CHANAKYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

PROJECT WORK OF SOCIOLOGY

“Economic dependence among women : A sociological study”

Submitted to: Dr. Sangeet Kumar Submitted By: Vibhuti Sharma

(Faculty of Sociology) Roll No: 1772

1st Year B.A. L.L.B. (Hons.)

ECONOMIC DEPENDENCE
AMONG WOMEN
A SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY

SUPERVISED BY - DR. SANGEET KUMAR

SUBMITTED BY – VIBHUTI SHARMA
ROLL NO. - 1772
1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to the people who have helped me
write this project successfully. First of all I would like to thank my Sociology teacher Dr.
Sangeet Kumar for his able guidance and support that was much needed for the preparation of
this project. I am glad I was assigned such a topic that enthused me throughout the preparation
process. This research has surely added to my knowledge and has made me aware about this
particular social evil prevailing in the society

I would also like to thank my friends who supported and motivated me all the time to work on
this project sincerely. And lastly, I’d also like to thank the almighty for obvious reasons.

THANK YOU

VIBHUTI SHARMA

2
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work reported in the BA LL.B (Hons.) Project Report entitled
“Economic dependency among women” submitted at Chanakya National Law University, Patna
is an authentic record of my work carried out under the supervision of Dr. Sangeet Kumar . I
have not submitted this work elsewhere for any other degree or diploma. I am fully responsible
for the contents of my Project Report.

VIBHUTI SHARMA

3
Table of Contents
CHANAKYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY ......................................................................... 0
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .............................................................................................................. 2
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................ 3
RESEARCH METHOD.................................................................................................................. 5
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 7
ECONOMIC STATUS OF WOMEN IN INDIA ......................................................................... 10
GENDER INEQUALITY IN INDIA ........................................................................................... 13
GENDER INEQUALITY IN WORKFORCE IN INDIA ............................................................ 18
FIELD WORK ...............................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS ....................................................................................... 29
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................................... 32

4
RESEARCH METHOD

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

1. To study about the economic dependency among women.

2. To find out the reason for the economic dependence.
3. The consequences of the economic dependency among women.
4. To highlight the main problems that women face due to the issue.
5. To analyze and suggest the solutions for the issue.

HYPOTHESIS

The researcher of the view that since the times immemorial, worth of the work done or services
rendered by women has not been recognized. India is a multifaceted society where no
generalization could apply to the entire nation's various regional, religious, social, and economic
groups.

SOURCES OF DATA

Primary Sources : Laws , Acts , Field Work

Secondary sources : Books, Newspapers, Articles, Journals

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The study will seek for the answers of following research questions.

1. What is economic dependency?

2. What are the reasons for economic dependency among women?
3. What are the impacts of this economic dependency?
4. Analyzing the status of women in the society.

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LIMITATIONS

Area of limitations - Every study has own limitation due to the limited time, lack of sufficient
financial sources and limited are of survey/study of the subject matter.

CHAPTERSIZATION

1. Introduction
2. Economic status of women in India
3. Gender inequality in India
4. Gender inequality in workforce in India
5. Economic Dependency of women
6. Conclusion and Suggestions

6
 INTRODUCTION

42 years old Laxmi is not divorcing her husband despite the fact that she is not in a healthy
marriage. She gets beaten up by her husband on a regular basis, has all her jewels sold out so as
to support his husband’s drinking habits and has accepted it as her fate now. On asking why is
she taking so much torture, she just answers, where would I go?

Economic dependency is typically understood as a household-level relationship in which shifts

toward greater dependency for one member are commensurate with shifts toward less
dependency for the other member(s), and equality is defined as equal contributions. Although
women’s financial contribution to family income has grown dramatically over the past several
decades, men’s contributions continue to predominate. A woman’s economic dependency is one
of the key indicators of her status in the society, defining the degree of her individual freedom in
public and private life. 1

By the same token, economic dependency excludes women from society’s most important
resources, so that she has less access to rights and opportunities. One of the great social
transformations of the twentieth century, women’s mass entry into the labor market, created the
conditions necessary for women to achieve economic independence. , yet at the same time it

1
https://www.sabhlokcity.com/2010/09/steps-to-radically-improve-womens-status-in-india/ (April 14, 2018, 8:25
PM)

7
revealed the depth of the culturally conditioned gender inequality that continues to perpetuate
their dependency in public and private life.

