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Electrostatics
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Pankaj Thakuria

September 4, 2017
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Contents

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1 Electrostatics 1

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1.1 Concept of Charge and Coulomb’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Comparison with gravitational force . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.2 Electric field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.3 Electric field due to charge distribution . . . . . . . . . 7
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1.1.4 Electric Lines of force . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Gauss’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Concept of solid angle . . . . . . . . .
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1.2.2 Integral form of Gauss’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.3 Application of Gauss’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
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CONTENTS
Chapter 1

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Electrostatics

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1.1 Concept of Charge and Coulomb’s Law
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Human being are fascinated by the various phenomenon occurring in nature,
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many phenomenon were scary and people attributed to various unknown
things, like lighting, thunders etc. Curiosity in some people started finding
reason for all these phenomenon. Amber a material used in jewelery is known
to human being from ancient time and they observed that when rubbed with
silk cloth they acquire a strange property to attract some piece of paper.
Similarly glass when rubbed with silk cloth can also attract small pieces of
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paper. Interestingly glass and amber both repel each other after they were
rubbed with silk cloth. People at that time did not have a modern day
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atomic picture. Some people thought that there is some internal fire respon-
sible for it, because fire was a visible thing to people at that time. When
they have excess fire they are positive and when less fire they are negative.
Another group of people thought they are different types of fluid. American
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statesman Benjamin Franklin (January 17, 1706 to April 17, 1790) thought
that they are same fluid under different pressure. That time both type of
electricity was termed as ”vitreous” and ”resinous” electricity. Pressure, tem-
perature, mass etc were the measurable fundamental quantities at that time.
Franklin was the first person to label them as positive and negative. Also
like thermal conduction through certain materials, concept of conductor was
introduced. Charles Augustin de Coulomb a French physicist 1784 published
a law now known as Coulomb’s law to explain the force between two charges.
The SI unit of charge is attributed to his name Coulomb. The CGS unit
statecoulomb is also attributed to Benjamin Franklin and is called franklin
(Fr).

1
 2 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

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Figure 1.1: (a) Force F~21 on charge q2 due to charge q1 separated by a

distance ~r. (b) equal and opposite forces acts on both the charges.
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The Coulomb’s law Many people (Joseph Priestley, John Robison

Henry Cavendish etc) observed that the force between two charged bodies
follows the reciprocal of square of distance the two charged bodies. Coulomb
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published everything as a law based on his experimental results using a tor-

sion balance. The law states that the force between two pint chrages is
directly proportional to the magnitude of charges and inversely proportional
to the square of distances. In a scalar form we can write the force F between
two point charges as
q1 q2
F ∝ 2 (1.1)
r
In the vector form we can write
q1 q2
F~ ∝ rb (1.2)
|~r|2
1.1. CONCEPT OF CHARGE AND COULOMB’S LAW 3

This rb is a unit vector defining the direction of force and can be written as
~
r
|~
r|
and the Coulomb’s law can be written as

q1 q2
F~ ∝ ~r (1.3)
|~r|3

Let us define the poistion vectors ~r1 and ~r2 of the two point charges q1
and q2 at position A and B with respect to a origin point O as shown in Fig:
1.1 (a). Now the vector joining both the charges ~r21 can be written as ~r2 − ~r1

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and the force acting on charge q2 due to charge q1 can be written as
q 1 q2 q 1 q2
F~21 ∝ (~r2 − ~r1 ) ∝ rb21 (1.4)

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(~r2 − ~r1 ) 3 (~r2 − ~r1 )2
−~
The direction of force is along the unit vector rb2 1 defined as rb21 = |~~rr22 −~
r1
r1 |

sown in Fig: 1.1 (b).

