DNA and RNA

Concepts You Can Never

Forget….Ever!
What is the
function of
the nucleus?

Nucleus

Controls the
Animal synthesis of Plant
proteins
 REVIEW 
Where is DNA located in a EUKARYOTIC
Cell?
Nucleus
What type of organic compound is DNA?
Nucleic Acid
What is a monomer of DNA?
Nucleotide
Concepts You Can Never
Forget….Ever!
What type of
bonds are holding
(-) the water
molecules
(+) together?
Hydrogen bonds
Are these bonds
only found in
water?
No
 Overview

DNA DNA
REPLICATION

DNA RNA Protein

TRANSCRIPTION TRANSLATION
 Identifying Genetic Material
• Griffith’s Transformation Experiments-1928
– TRANSFORMATION – Transfer of genetic material
from cell-to-cell can change the genetic makeup of
the recipient cell.
• He did this by infecting mice with two
strains of bacteria.
– S Bacteria = (smooth colonies of S. pneumoniae;
virulent)

– -R Bacteria = (Rough colonies of S. pneumoniae,

nonvirulent)
• One experimental setup showed that the
virulent, or disease-causing, bacteria took over
the harmless bacteria
• This caused the mice to die.
 Killed
S. Pneumoniae
With heat and
Did number 3
and 4

Somehow the dead bacteria passed their

ability to cause disease to the living
harmless bacteria.
 Oswald Avery’s Experiments
1930s-1940s
• Avery’s purpose: Determine what caused
tranformation, Protein or DNA.
• Took Griffith’s bacteria and removed all protein from
the cells
– The result: TRANSFORMATION STILL
HAPPENED
• Removed the DNA from the bacteria
– The result: TRANSFORMATION STOPPED
• THEREFORE: Avery and his associates determined
that DNA, not protein, is responsible for transformation
and contains the GENETIC MATERIAL!
 Animation for Hershey Chase
Experiment- 1952
• http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/olc/dl/120076/bio21.swf
 The Hershey-Chase Experiment
• Hershey & Chase concluded that
viral DNA, not protein was
responsible for directing the
production of new viruses.
– Bacteriophages-viruses that
infect bacteria
– One bacteriophage (T2) was
labeled with radioactive sulfur
(amino acids of protein),
another with radioactive
phosphorous (DNA), and they
were then allowed to infect
bacterial cells.
– Result: bacterial cells received
the radioactive phosphorous
and that the radioactive sulfur
remained in the protein coat of
the bacteriophage.
 Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins
1952
• Franklin and Wilkins used x-ray to
discover that DNA was a double helix
• Their work was “stolen” by Watson and
Crick and Franklin was not given credit
until years after her death.
 Watson and Crick
• Watson & Crick (1953)
determined that DNA is in the
form of a double helix using
stolen information.
• They built the first model of DNA
• The double helix consists of two
complimentary strands of linked
nucleotides that twist around a
central axis and are held
together by hydrogen bonds.
 Review
• Where is DNA located?
– NUCLEUS!!!!!!
• What type of organic compound is DNA?
– NUCLEIC ACID!!!!!!
• What is the function of DNA?
– HOLD GENETIC INFORMATION!!!!!
 What does that mean?

It is a complete set of instructions for

manufacturing proteins
• Why do we need proteins?
– Structure, enzymes, transport, hormones
• So the question becomes HOW does DNA
control the production of proteins?

CURIOUS? Hope so!

 DNA Structure
What is the monomer of DNA?
What is the structure of the monomer?
There is a 5 carbon sugar:
The carbons are numbered
(CALLED 5’ END) to show their position on
the sugar.
A Phosphate
group
PO4
5 N base

4 Sugar 1 A Nitrogen
base
3 2
(CALLED 3’ END)
A NUCLEOTIDE 1.
3.

1. Phosphate Group
2. 5-Carbon Sugar (Deoxyribose or 2.
Ribose)
3. Nitrogen Base

3.
O 1.

2. C H3 O
O P O

C C
O C H2
O
CH N H
CH HC
N C
CH CH
O
HO HO
The Structure of DNA
• The sugar in DNA is called
deoxyribose.
• The phosphate group is
composed of one atom of
phosphorous and four atoms
of oxygen. (PO4)
• A nitrogen base is a carbon
ring structure that contains
one or more atoms of
nitrogen.
 NH2