Social and economic dependency characterizes relations that have to do with acquiring the
resources that are essential to provide a living. Relations of power and dependency come into
being when the provider holds a monopoly over the resources that are vitally essential for the
dependent. 2

The condition of women in a society is an index of that society’s place in civilization. India is a
multifaceted society where women’s status is heavily dependent on many different variables that
include geographical location (Urban/Rural), educational status, social status (Caste and class),
and age. As such, women and girls have restricted mobility, access to education, access to health
facilities and lower decision-making power, and experience higher rates of violence. Despite
existing reservations for women, their political participation is also hindered even at the
panchayat (local governing bodies) level and also at the state and national levels. Policies on
women’s welfare and empowerment exist at the national, state, and local (panchayat) levels in
many sectors, including health, education, economic opportunities, and political participation etc.
However, there are significant gaps between policy advancements and actual practice at the
ground level. This paper attempts to study the gender inequality and socio-economic problems of
women in India.

Throughout history and in many societies including India, gender inequality was a part and
parcel of an accepted male-dominated culture. Atrocities and discrimination are the two major
problems, which the Indian women face in the present day society. The traditional mentalities of
India assume that the place of women is mainly concentrated to the household activities like
kitchen work and upbringing of the children with restricted mobility and in seclusion. Despite
major changes that have occurred in the status of women in some parts of the world in recent
decades, norms that restrict women to the home are still powerful in India, defining activities that
are deemed appropriate for women. They are, by and large, excluded from political life, which
by its very nature takes place in a public forum.

22
http://saarthakindia.org/womens_situation_India.html (April 14, 2018, 8:27 PM)

8
The democratic process in India created the awareness among the women about their plight full
condition. The principle of gender equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its
Preamble, Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles. The Constitution
not only grants equality to women, but also empowers the state to adopt measures of positive
discrimination in favor of women. The 73rd and 74th Amendments (1993) to the Constitution of
India provided for reservation of seats (at least1/3 rd) in the local bodies of Panchayat and
Municipalities for women. 3

3
http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/introd.html (April 14, 2018, 8:43 PM)

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ECONOMIC STATUS OF WOMEN IN INDIA

In most of the human societies, social differentiation between the sexes, the male and female
existed and in majority of them women were assigned an inferior position. In recent times in the
socialist societies equality of status has been assigned to women, but it is often legal than
existential. Thus women accounting for nearly one half of the human population live in perpetual
subordination to the other half the men. Women are considered primarily as reproducers
although they invented agriculture and produce about fifty percent of world’s food. Their role as
producers is acknowledged but it is viewed as a transferable role.” It seems that, the
indispensability of women as reproducers of human societies has become an instrument of their
enslavement.” Pregnancy is viewed as a period of physical disability. “The dependency period of
a human infant is one of the longest and the women have to bear the brunt of it. These
biologically anchored but culturally reinforced feminine roles gave birth to the argument that
human biogrammer is geared to sexual division of labor in society.” During the early stages of
human society, hunting was an important economic activity and protection of the community
from external aggression, was the most important political activity, was monopoly of men, a
result man’s aggressive and dominating traits got reinforced. As genetic change is slower as
compared to cultural change, the male and female biogrammer continued even in modern
societies. In the modern industrial societies the status of women deteriorated still further.
According to Marx the distinction can be explained in terms of values. Values are of two types,
use values and exchange values.4 In premodern societies men and women performed different
tasks to produce for subsistence, hence both were producers of use values. As specialization in
work took place and production became market oriented, men started producing most for selling
and they became producers of exchange value, while women continued to be the producers of
use value. The distinction between wok and employment became clear. Although women worked
at home but they were not paid for it, hence they were considered unemployed. The terms
“working women” and “mere housewife” indicate the importance attached to work outside home
and insignificance of work done at home. Thus man as the main producer of exchange values

4
Sinha M. (2013). The gender-mainstreaming: Bridging gender inequality in India. Munich, Germany: Verlag.
http://www.grin.com/en/e-book/265536/the-gender-mainstreaming-bridging-gender-inequality-in-india (April 16,
2018, 2:07 AM)