Units of charge
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The magnitude of charges on each other is equal but opposite in direction as
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We can use a constant β in Eq. 1.7 to find the magnitude of Force.
q1 q2
F~21 = β rb21 (1.5)
(~r2 − ~r1 )2
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The value of β depends upon the units of measurements

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In C.G.S. unit In C.G.S. or electrostatic unit (e.s.u.) value of β is

given by
1
β= (1.6)
K
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K is the dielectric constant of the medium where both the charges are kept.
Therefore, in C.G.S. system coulomb’s law can be written as
q1 q2
F~21 = rb21 (1.7)
K(~r2 − ~r1 )2

For air value of k is 1, and we can find the unit of charge by equating 1 unit
of force on 1 unit of charge separated by 1 unit distance. In C.G.S. system
unit of chrage is 1 statcoulomb. One e.s.u. or one statcoulomb or one
Franklin of charge can be defined as the amount of charge when
placed in air, at a distance of 1 cm from a similar charge, is
repelled with a force of 1 dyne.
 4 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

In S. I. unit In S.I. unit the value of the constant β is given by

1
β= (1.8)
4π0 r
r is the relative permeability of the medium and 0 is the permeability
of free space. Relative permeability r = /0 of the medium is defined
as the ration between permeability of the medium to the permeability of
free space. permeability of free space is a known quantity and its value is
0 = 8.854 × 10−12 C 2 N −1 m−2 . Putting this value in Eq. 1.8 for air (r = 1)

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we get
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β= (1.9)
4π × 8.854 × 10−12
= 8.9875 × 109 ≈ 9 × 109 N m2 C −2

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One Coulomb of charge can be defined as the amount of charge
when placed in air, at a distance of 1 m from a similar charge,
is repelled with a force of 9 × 109 N. The relation between coulomb and
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statcoulomb is
1coulmb = 3 × 109 statcoulomb
In C.G.S. unit the unit of β is arbitrarily chosen but in SI unit β is
deduced from units of current.
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Superposition of charges
If more than one charge is present we then the force on one chrage is the
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vector sum of all the forces on the charge from all other charges and they are
independent of each other. Mathematically we can write
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qi X qj
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F~i = r~ij (1.10)

4π j6=i |r~ij |3

This principle is used to find out various parameters for a distribution of

charges

Distribution of charges
So far we have considered discrete charges, but charge may be continuously
distributed in a region. We can define small charge dq in the region and find
the force due to this small charge on a point charge q1 . Now we can add the
forces due to each of small charge element dq vectorially. Total force can be
1.1. CONCEPT OF CHARGE AND COULOMB’S LAW 5

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Figure 1.2: Force due to continuous surface charge distribution

found by integrating (since continuous charge distribution) From Coulomb’s

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law we can write
Z
q 1 dq
F~ = rb (1.11)
4π ~r2
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rb is a variable unit vector that connects each of the charge elements dq to the
point charge q1 . We can define the charge distribution as a point function
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Linear charge distribution

∆q
λ = lim (1.12)
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∆l→0 ∆l

Surface charge distribution

∆q
λ = lim (1.13)
∆S→0 ∆S

Volume charge distribution

∆q
λ = lim (1.14)
∆v→0 ∆v
 6 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

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Figure 1.3: A test charge q2 in the electric field of charge q1

1.1.1 Comparison with gravitational force

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Both the forces work in vacuum, follows inverse square of distance law, path
independent and central forces but electrostatic force can be both attractive
and repulsive. Let us consider the strength of both the forces. we can
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calculate the ratio of the forces acting on one electron by one proton.

Fe 9 × 109 × (1.6 × 10−19 )2

=
Fg 6.67 × 10−11 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 1.67 × 10−27
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= 2.26 × 1039

Thus electrostatic force is enormous compared to gravitational force.

Food for brain: Why electrostatic force has little role in astronomical
world?