• There are four nitrogen bases: N C

C
N

– adenine (A) PURINES-

H C
C
C
– guanine (G)
O
double ringed N N H
H3C C
H
– cytosine (C) C N
PYRIMIDINES-
– thymine (T) single ringed
C C
H N O

ERWIN CHARGAFF H
discovered
that DNA contains the same amount of
adenine as thymine
and
cytosine as guanine.
pyrimidine

purine

pyrimidine

purine
 Chargaff’s Base Pair Rules
• Adenine always bonds with thymine. A = T

A T

• Guanine always bonds with Cytosine. G  C

G C
The lines between the bases represent hydrogen bonds
5’End 3’End

Notice:
This side
is upside
down

3’End 5’End
Notice anti-parallel structure
1. Phosphate Group
2. 5-Carbon Sugar
(Dexoyribose or Ribose)

3. Nitrogen Base
Phosphate
Nitrogen Bases
Sugar
C

A
T

G
DNA is made
of 2 chains of
nucleotides
joined together
by hydrogen
bonds
between
nitrogen bases

The two
strands
twisted
together make
a double helix
• If one strand reads:
– CGTGTATC
• The complement reads:
– GCACATAG

• If one strand reads:

– TATTCCGGAT
• The complement reads:
– ATAAGGCCTA
Concepts You Can Never
Forget….Ever!
H H O H H O

N C C N C C

H R OH H R OH

What is the name of To what organic

these monomers? compound group do
they belong?
Concepts You Can Never
Forget….Ever!
H H O H H O

N C C N C C

H R R OH

What type of chemical What type of chemical bond

bond is used to make is used to join amino acids
amino acids? together?

When bonded together,

what do the joined
amino acids make?
Concepts You Can Never
Forget….Ever!

How does this diagram

represent the 2 steps of
metabolism?
 Codons
• One codon codes for one amino acid
EX: ACG = amino acid (threonine)
CGC = amino acid (arginine)
GGA = amino acid (glycine)
• A sequence of amino acids is a protein
Amino Acid
Threonine
ACG Proline
CCG
Asparagine
AAC Alanine
GCC
CGC
Arginine
Proline
CCA
Glycine
GGA
Glycine
GGC

Protein
 Fun Facts

If you wrote down all of the

bases in one cell, you would
fill a stack of 1,000 phone
books with A's, T's, G's and C's
 Fun Facts

If you unraveled all YOUR

chromosomes from all of
your cells and laid out the
DNA end to end, the strands
would stretch from the Earth to
the Moon about 6,000 times.
 RNA
• DNA must have a
“helper” molecule.
• RNA stands for
RiboNucleic Acid
• SINGLE stranded
• Made of the sugar ribose,
phosphate group and
Nitrogen bases.
 DNA vs. RNA
• Contains deoxyribose • Contains ribose sugar
sugar • Is single stranded
• Is double stranded • Bonds A-U and C-G
• Bonds A-T and C-G • Can leave the nucleus
• Never leaves the
nucleus
RNA Nucleotides
A. Sugar (ribose)
B. Phosphate Group
C. Nitrogen Bases
B

A C
 Structure of RNA
C G
• Base pairs:
– Adenine pairs with
Uracil (A = U) T A
– Guanine pairs with
Cytosine (G = C)
A U
How is this different
from DNA??????

G C

DNA STRAND RNA STRAND

• Carries DNA messages out of the nucleus
since DNA cannot leave.
• Helps make proteins
• Located in nucleus and cytosol
 3 types of RNA
• Messenger RNA (mRNA)
• Transfer RNA (tRNA)
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
 Role of RNA
AGAT
• While DNA contains the T C GA
instructions for making proteins in G C A C
the form of genes… TC AT

