. True listening rarely occurs. One person
cannot give simultaneous undivided attention, assess and frame a reply to what is being said. Double
attention is not possible. When two people meet to discuss one subject, if they do not focus on
communication correctly, what they really discuss is two different subjects put forward by each one.
The listening speed is twice as fast as the speaking one, and the implications are major. There is a
real distinction between merely hearing the words and really listening for the message. When we
listen effectively, we understand what the speaker is thinking by empathy, as if we were standing in
his shoes, seeing through his eyes and listening through his ears. To listen effectively means being
actively involved in the communication process and not just listening passively.
2. Difficulties by the speaker/the listener
a.
the speaker’s voice is too low or monotonous,
the message he sends is too complex or too simple,
he may be experiencing a mind blank,
there is a contradiction between the body language and verbal one,
he is too focused on the reactions of the listener,
he lacks credibility, and confidence.
b.
the listener is distracted and does not listen,
he anticipates what is going to be said and switches off,
he listens mainly to find an opening to get the floor,
he frames the answer while listening,
he evaluates and makes judgments about the speaker or the message,
he does not ask for clarification.
1. Aggressive or combative listening happens when we are more interested in promoting our
own point of view than in the message itself; we listen to find opportunities of taking the floor
or attacking weak points and destroying arguments.
2. In passive or attentive listening we are interested in hearing and understanding the other
person’s point of view, but we remain passive and do not check if what we are hearing is
correct.
3. Active or reflective listening is the most useful and important listening skill. In active listening
we are also interested in understanding what the message means, and we are active in
checking out our understanding. This verification or feedback process is what distinguishes
active listening and makes it effective.
stop talking, remove distractions; give the speaker all your attention,
be patient; don’t interrupt the speaker; let him finish before you speak,
if you disagree with what the other person is saying, try to get a full understanding of that point of
view before you speak. Repeat or paraphrase the other person’s idea to make sure that you have
understood it completely, or ask the speaker to rephrase it.
if you don’t agree with the expressed point, do not plan what you are going to say or else you will
not be able to pay attention to the whole message,
ask questions to clarify but also to encourage the speaker,
listen to the main ideas as well as to the supporting examples or facts,
try to think about the message, not the delivery,
be empathic and nonjudgmental; don’t argue or criticize,
don’t respond to just the meaning of the words; look for the feelings or intent beyond the words,
observe non-verbal clues; use eye contact and listening body language; face and lean toward the
speaker and nod your head, as it is appropriate; try not to look critical,
do not hurry to immediately answer questions: some people just like to ask questions and are not
interested in the answer.
The point about active listening is that the listener focuses on making the communication effective
and he doesn’t replace the message with one of his own. Active listening does not mean to be silent,
but that you take an active part in the conversation. Some rules for active listening behaviour:
look at the person to whom you are talking. (Tip: if you find it difficult to look at someone’s eyes,
try looking at the bridge of their nose),
smile naturally and sincerely, enough to show that you are interested,
nod encouragingly, showing that you follow he speaker,
make affirmative noises: Uh, Uhu, Mmm,
use verbal prompts: ”Really? It must have been interesting”.
What have you learnt?
2. Analyze you own way of listening. Are you a good listener? Do you try to empathize with the
speaker? Which listening mode matches your listening skills?
III. Presentations
1. Why presentations?
Under certain circumstances, communication can be only non- verbal, while for a presentation we
need all three codes of communication:
• verbal,
• non - verbal,
• symbolic.
Delivering presentations has become part of our life, so we can consider presentations as a fact of
life. Presentations take many shapes: they can be formal or informal, to a person or to a group of
people, with or without visuals.
So, when are we making a presentation?
2. Types of presentations
a. Number of presenters
1. Frequently, there is only one presenter. The pluses of such a presentation are the following:
The minus is that the whole burden is on the shoulders of a single presenter and he is in charge with
everything.
2. Presentations with two presenters are also frequent. Whenever there are more than one presenter,
there should be a perfect communication between them. Each one should know his role and the
other’s role, what questions and answers will be covered by each of them, when to take turns. They
cannot interrupt each other without a previous agreement.
The pluses of such a presentation are:
• the presentation is less flexible, as you have to take into account your partner,
• there might be mismatches between the two partners
They are necessary when the presentation is about the work achieved by a whole team. The planning
should be very careful and each participant should know everything about the development of the
presentation: who will open/close it, who will answer the questions, etc. These presentations are even
more rigid than those with two presenters.
b. Number of listeners.