10
was called “breadwinner” and woman despite the lot of work being done at home was given the
status of “dependent”. Overtime man’s status came to be related to production and that of woman
to reproduction. As the former gained power and privilege in the process, women experienced
erosion of these. It is against this background that the importance given by women’s liberation
movements to equality of opportunity in economic participation and political decision making
process by women should be viewed. The economic status of women is inextricably related to
the treatment that they are accorded to in the labor market which is unequal vis-a-vis men. With
unequal access, control and ownership of productive resources like land, credit, technology,
education, skills; inequitable work burdens; inequitable distribution of consumption resources
within the household are major factors differentiating women from men. Increase in employment
and access to economic and other productive assets are the building blocks of women s economic
empowerment. Unemployment rate had been consistently high for women since 1972-73 in both
rural and urban areas; this was seen particularly when the unemployment rate was measured on
the basis of current daily status rather than that measured in terms of usual statusv , , thereby
indicating a higher degree of intermittent unemployment among women. In India, given that 30
percent of the population lives below poverty line in 2009-10 (following Tendulkar methodology
5
the poor cannot afford to stay unemployed for a longer period and would take recourse to any
engagement as survival strategy.. In India where large-scale seasonal unemployment exists, the
current daily status measure gives a better picture of the unemployment situation than the one
relating to usual status. Unemployment rate for women measures in these terms is more than men
(Figure 3) both in rural and in urban India. Even with a decline over the five year period, the
incidence of unemployment among women is substantially high. Also unemployment rate by
current daily status among the young women (15-24 yrs.) is as high as 14.7 percent in rural areas
and 20.5 percent in urban areas, which explains partly the declining labour force participation
rate.6

Labour is the primary asset at the disposal of the poor and hence labour markets are the key
transmission mechanism for them translating labour into paid work and then paid work into
improved levels of poverty, to distribute the benefits of growth. However, there are difficulties in

5
Government of India, Press Information Bureau, Poverty Estimates For 2009-10, New Delhi
6
The hindu (30,Sep,2012), Guwahati, September 30, 2012, Why are women disappearing from workforce, asks
Brinda, SUSHANTA TALUKDAR, Guwahati.

11
this process, further more for women than men because of various constraints related to social
norms and values that govern the gender division of labour in production and reproduction. With
declining participation of women in the labour market in India coupled with increasing
incidences of unemployment, increasing informalization, dependence on the primary sector, the
building blocks towards empowerment and equality are at stake.7 On all the parameters discussed
above, women in India fare worse than men; the rate of transition of labour, particularly women,
out of agriculture to industry and services, is still far too slow to reckon. Women face multiple
barriers in terms of occupational segregation, low wages, unequal access to assets and other
productive inputs, lack of decision making power and education. In addition they face care work,
household chores and time poverty.8 Opening up of the economy and rapid economic growth
have escalated some of the existing structural barriers faced by women. New challenges in the
form of dismantling of traditional support structures, displacement due to migration,
obsolescence of traditional skill sets have cropped up. The decline in women s workforce
participation rate is a matter for concern and has implications for their overall economic
empowerment. There is an urgent need to increase decent work and productive employment with
more opportunities for women in different sectors.

7
UN (2010), The World’s Women in 2010, Trends and Statistics, UN Department of Economics and Social Affairs,
(New York)
8
Sujaya,C.P (2006), Climbing a Long Road: Women in Agriculture in India: Ten Years after Beijing, M.S.
Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai.

12
GENDER INEQUALITY IN INDIA

‘Gender’ is a socio-cultural term referring socially defined roles and behaviors assigned to
‘males’ and ‘females’ in a given society; whereas, the term ‘sex’ is a biological and
physiological phenomenon which defines man and woman. In its social, historical and cultural
aspects, gender is a function of power relationship between men and women where men are
considered superior to women. Therefore, gender may be understood as a man-made concept,
while ‘sex’ is natural or biological characteristics of human beings.9

Gender Inequality, in simple words, may be defined as discrimination against women based on
their sex. Women are traditionally considered by the society as weaker sex. She has been
accorded a subordinate position to men. She is exploited, degraded, violated and discriminated
both in our homes and in outside world.10 This peculiar type of discrimination against women is
prevalent everywhere in the world and more so in Indian society.