• RNA is the molecule

that actually does all the
work of putting the
protein together
 Comparing DNA & RNA
DNA RNA
Sugar is deoxyribose
√
Sugar is ribose √
Adenine base is present √ √
Cytosine base is present √ √
 Comparing DNA & RNA
DNA RNA
Guanine base is present √
√
Thymine base is present √
Uracil base is present √
Shape is double helix √
 Comparing DNA & RNA
DNA RNA
Shape is single stranded √
Located in nucleus √ √
Located in cytoplasm √
Stores genetic information √
 Review
• Thymine is the complimentary base pair to
adenine
• Cytosine is the complimentary base pair to
Guanine
• Base pairs are held together by
Hydrogen Bonds
• How many bonds between A and T?
2
• How many bonds between G and C?
3
 DNA REPLICATION
• Replicate means
TO COPY
So replication of DNA means to make
EXACT copies of DNA
DNA Replication
• Copying of DNA in
chromosomes
• Without DNA
replication, new
cells would have
only half the DNA of
their parents
• Species could not
survive, reproduce,
or grow
 DNA Replication
During replication, each strand serves as a
template to make a new DNA molecule

• a. DNA is “unzipped”
• b. Free floating nucleotides attach by
base pairing
– Each strand is a complement of one of the
original parent strands
• c. Results in the formation of two DNA
molecules, identical to the original
strand
 Preview: DNA splits; nucleotides
are added to each side by using the
old sides as templates
 Step 1
• DNA double helix unwinds
– DNA helicase (ase=enzyme) opens the double
helix by breaking the hydrogen bonds
– Proteins attach to the strands to hold them apart
and prevent them from joining back together in
the helix.
– The areas where
the strands are
splitting are
called
replication forks.
 Priming with Primase
• DNA Polymerase cannot initiate DNA
synthesis: reason primer is used
• Nucleotides can be added only to an
existing chain called a Primer.
– Made of RNA
– 10 nucleotides long
– Added to DNA by RNA Primase
– Then DNA is added to RNA primer
– Needed for each DNA elongation
 Step 2
“ase” means it is
• Addition of new bases an _________??

–DNA polymerases move along the

open strands adding complementary
bases to the existing bases.
–As the bases are added, two new
double helixes are formed
• Nucleotides can only be added in one
direction (5’ end is added to the 3’end) so
one strand runs continuously, the other
occurs in fragments called Okazaki
Fragments
• These are fused at the end by another
enzyme called DNA ligase.
 Okazaki Fragments
• Short segments (100-200 bases) that
are made on the lagging strand.
• All Okazaki fragments must be primed
as well.
• RNA primer is removed after DNA is
added.
– Removed by DNA polymerase
– DNA polymerase adds new
nucleotides
• The strand grows from 5’ to 3’
• One strand has to begin on a RNA strand
that gets excised out and the DNA strands
connected.
 Step 3
• Two identical strands
formed
– When the entire strand of
DNA is copied, the
polymerases are signaled
to detach.
– Result: two identical
strands
-Called semi-conservative
because there is one
new strand and one old
strand in the new
helixes.
 Important Fact
• In Eukaryotic Cells there are MANY
replication forks so that it takes 8 hours to
replicate an entire human chromosome
instead of a month.
 Proofreading for Mistakes
• DNA polymerases can only add a
new base if the previous base
was attached PROPERLY
• This prevents errors in the DNA
that could produce harmful
mutations.
Spell check for DNA replication!
 4 Enzymes
• Helicase: unwind DNA
• Primase: bonds a primer of RNA
• DNA Polymerase: bonds DNA nucleotides
• Ligase: bonds segments together
Enzyme Summary

(hold DNA apart)

• replication
 Protein Synthesis

Transcription and Translation

 Overview

transcription translation

DNA RNA PROTIEN

Transcription Translation

nucleus cytoplasm
• Transcription:
– Information in DNA is “rewritten”
(transcribed) as s molecule of RNA
• Translation:
– Information is “deciphered” (translated)
into a protein (polypeptide chain)
 Transcription (DNA to RNA)
an overview
• Enzymes create a mRNA copy of the DNA
molecule. (Why??? Why can’t we just use DNA???)
• Enzymes (which one?) unzip DNA
• RNA polymerase adds and links
complementary base pairs to one strand of
the DNA. (pairs with how many strands????)
• The new strand is mRNA and goes into
the cytoplasm. DNA winds back up and
stays in the nucleus.
 TRANSCRIPTION
• Occurs in the nucleus….unless…..