It can affect the presentation and the way it is delivered. We can speak of small groups (1 to 35
people), and of lager groups (more than 35). The former category requires a less formal presentation
(the speaker can sit, the effort of covering the audience is not very big, he needn’t speak from behind
a lectern, he can take questions during the presentation, and establish a less formal rapport with the
audience), while the latter requires a lectern, a microphone, and the speaker must stand. A one-to-one
presentation can be a mere conversation or a more formal one, depending on the relationship between
the two interlocutors (e.g. peer to peer, teacher to student).
All the audience is important and could challenge the presenter. Nevertheless, there is a group of
people in the audience that should be given special concern: the critical listeners and the influencers.
The critical listeners are those people who can make decisions: the teacher, the owner of the
company, the manager. Your presentation is firstly addressed to them, as they will approve the
follow-up stages: the implementation of what you suggested, your hiring, the final grade, etc. You
will pay special attention to them, by keeping eye contact, creating a positive rapport, showing your
respect. Whenever you use handouts or any other materials, make sure the first copy gets to them.
The influencers are also powerful people, whose opinion is taken into consideration and trusted by
the decision makers - technicians, lawyers, and experts in that field of activity. Even though they
might not be very high in the hierarchy of the organization or the company, they are really powerful.
In order to make them appreciate your presentation as effective, you should try to meet them in
advance to establish a positive rapport, compare your points of view, find questionable areas and
counterarguments to your suggestions and develop persuasive answers.
c. Level of formality
It depends on the relationship between the presenter and the audience (a peer, an outsider or an
insider).
The formal presentations are very structured and less flexible, the speaker will stand, use
transparencies or power point images, and answer the questions at the end of the presentation. During
less formal presentations, the speaker will sit and use a flexible format, the listeners will sit or stand,
the questions will be answered during the presentation, or there will be a discussion, and visuals will
be less formal, such as slides, the flipchart.
a. With this type, the focus is on giving information/explaining facts. It can be followed by an action,
but not necessarily. The action can be dissemination of information, implementation of a project,
gaining knowledge.
1. The status report. It is brief and meant to inform other people about the progress of a project. The
focus is on:
general presentation of the status of the project,
what has been changed in the project,
solutions to existing or prospective problems
2. Product demonstrations, when the presenter shows/describes machines, products and tells how
these work. This type of presentation is very dynamic and it can be long or short. It is easy for the
speaker to get the attention of the audience, as they are highly interested because of the practical
issues presented.
Because people in the audience are not always technical specialists, these should be brief.
Presentation of technical info can be boring, because of the technical details and incomplete technical
knowledge with some of the people in the audience. The focus is on:
When the topic of the presentation refers to technical projects or information, the presenter should
answer a question before he starts designing the presentation: how much technical knowledge do
listeners have?
if the listeners are experts with specialized training, you can deliver highly technical data,
if they have technical background but they are not specialists, they will know the basic technical
terms, but need explanations for specialized data,
if they do not have a technical background, you will use simple, non-technical language,
when they have mixed technical background, you should find the lowest level of technical
understanding.
b) This type of presentation is a selling presentation and the listeners are always asked to respond
with action and implement what they have just learnt. The focus is on persuading the listeners to
follow the presentation with some kind of action.
In order to design a persuasive presentation, you should wear a listener’s hat, empathize with your
audience. Listeners are people like you, so you can test the strong/weak points of a presentation on
yourself. A persuasive structure should answer the following questions:
Note: these practicalities do not apply to the students’ scientific or technical presentations, which, in
general, are informative, and meant to demonstrate or explain technical facts.
This presentation is persuasive and tries to engage the listeners into the ideas presented. In order to
do that, it should pay attention to the listeners’ needs, expectations, and concerns. It focuses on:
This type of persuasive presentation is very demanding as it depends on high presentation skills
and personal charisma. Very often the answer of the audience is negative. It focuses on:
features of the product,
benefits of the product.
When preparing any kind of oral presentation, the basic steps to keep in mind are the following:
a. What is a presentation?
b. Why are presentations necessary?
c. How can you classify presentations from the point of view of:
number of speakers,
number of listeners,
level of formality
d. What are the purposes of presentations? List types of presentations according to their purpose.
Number of speakers
Number of listeners
Level of formality
Purpose
Level of technical
knowledge presented by
the audience
3. Read the following two situations. Who are the critical listeners? Who are the influencers?
The premises of a football club. A trade of players is going on. The people attending the meeting
are: the owners of the teams, four football players, the coaches, the managers of the teams.
The students are being received by the Dean. They want to present the living standard in the
hostel and complain about it. The people attending the meeting are: the students’ delegation, the
Dean, the administrator of the hostel, the manager of the faculty.
IV