We proud Indians of 21st century rejoice in celebrations when a boy is born, and if it is a girl, a
muted or no celebrations is the norm. Love for a male child is so much so that from the times
immemorial we are killing our daughters at birth or before birth, and if, fortunately, she is not
killed we find various ways to discriminate against her throughout her life. Though our religious
beliefs make women a goddess but we fail to recognize her as a human being first; we worship
goddesses but we exploit girls. We are a society of people with double-standards as far as our
attitude towards women is concerned; our thoughts and preaching are different than our
actions.11

The root cause of gender inequality in Indian society lies in its patriarchy system. According to
the famous sociologists Sylvia Walby, patriarchy is “a system of social structure and practices in
which men dominate, oppress and exploit women”. Women’s exploitation is an age old cultural

9
Bilimoria D., Joy S., Liang X. (2008). Breaking barriers and creating inclusiveness: Lessons of organizational
transformation to advance women faculty in academic science and engineering. Human Resource Management, 47,
423-441. doi:10.1002/hrm.20225
10
Comyn P., Kemmis R. B., Smith E. (2014). How can the expansion of the apprenticeship system in India create
conditions for greater equity and social justice? Australian Journal of Adult Learning
11
Hay K. (2012). Engendering policies and programmes through feminist evaluation: Opportunities and insights.
Indian Journal of Gender Studies

13
phenomenon of Indian society. The system of patriarchy finds its validity and sanction in our
religious beliefs, whether it is Hindu, Muslim or any other religion.

For instance, as per ancient Hindu law giver Manu: “Women are supposed to be in the custody
of their father when they are children, they must be under the custody of their husband when
married and under the custody of her son in old age or as widows. In no circumstances she
should be allowed to assert herself independently”.

The above described position of women as per Manu is still the case in present modern day
social structure. Barring few exceptions here and there, women have no power to take
independent decisions either inside their homes or in outside world.

In Muslims also the situation is same and there too sanction for discrimination or subordination
is provided by religious texts and Islamic traditions. Similarly in other religious beliefs also
women are being discriminated against in one way or other.

The unfortunate part of gender inequality in our society is that the women too, through,
continued socio-cultural conditioning, have accepted their subordinate position to men. And they
are also part and parcel of same patriarchal system.

Extreme poverty and lack of education are also some of the reasons for women’s low status in
society. Poverty and lack of education derives countless women to work in low paying domestic
service, organized prostitution or as migrant labourers. Women are not only getting unequal pay
for equal or more work but also they are being offered only low skill jobs for which lower wages
are paid. This has become a major form of inequality on the basis of gender.

Educating girl child is still seen as a bad investment because she is bound to get married and
leave her paternal home one day. Thus, without having good education women are found lacking
in present day’s demanding job skills; whereas, each year’s High School and 10+2 standard
results show that girls are always doing better than boys. This shows that parents are not
spending much after 10+2 standard on girl child and that’s why they lack in job market. Not only
in education, in case of family food habits, it is the male child who gets all the nutritious and
choicest foods while the girl child gets whatever is left behind after the male members have
taken their meals or the food which is low in both quality and nutrition. And this becomes a

14
major health issue in her later years. One of the main reasons for the high incidences of difficult
births and anemia in women is the poor quality of food which a girl always gets either in her
paternal home or in her in-laws as also is the excessive workload that they are made to bear from
their early childhood.12

So the inequality or discrimination against women is at various levels in the society, either in
home or outside home. India struggles with gender inequality issues beyond just equal economic
growth and access to educational resource opportunities. Gender inequality exists in the form of
socially constructed, predefined gender roles firmly anchored in India’s sociocultural fabric that
has deep cultural and historical roots. Sociocultural influences have spillover effects across all
domains, including the organizational workforce, and social and political contexts. This
unquestionable influence is still accepted as the norm within the societal and familial periphery.

Gender inequality in India finds its beginnings in Indian homes, with the conception of work
firmly rooted in the Indian psyche. Work performed by Indian women, such as taking care of the
family and household chores, fails to gain favorable recognition both within the family and
nation.13 India’s historical patriarchal values endorse the current status of women in society
where equality for women is hardly a priority. India is a collectivist society where individual
needs are sacrificed for the benefit of the group and this sacrifice is primarily made by Indian
women for their families.14 Traditionally, and importantly, although the Indian patriarchal culture
views a woman as a member of the family or a group, she is not viewed as an individual with an
identity of her own.15 Patriarchy is one such norm in India, particularly applying to women as
their lives are dictated and monitored by the male members of the family from birth to death.16 A
woman cannot possess any assets of her own or displease her husband, as she would be held in
violation of her wifely duties. In addition to taking care of husband’s needs, she must handle and