1.1.2 Electric field

A charge placed near another charge feels the attractive or repulsive forces
but a single isolated charge do not feel any force from its charge. Like Gravi-
taional filed the concept of electric field was introduced. Electric field region
1.1. CONCEPT OF CHARGE AND COULOMB’S LAW 7

of a charge is the region where its influence can be realized. Two charges
feels attraction or repulsion forces due to interaction of their electric fields,
modern day physics explains the interaction in terms of exchange of field
particles called photons. The strength of the electric field is measured in
terms of electric field intensity. To measure the electric field intensity a test
charge as small as possible is placed at a distance r from the charge whose
intensity is to be measured. The test charge is a imaginary concept which is
made as small as possible so that it does not influence the behavior of the
charge whose intensity is to be measured.

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If a test charge q0 experience a force F~ due to the charge q then electric
intensity can be written as

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~ = lim F = 1 q1 rb
E (1.15)
q0 →0 q0 4π r2
In terms of position vectors

~ = 1
E
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q1
4π |~r − r~1 |3
(~r − r~1 ) (1.16)
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~ can be calculated by super-
For many charges at points r1 , r2 , r3 ......rn etc E
position of charges
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X qi (~r − r~i )
~ = 1
E (1.17)
4π i=1 |~r − r~i |3
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1.1.3 Electric field due to charge distribution

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For a uniform linear charge distribution Let us consider a solid

∆q
rod with a uniform charge distribution λ = lim ∆L as shown in Fig:1.4 (a).
∆L→0
We need to find electric field intensity at a point p in the axial line of the
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rod. Since we know that Coulomb’s law holds good for a point charge, we
can not use it directly for a rod. We can take the help of law of superposition
of charges. Let us consider a small segment of the rod ∆x and now we can
use Coulomb’s law here. Considering the positive direction of the Cartesian
coordinate system as x the electric field intensity at point p due to this
segment can be written as
1 λ∆x
∆E = x (1.18)
4π0 x2
b

Since all such small segments have electric field intensity in the same direction
using superposition of charge principle we can sum up the intensity due to
 8 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

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Figure 1.4: Electric intensity at a point P due to a uniformly charged rod.

all such segments.

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X X 1 λ∆x
E= ∆E = x (1.19)
4π0 x2
b
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For ∆x → 0, and continuous charge distribution we can replace the summa-

tion sign by integration and we can write
Z −a Z −a  
1 λdx λ dx λ 1 1
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E= 2
= = − (1.20)
−(a+L) 4π0 x 4π0 −(a+L) x2 4π0 a a + l

Let us make the problem a little more complex, we need to find the
intensity at an arbitrary point p. Let us consider ~r to be the distance between
the element dx and the point p. We can resolve the intensity along x and y
directions as a function of the angle θ that ~r makes with the y direction. The
all y directional components are along same direction so we can integrate
them:
Z a+l
λdx cos θ
Ey = (1.21)
a 4π0 r2
1.1. CONCEPT OF CHARGE AND COULOMB’S LAW 9

We have three variables here, so we resolve r2 = x2 + b2 and cos θ = b/r in

Eq. 1.21

" #a+L
Z a+L
bλ dx bλ x
Ey = = (1.22)
4π0 a (b2 + x2 )3/2 4π0 b2 (x2 + b2 )1/2
a
 
λ a+L a
= 2 2 1/2
− 2 (1.23)
4π0 b [(a + L) + b ] (a + b2 )1/2

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The integration in Eq. 1.22 is a standard integral.
The y component Ey can be found out similar way where sin θ = x/r

Ex =
1
4π0
Z a+L
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λx
(x2 + b2 )3/2
(1.24)
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a
 
λ 1 1
= − + (1.25)
4π0 [(a + L)2 + b2 ]1/2 (a2 + b2 )1/2

From Eq. 1.25 it is evident that for a = −L/2 ı.e. p is at the perpendicular
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bisector of the rod, Ex = 0, meaning both in positive and negative x -direction

intensity cancels each other.
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Let us consider a condition b >> L. We can write

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λL q
Ey = = (1.26)
4π0 b2 4π0 b2