• Uses RNA Polymerase

• Makes mRNA from DNA template
• 60 nucleotides are copied per
second
• Initiator Codon: AUG
Is this RNA language or DNA
language? How do you know?
 Genetic Code Vocab
• Triplet: Consists of 3 specific bases on
the DNA
– Codes for a specific amino acid
• Codon: there are 64 known
– Consists of 3 specific bases
– Each one is specific in the amino
acid it codes for
– Found on the mRNA
• Amino Acids: 20 known
• Protein: made of amino acids
TRANSCRIPTION
A T
1. Helicase breaks
the hydrogen A
T
bonds between
the nitrogen bases
G
C

C
G

A
T

G
C
TRANSCRIPTION
A T
1. Helicase breaks
the hydrogen A
T
bonds between
the nitrogen bases
G
C

C
G

A
T

G
C
TRANSCRIPTION
A T
1. Helicase breaks
the hydrogen A
T
bonds between
the nitrogen bases
G
C

C
G

A
T

G
C
TRANSCRIPTION
A T
1. Helicase breaks
the hydrogen A
T
bonds between
the nitrogen bases
G
C

C
G

A
T

G
C
TRANSCRIPTION
A T
1. Helicase breaks
the hydrogen A
T
bonds between
the nitrogen bases
G
C

C
G

A
T

G
C
TRANSCRIPTION
A T
1. Helicase breaks
the hydrogen A
T
bonds between
the nitrogen bases
G
C

C
G

A
T

G
C
TRANSCRIPTION
A T
1. Helicase breaks
the hydrogen A
T
bonds between
the nitrogen bases
G
C

C
G

A
T

G
C
TRANSCRIPTION
A T
2. The DNA strand
breaks apart A
T

G
C

C
G

A
T

G
C
TRANSCRIPTION
A T

Do you think it breaks T

A
Completely apart?
What holds it apart?
G
C

C
G

A
T

G
C
TRANSCRIPTION
A T

A
T

G
C

C
G

A
T

G
C
TRANSCRIPTION
A T

A
T

G
C

C
G

A
T

G
C
TRANSCRIPTION
A T

A
T

G
C

C
G

A
T

G
C
TRANSCRIPTION
A T

A
T

G
C

C
G

A
T

G
C
TRANSCRIPTION
A T

A
T
3. RNA Polymerase
brings in mRNA
G
C nucleotides and
matches them
G with their DNA C
complement.
A
T

G
C
 C
G G
T
A
G
C
C
G
T
A
T A
 C
G G
T
A A
G
C
C
G
T
A
T A
 C
G G
T
A A
G
C
C
C
G
T
A
T A
 C
G G
T
A A
G
C
C
C
G
G
T
A
T A
 C
G G
T
A A
G
C
C
C
G
G
T
A
A
T A
 C
G G
T
A A
G
C
C
C
G
G
T
A
A
T A
U
 U
A T

A
A
T

G
G
C
mRNA
DNA
C
C
G

A A
T

G G
C
 4. mRNA breaks
U
A away from the T
DNA strand
and goes to
A the ribosome A
T

G
G
C

C
C
G

A A
T

G G
C
 C
G G
T
A A
G
C
C
C
G
G
T
A
A
T A
U
 C
G G
T
A A
G
C
C
C
G
G
T
A
A
T A
U
 C
G G
T
A A
G
C
C
C
G
G
T
A
A
T A
U
 U
A T

A
A
T

G
G
C

C
C
G

A A
T

G G
C

To Ribosome
 A T

A
T

C 5. The DNA G

strand is put
G
back C
together
A
T

G
C
 A T

A
T

G
C

C
G

A
T

G
C
 A T

A
T

G
C

C
G

A
T

G
C
 A T

A
T

G
C

C
G

A
T

G
C
 A T

A
T

G
C

C
G

A
T

G
C
 A T

A
T

G
C

C
G

A
T

G
C
 A T

A
T

G
C

C
G

A
T

G
C
mRNA HAS TO BE SPLICED BEFORE IT CAN
LEAVE THE NUCLEUS
DNA
Transcription

INTRON EXON INTRON EXON INTRON

EXON EXON
INTRON INTRON INTRON

ENZYMES CUT OUT

INTRONS AND
EXON EXON SPLICE EXONS
TOGETHER

GENE USED TO
MAKE
EXON
PROTEIN mRNA
• Interons are parts of a EUKARYOTIC
cell’s DNA that are not genes, they code
for nothing. (INTERvening sequences)
• Exons are the parts of the DNA that code
for something. (Expressed)
 AMINO ACID CHART
Second Base