12
Razvi M., Roth G. (2004). Socio-economic development and gender inequality in India. In Egan T. M., Morris M.
L., Inbakumar V. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Academy of Human Resource Development (pp. 168-175). Bowling
Green, OH: Academy of Human Resource Development.
13
Bhattacharya P, The price India pays for gender inequality,
http://www.livemint.com/Opinion/LA4JvYcdANXYwda0msGHRK/The-price-India-pays-for-gender-
inequality.html (April 15, 10:27 PM)
14
Mohan J. (1973). Twenty-five years of Indian independence. New Delhi, India: Vikas Publishing.
15
Alavi S. (2013). A historical analysis of women development in India. International Journal of Scientific
Engineering and Research, 1, 111-116.
16
Chada R., Sinha K. D. (2013). Indian family systems, collectivistic society and psychotherapy. Indian Journal of
Psychiatry, 55, 299-309.

15
be responsible for the housework and children, perform religious duties, prepare all the food,
provide male children, and be loyal and faithful to her responsibilities towards her home, all the
while subduing her own needs, thoughts, and actions.17

Gender inequality takes on many forms in India, arising from multifarious social practices
viewed as normal from a religious or cultural standpoint (based on deep historical roots),
resulting in women being disproportionally underrepresented in the economic mainstream. These
social practices have profound economic consequences because they do not allow society to take
advantage of the talent inherent in women.18 Women in India have existed in predominantly
patriarchal environments, facing discrimination in terms of social, political, educational, and
economic opportunities due to their perceived inferior status, resulting in the continued
dominance of the patriarchal practices in Indian society. Although the early 21st century has
witnessed marginal change, with more women being part of the workforce, especially in urban
India, gender inequality maintains its spillover effects in various decisions made in the
workforce. Decisions for positions of employment in companies are typically taken by senior
managers, who are primarily males, resulting in the decisions becoming an expression, and a
cause, of gendered inequality in employment. Any gendered division of labor occurring at the
selection stage subsequently feeds into recruitment where this division is reproduced and
possibly amplified. The overall result is horizontal segregation, primarily where men and women
end up in different industries, occupations, and jobs.19 This might not necessarily be a problem
were it not for the fact that industries, occupations, and jobs marked as women’s, almost always
provide worse pay and condition. Second, recruiters enjoy minimal benefits from recruiting an
employee who is likely to generate extra costs and inconvenience (to the employing
organization) associated with maternity leave or pregnancy. Because of lack of incentives to hire
women, recruitment decisions regarding women employees are therefore negatively impacted.

17
Razvi M., Roth G. (2004). Socio-economic development and gender inequality in India. In Egan T. M., Morris M.
L., Inbakumar V. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Academy of Human Resource Development (pp. 168-175). Bowling
Green, OH: Academy of Human Resource Development.
18
Menon-Sen K., Shiva Kumar A. K. (2001). Women in India: How free? How equal? New Delhi, India: United
Nations Development Assistance Framework.
19
Arora R. U. (2012). Gender inequality, economic development, and globalization: A state level analysis of India.
The Journal of Developing Areas, 46, 147-164.

16
 20
Gender inequality in India exists in terms of access to health, education, and employment.
stated that gender inequality in India exists in the cultural framework. The female child receives
less nurturing, care, and parental attention than males, thus, making them far more susceptible
than boys to disease and infections, leading to poor health and a shorter life.21 Men outnumber
women in India, aged 21 and above. For instance, in 1991, there were 927 women for every
1,000 men, and according to the 2011 Census, the number has slightly increased, and the gender
ratio for Indian adults aged 21 or above is 940 women for every 1,000 men.22 The preferential
treatment for males permeates all social classes in India, which sets the gender inequality
standard for girls throughout their life span.

Roy K, argued that education in India is gender discriminatory, too, with males obtaining more
access to education,23 as can be seen from their literacy ratios of 82.14% and 62.46%,
respectively.24 As girls in India are primarily groomed for marriage, parents prefer to invest in a
boy’s education. A common belief is that when girls marry, they belong to their in-laws , 25
so
the return on investment for education is arguably too low. For low-income families with limited
budgets, education for girls becomes unaffordable. Because patriarchal views dominate in Indian
households, girls often do not gain access to educational opportunities, and the type of education
they receive is often functional and basic; such as reading, writing, maintaining personal
hygiene, and effectively conducting household chores. As the ideology is to keep a woman
within the walls of the home and secluded, education is not deemed necessary.