Evidently Ex = 0. Thus, the rod behaves as a point charge when we find

the intensity at a large distance. This problem can be extended to a disc of
uniform charge distribution. Let us define the width of the loop (da) with
radius a inside a bigger disc of radius R of uniform charge density σ. Here

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 10 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

also Ey is zero. We can write Ex as

Z
1 σdlda
Ex = E cos θ = (1.27)
4π0 r2
Z Z
σ cos θ
= da dl (1.28)
4π0 r2
Z
σ x
= 2πa (1.29)
4π0 r3
σx R
Z
ada

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= (1.30)
20 0 (x2 + a2 )3/2
" #R
σx 1

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= − (1.31)
20 (x2 + a2 )1/2 0
" #
σ x

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20
1−
(x2 + R2 )1/2
(1.32)
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Figure 1.5: Electric intensity due to a (a) charged loop (b) uniformly charged
disc
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For a uniformly charged loop and disc Let us consider a uniformly

charged loop with radius a and charge distribution λ as shown in Fig. 1.5
(a). We will find the intensity at a point p in the axial line at a distance x
from the center of the loop O. Similar to previous problem we can resolve
the components in two parts Ex along x direction and Ey along y direction.
The component in the x direction due to a small element dl can be written
as (Ex due to all components are in same direction so we can integrate or
vectorially add.)
Z E Z
λdl cos θ
Ex = dE cos θ =
0 4π0 r2
1.1. CONCEPT OF CHARGE AND COULOMB’S LAW 11

We can use r2 = x2 + a2 and cos θ = x/r

Z
λx
E= dl
4π0 (a2 + x2 )3/2
λx2πa
= (1.33)
4π0 (a2 + x2 )3/2
λq
= (1.34)
4π0 (a2 + x2 )3/2

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When the point p is at very long distance x >> a the loop behaves like a
point charge and we obtain similar results as point charges.

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q
E= (1.35)
4π0 x2

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The intensity in the Y- direction Ey is zero, as the components placed at
opposite end of the loops have opposite directions and cancels each other.

1.1.4 Electric Lines of force

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If we know the electric field at every point then we can find out how a small
positive charge placed in a a particular point will move, and we can draw
some vectors at each point and can be joined together to get electric lines
of force. These are imaginary lines whose tangent at each point gives the
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direction of electric field at that point. Electric field follows inverse square
law, there can be a perception that by drawing uniform lines we are loosing
the information concerning the strength of electric field, but the magnitude
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of electric field is given by the density of lines of force. In three dimension if

we normalize the number of lines of force by surface area of the sphere (4πr2 )
then it follows the inverse square law.
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Properties of Electric Lines of force

• No lines of force ends in space around a charge, it originate from a
positive charge and terminates in a negative charge.

• Lines of force are always perpendicular to the surface of the conductor.

• tangent to electric lines of force a particular point gives the electric

intensity at that point.

• No two lines of force intersect each other, otherwise at the crossing

point we will have different direction for the intensity.
 12 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

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Figure 1.6: Electric Lines of force

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• density of lines of force gives the strength of electric field.

• For two charge of same sign they repel each other as shown in Fig. 1.6.

1.2 Gauss’s Law

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1.2.1 Concept of solid angle
A plane angle, θ, is the arc length of a circle subtended by the lines and by
the radius of that circle. The dimensionless unit of plane angle is the radian,
with 2π radians in a full circle. A solid angle is a 3D angular volume similar
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to a plane angle in two dimensions. It is a measure of how large the object

appears to an observer when looked from that point. The SI unit of solid
angle is steradian (dimensionless) designated by the symbol ’Sr’. In a sphere
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the total solid angle is 4π sr. The solid angle can be measured by the ratio
of the area of the sphere creating the solid angle to the square of radius. by
definition we can write
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rb · d~s
dω = 2
= ds cos θ/r2 (1.36)
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In Fig: 1.7 the area d~s and ds~0 makes the same angle dω at the center of
~ in the
the sphere of radius r. d~s cos θ is the projection of the vector area dS
direction of the radius vector ~r