U C A G

Phenylalanine Serine Tyrosine Cysteine U

Phenylalanine Serine Tyrosine Cysteine C
U Leucine Serine Stop Stop A
Leucine Serine Stop Tryptophan G

First Third
Leucine Proline Histidine Arginine U
Base C Leucine Proline Histidine Arginine C
Base
Leucine Proline Glutamine Arginine A
Leucine Proline Glutamine Arginine G
Isoleucine Threonine Asparagine Serine U
A Isoleucine Threonine Asparagine Serine C
Isoleucine Threonine Lysine Arginine A
Methionine-start Threonine Lysine Arginine G
Valine Alanine Aspartic Acid Glycine U
Valine Alanine Aspartic Acid Glycine C
G Valine Alanine Glutamic Acid Glycine A
Valine Alanine Glutamic Acid Glycine G

This chart is used to find the appropriate

amino acid using mRNA codons.
 The Code
 mRNA carries the genetic message from the DNA to
the ribosomes to make a protein
 The language uses nucleotide bases as its alphabet
 A code is needed to convert the language of mRNA
into the language of proteins
 The code is made up of 3 mRNA bases which
represent each amino acid. There are 60 such codes
and they are called codons.
 20 different amino acids, amino acids combine to form
proteins therefore each amino acid has a couple of
codes
 There is also a code for start and stop.
 The code is UNIVERSAL— all organisms from
bacteria to humans use the SAME code.
 Overview

DNA
to
Protein
 Translation
• Information in mRNA is TRANSLATED to
an amino acid sequence which then
becomes a protein.
• Takes place on the ribosomes either in the
cytoplasm or on the rough endoplasmic
reticulum
• The ribosome is made up of a small unit
and a large unit that attach to the mRNA
 Translation
• When the mRNA strand reaches a
ribosome it attaches to the ribosome
• Start codon on mRNA, AUG (methionine)
signals the start of protein synthesis
• The ribosome MOVES along the mRNA
chain.
• The tRNA carries the amino acid
that is coded for by the
mRNA and is held in
place
ANTICODON The anticodon is located on
transfer RNA (tRNA)

The anticodon is the “deciphered”

mRNA code.

EX:
mRNA codon: AUG
tRNA anticodon: UAC

Anticodon
The tRNA also picks up the
amino acid that corresponds
Codon to the mRNA codon
Translation
• A second tRNA moves in
with a new amino acid
• An enzyme forms a
peptide bond between the
two amino acids and the
first tRNA moves out of
the ribosome
TRANSLATION 1. MRNA reaches
the ribosome
Ribosome (rRNA)

How many amino acids will be

in the completed protein?
TRANSLATION 2. The tRNA
brings the
anitcodon and
amino acid to
the ribosome

3. As the tRNA drops the

amino acid at mRNA,
the ribosome forms a
peptide bond between
the amino acids
TRANSLATION
TRANSLATION
TRANSLATION
TRANSLATION
TRANSLATION
TRANSLATION
TRANSLATION
TRANSLATION
TRANSLATION
TRANSLATION
Peptide Bond

TRANSLATION
Peptide Bond

TRANSLATION
Peptide Bond

TRANSLATION
Peptide Bond

TRANSLATION
Peptide Bond

TRANSLATION
Peptide Bond

TRANSLATION
Peptide Bond

TRANSLATION
Peptide Bond Peptide Bond

TRANSLATION
Peptide Bond Peptide Bond

TRANSLATION
Peptide Bond Peptide Bond

TRANSLATION
Peptide Bond Peptide Bond

TRANSLATION
 STOP

Peptide Bond Peptide Bond

TRANSLATION
 STOP

Peptide Bond Peptide Bond

TRANSLATION
 STOP

TRANSLATION
 Once the stop codon is reached, the protein is
complete. The protein will now travel to the Golgi
Apparatus.

STOP

TRANSLATION
SUMMARY
Transcription Translation

T U
A
A A
T
G G
C
C C
G
A A
T
G G
C

DNA mRNA tRNA Protein

Translation
 YOUR TURN
• DNA strand: T A C C G T T A A C C G A
TT
• What process happens next? Where?
Transcription in the Nucleus
• mRNA strand:
AUGGCAAUUGGCUAA
• What happens next? Where?
Translation in the ribosome
• The amino acid peptide chain: