Units & Dimensions

LECTURE 3
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Units & Dimensions
Order of Magnitude
Finding Order of Magnitude
(1) 32678
(2) 921
Finding Order of magnitude

(1) 32678 = 3.2678 × 104

Order of
less than 5
magnitude 4

(2) 921 = 9.21 × 102 ≈ 103

Order of
Greater than 5 magnitude
3
How to find ERRORS in Measurements?
ERROR

Error is amount of uncertainty in measurement of the magnitude of a physical

quantity.

Error = Measured Value – TRUE Value.

Define type of errors.
ERROR
THE TYPES OF ERRORS

Instrumental errors
Systematic errors
Random errors
Personal errors
INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS
These errors arise due to use of faulty instrument.

SYSTEMATIC ERRORS

These errors arise due to definite cause and takes

place according to some rule.
RANDOM ERRORS
These errors are random and occur irregularly. It can be due to
changes in the ambient conditions like temperature, pressure, etc.
or due to limitations of instrument.

PERSONAL ERRORS
The errors which occur due to limitation of the human
senses, judgment, carelessness and responses
How to calculate errors?
CALCULATION OF ERRORS

Most Probable Value : = a1 + a2 + ……+ an = 1 ∑ ai

n
amean
n n a= 1

Absolute Error : Δ a = a mean – a

CALCULATION OF ERRORS
absolute error amean – a
Relative error : = =
most probable value amean

Percentage error : = Relative error × 100 %

amean – a × 100 %
=
amean
Examples The length of the plate measured using Vernier caliper of least
count 0.01 cm. The measurements made were 3.11 cm, 3.13cm,
3.14 cm and 3.14 cm. Find mean length

A. 3.15 cm
B. 3.13 cm
C. 3.14 cm
D. 3.12 cm
Solution The length of the plate measured using Vernier caliper of least count
0.01 cm. The measurements made were 3.11 cm, 3.13cm, 3.14 cm and
3.14 cm. Find mean length, mean absolute error and % error

Step: 1 Data: a1 = 3.11 cm, a2 = 3.13 cm, a3 = 3.14 cm, a4 = 3.14 cm,

a1+a2+a3+a4
Step: 2 Mean Length am= 4

= 3.11+3.13+3.14+3.14
4

Step: 3 12.53
Mean Length am =
4
= 3.13 cm
Examples The length of the plate measured using Vernier caliper of least
count 0.01 cm. The measurements made were 3.11 cm, 3.13cm,
3.14 cm and 3.14 cm. Find mean absolute error

A. 0.05 cm
B. 0.03 cm
C. 0.02 cm
D. 0.01 cm

absolute
error
|Δ a| = |a mean – ai|
Solution The length of the plate measured using Vernier caliper of least count 0.01
cm. The measurements made were 3.11 cm, 3.13cm, 3.14 cm and 3.14 cm.
Find mean length, mean absolute error and % error

|a1–am|+|a2–am|+|a3–am|+|a4–am |
Step: 4 Mean abs error =
4

Step: 5
= |3.11–3.13| + |3.13–3.13|+|3.14–3.13|+|3.15–3.13|

4
= 0.01 cm

Percentage error
Step: 6
= 0.01/3.13 × 100 = 0.319%
Examples The length of the plate measured using Vernier caliper of least
count 0.01 cm. The measurements made were 3.11 cm, 3.13cm,
3.14 cm and 3.14 cm.
Find % error

A. 3.19 %
B. 0.319 %
C. 31.9 %
D. None of these
Solution The length of the plate measured using Vernier caliper of least count
0.01 cm. The measurements made were 3.11 cm, 3.13cm, 3.14 cm and
3.14 cm. Find mean length, mean absolute error and % error

|a1–am|+|a2–am|+|a3–am|+|a4–am |
Step: 4 Mean abs error =
4

Step: 5 |3.11–3.13| + |3.13–3.13|+|3.14–3.13|+|3.15–3.13|

=
4
= 0.01 cm

Step: 6 Percentage error

= 0.01/3.13 × 100 = 0.319%
Examples The size of the object measured by means of a Vernier calipers is
3.52 cm. If the least count is 0.01 cm, estimate the percentage
error in the measurement.

A. 0.28 %
B. 0.31 %
C. 2.8 %
D. None of these
Solution The size of the object measured by means of a Vernier calipers
is 3.52 cm. If the least count is 0.01 cm, estimate the percentage
error in the measurement.

Step: 1 Data : y = 3.52 cm and Δy = 0.01 cm

Δy 0.01
Step: 2 % error = y × 100 = × 100
3.52

Step: 3 % error = 0.28%

Examples An object was weighed by a physical balance and following
readings were obtained :5.04 g 5.06 g, 4.97 g, 5.00 g and 4.93 g.
Find (i) the mean value

A. 5.00 g
B. 5.01 g
C. 5.02 g
D. 5.03 g
 An object was weighed by a physical balance and following readings were
Solution obtained :5.04 g 5.06 g, 4.97 g, 5.00 g and 4.93 g. Find
(i) the mean value
(ii) the mean absolute error
(iii) the percentage error.

Step: 1 Data: n = 5, m1 = 5.04 g, m2 = 5.06 g, m3 = 4.97 g,

m4 = 5.00g, m5 = 4.93 g

Step: 2 m1+m2+m3+m4 + m5
Mean value m =
n
(5.04 + 5.06 + 4.97 + 5.00 + 4.93) g
=
5
25.00
= = 5.00 g
5
Examples An object was weighed by a physical balance and following
readings were obtained :5.04 g 5.06 g, 4.97 g, 5.00 g and 4.93 g.
Find (ii) the mean absolute error
A. 0.04 g
B. 0.01 g
C. 0.02 g
D. 0.03 g
Solution An object was weighed by a physical balance and following readings were
obtained :5.04 g 5.06 g, 4.97 g, 5.00 g and 4.93 g. Find (ii) the mean
absolute error

Step: 3

Mean absolute error ,

| m1 – m | + | m2 – m | + | m3 – m | + | m4 – m | + | m5 – m |
Δm =
n
(0.04 + 0.06 + 0.03 + 0.00 + 0.07) g 0.20
= = = 0.04 g
5 5
Examples An object was weighed by a physical balance and following
readings were obtained :5.04 g 5.06 g, 4.97 g, 5.00 g and 4.93 g.
Find (iii) the percentage error.
A. 0.5
B. 0.7
C. 0.75
D. 0.8
Solution An object was weighed by a physical balance and following readings were
obtained :5.04 g 5.06 g, 4.97 g, 5.00 g and 4.93 g. Find (ii) the mean
absolute error

Step: 3

Mean absolute error ,

| m1 – m | + | m2 – m | + | m3 – m | + | m4 – m | + | m5 – m |
Δm =
n
(0.04 + 0.06 + 0.03 + 0.00 + 0.07) g 0.20
= = = 0.04 g
5 5

Step: 4
Δm
Percentage error = × 100 %
m
0.04 g
= × 100 % = 0.8 %
5.00 g
How to predict errors in calculations?

1. Addition
2. Subtraction
3. Multiplication
4. Division
5. Powers
Calculating Errors

① ADDITION
R=x+y
dR = dx + dy

ΔR = Δx + Δy
Error in y

Error in R Error in x

Note that errors are always added up

Calculating Errors

② SUBTRACTION

R=x–y
ΔR = Δx + Δy

Note that errors are always added up

Calculating Errors

③ MULTIPLICATION

R = xy Fractional error = ΔR/R

dR = xdy + ydx
ΔR = xΔy + yΔx
ΔR = xΔy + yΔx R xy xy
ΔR Δy Δx
Error in R = +
R y x
 Error Trick
R = x2y3
Calculating Errors

④ DIVISION

Fractional error = ΔR/R

R = x/y
R = xy–1 ΔR x(−1y−2Δy) (dx)y–1
= +
R xy–1 xy–1
dR = x(−1y−2dy) + (dx)y–1
ΔR Δy Δx
R = +
y x
Calculating Errors

⑤ POWERS

R = x2y3 We can directly write

dR = x2(3y2dy) + (2xdx)y3 the final expression
by looking at the power
dR 3dy 2dx coefficient
= +
R y x
Even if the coefficient
ΔR 2Δx 3Δy is negative, we have to
= +
R x y add the errors
Examples Calculate fractional error for
1. R = x2y
2. R = x−1y4z
Solution Calculate fractional error for
1. R = x2y
2. R = x−1y4z