1.2.2 Integral form of Gauss’s Law

We have so far calculated intensity due to some charge distribution, and for
a simple charge distribution also we had lot of mathematical complications.
1.2. GAUSS’S LAW 13

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Figure 1.7: The concept of solid angle

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In electrostatics we use different tools to simplify these problems, Gauss’s
law is an attempt to simplify the problem concerning electric field intensity.
Let us consider a point charge q surrounded by a closed surface as shown
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in Fig:1.7. Electric field intensity at every point of the surface is radially
~ where
pointed outward towards the surface. We can consider a small area ds,
intensity can be considered as having same magnitude and direction. Let θ
be the angle between the outward normal of the surface ds ~ and E.
~ Let us
find out the component of E ~
~ along ds
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~ = E cos θds =
~ · ds 1 q q
E cos θds == dω (1.37)
4π0 r2 4π0
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;as dω = ds cos θ/r2

For a continuous surface we can integrate it over the whole surface and
we get
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I I I
~ ~ q q
E · ds = En ds = dω = (1.38)
4π0 s 0
as the total solid angle is equal to 4π. Thus the surface integral of the normal
component of the electric field (En ) in electrostatic condition, over a closed
surface is 1/0 times the total charge inside the surface. This is known as
Gauss’s Law. For a distribution of charges we can sum them up or for
continuous distribution we can integrate them. Thus we have
I I n Z
~ ~ 1 X 1
E · ds = En ds = qi = ρdv (1.39)
0 i=1 0 v
 14 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

In hydrodynamics the flux is the amount of fluid passing through a unit

surface normal to the flow. We can use φ = E ~ as the flux.
~ · ds
I Z
~ ~ 1
φ = E · ds = ρdv (1.40)
0 v

So, we can state Gauss’s law as the total flux in outward direction from a
closed surface is equal to 1/0 times the total charge enclosed in the volume
inside the surface. Gauss’s law can be considered as a form of Coulomb’s
Law without the inverse square of distance term 1/r2 which simplifies the

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problem of finding the intensity. The Gauss’s law stated above is an integral
form we can convert it to a differential form by using the Gauss’s divergence

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theorem.
I Z
F · da = (5 · F)dv

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Force in our case is q0 E so we can write

I Z
v
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q0 E · ds = q0 (5 · E)dv
s I vZ

or E · ds = (5 · E)dv (1.41)
s v

The Eq. 1.40 and the Eq. 1.41 are equal so the terms inside the integral in
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right hand side should also be equal giving us

5 · E = ρ/0 (1.42)
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This is differential form of Gauss’s law which states that divergence of electric
field at any point is 1/0 the charge density at that point. We can verify
Gauss’s law graphically. Let us consider a charge +q placed outside a closed
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surface as shown in Fig. 1.8. It makes a solid angle dω due to all the surfaces
~ makes with the surface
ds1 , ds2 · · · ds6 . Let θ1 , θ· · ·θ6 be the angles that E
normal respectively. We can find the flux by summing up the contribution
from each segment.

φ = E1 cos(π − θ1 )ds1 + E2 cos θ2 ds2 + · · · (1.43)

= −E1 cos θ1 ds1 + E2 cos θ2 ds2 − · · · (1.44)
q 
−ds1 cos θ1 /r12 + ds2 cos θ2 /r22 − · · · ·

= (1.45)
4π0
q
= [−dω + dω − dω + dω − dω + dω] = 0 (1.46)
4π0
1.2. GAUSS’S LAW 15

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Figure 1.8: Graphical proof of Gauss’s law

Now if we put a charge inside the surface then it cuts the surface in odd
numbers. Therefore all the solid angles do not cancel out and we have finite
electric field intensity given by qdω/4π0 . This is essentially Gauss’s law
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stating that electric flux entering a surface is equal to the the flux coming
out of it if it does not include a charge inside it.
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 16 CHAPTER 1. ELECTROSTATICS

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