1. R = x2y 2. R = x−1y4z

ΔR 2Δx Δy ΔR Δx 4Δy Δz
= + = + +
R x y R x y z
Examples Calculate fractional error for
R = √x /y2

ΔR Δx
A. R = x +
-2Δy
y
ΔR -½ Δx -2Δy
B. R = x + y
ΔR ½ Δx 2Δy
C. R = x + y
ΔR Δx 2Δy
D. R = x + y
Solution Calculate fractional error for
R = √x /y2

R = x1/2y−2
ΔR ½ Δx 2Δy
R = x + y

When the expressions are not simple, just

differentiate and get the results
 Examples Calculate fractional error for
x
R =
x+y
ΔR Δy yΔx
= x-y -
A. R x(x+y)
ΔR Δy yΔx
= x+y +
B. R x(x+y)
ΔR Δy yΔx
= x+y - x(x-y)
R
C.
ΔR Δy yΔx
= x-y + x(x+y)
R
D.
Solution Calculate fractional error for
x
R =
x+y

1 x+y y ΔR Δy yΔx
= x = 1 + = +
R x R2 x x2
–dR x(dy) – (dx)y Δy
✓
= ΔR yΔx
R2 x2 = x+y + x(x+y)
R
Examples The heat dissipated Q in a resistance(R) can be obtained by the
measurement of resistance, current(I) and time(t). If the
maximum errors in the measurement of these quantities are
2%, 1% and 1% respectively, then what is the maximum error
in the measurement of dissipated heat, Q = [ I2Rt/4.2 ] cal?
A. 3
B. 4
C. 5
D. 6
 The heat dissipated(Q) in a resistance(R) can be obtained by the
Solution
measurement of resistance, current(I) and time(t). If the maximum
errors in the measurement of these quantities are 2%, 1% and 1%
respectively, then what is the maximum error in the measurement of
dissipated heat, Q = [I2Rt/4.2]cal?

i2R
Q= t ca
4. l
ΔQ 22Δi Δ Δt
= + +
Q i RR t
ΔQ
(%) = 2(1%) + (2%) +
Q (1%)
ΔQ
(in %) = 5
Q %
Examples Two resistors have resistances x = (24 ± 0.5) Ω and y = (8 ± 0.3)Ω .
Calculate the absolute error and the percentage relative error in
calculating the combination of two resistances when they are in
(a) Series
A. 0.8, 2.0 %
B. 0.8 , 2.5 %
C. 1.2, 2.0 %
D. 1.2, 2.5 %
Solution Two resistors have resistances R1 = (24 ± 0.5) Ω and R2 = (8 ± 0.3)Ω .
Calculate the absolute error and the percentage relative error in
calculating the combination of two resistances when they are in
(a) Series
(b) Parallel

Req = R1 + R2 32 ± 2.5%

ΔReq = ΔR1 + ΔR2 Req = 24 + 8

= 0.5 + 0.3 Req = 32
ΔReq = 0.8 % error ΔReq
= × 100
R
0.8
Absolute error = × 100= 2.5%
32
Examples Two resistors have resistances x = (24 ± 0.5) Ω and y = (8 ± 0.3)Ω .
Calculate the absolute error and the percentage relative error in calculating
the combination of two resistances when they are in
(b) Parallel
A. 0.2, 3.33 %
B. 0.3 , 6.66 %
C. 0.2, 0.66 %
D. 0.3, 3.33 %
Solution Two resistors have resistances R1 = (24 ± 0.5) Ω and R2 = (8 ± 0.3)Ω .
Calculate the absolute error and the percentage relative error in
calculating the combination of two resistances when they are in
(a) Series
(b) Parallel

1 1 1 R1R2 24 × 8 6 ± 3.33%
= + ; R = = =6
Req R R2 eq R1+R2 32
1
Differentiating 0.5 0.3
ΔReq = 62 + 6 2

ΔReq –1ΔR1 1ΔR2 242 82

– = – 0.5 9
Req2 R12 R22 ΔReq = + (0.3) = 0.2
42 16
ΔReq 0.5 0.3 ΔReq 0.2
Req2
= + ×100 = 100 = 3.33%
242 82 R 6
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