Gender discrimination in the workforce diminishes the availability of talent to an economy,

leading to negative economic consequences. In India, myriad social practices, perceived as
conventional from a religious or cultural standpoint, push women away from the economic

20
Menon-Sen K., Shiva Kumar A. K. (2001). Women in India: How free? How equal? New Delhi, India: United
Nations Development Assistance Framework.
21
Chand S., Mehrotra M. (2012). An evaluation of major determinants of health care facilities for women in India.
Journal of Humanities and Social Science
22
Census of India. (2011). Number of literates & literacy rate.
http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/India_at_glance/literates1.aspx (April 15, 10:45 PM)
23
Roy K., Vecchio N. (1998). Poverty, female-headed households, and sustainable economic development.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
24
Census of India. (2011). Number of literates & literacy
http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/India_at_glance/literates1.aspx (April 15, 10:57 PM)
25
Chada R., Sinha K. D. (2013). Indian family systems, collectivistic society and psychotherapy. Indian Journal of
Psychiatry, 55, 299-309.

17
mainstream, not allowing the nation’s economic development to include the inherent talent
women could provide.26

GENDER INEQUALITY IN WORKFORCE IN INDIA

26
Esteve-Volart B. (2004). Gender discrimination and growth: Theory and evidence from India. London, England:
London School of Economics and Political Science.

18
Gender inequality in employment implies treating women (or men) differently because of
characteristics that are not related to their merit or the requirements of the job.27 Gender equality
in the workforce does not mandate participation of women in the workforce as an alternative to
staying home to take care of the house, children, or elderly family members. Instead, it supports
women and men having an equal range of choices.28 Gender inequality in the workforce exists
across all countries, where women consistently earn less than men for doing the same job. On an
average, women in paid work earn 10% to 30% less than men.29 According to the World
Economic Forum (WEF), women in India get paid 62% of what their male counterparts earn for
the same position and equal amount of work30 Interestingly, found that women workforce
participation in India had shown a steady decline from 33.7% in 1991 to 27% in 2012 for the 15
to 64 age group. Unequal gender relations play a very important role in constraining Indian
women’s workforce participation, including (a) minimal bargaining power and poor
representation; (b) lack of control over work/life balance; (c) minimal family support; (d) limited
access to institutional credit, training, and information; and (e) inequality in access to financial,
health, and educational resources.31

Gender inequality in the workforce in India can be described by the following broad categories:

a. Minimal bargaining power and poor representation: Women in India do not get adequate
representation in trade unions, employers’ organizations, and other relevant
representative organizations to help address and improve their working conditions. The
lack of representation in decision-making processes (both informal and formal sectors)
leaves women with limited bargaining power to transform their work environments.32

b. Lack of control over work/life balance: Women in India carry the burden of a double
shift at home cooking, cleaning, and caring for the young and the old, adversely
impacting their abilities to contribute effectively in the labor market.

c. Family support: Women traditionally work at home and some outside of the home (in the
workforce). But her contributions to being a caregiver and taking care of the home are
never given due recognition; her financial contributions to the family are often taken for
granted as well.

27
Kaushik N., Sharma A., Kaushik V. K. (2014). Equality in the workplace: A study of gender issues in Indian
organizations. Journal of Management Development.
28
Klugman J., Kolb H., Morton M. (2014). Persistent gender inequality in the world of work. The Fletcher Forum of
World Affairs.
29
Comyn P., Kemmis R. B., Smith E. (2014). How can the expansion of the apprenticeship system in India create
conditions for greater equity and social justice? Australian Journal of Adult Learning, 54, 369-387
30
Madhok D. (2014). Missing women: India’s record in women’s participation in the workforce is depressing.
http://qz.com/238484/indias-record-in-womens-participation-in-the-workforce-is-depressing/ (April 15, 11:30 PM)
31
Emilia Jones, The developing world’s missing women workers. (2013, June 5).
Livemint.http://www.livemint.com/Opinion/VhUIl1HfM60bvwG3LuqseM/The-developing-worlds-missing-
women-workers.html (April 15, 11:45 PM)
32
Madhav R., Sankaran K. (2011). Gender equality and social dialogue in India. Geneva, Switzerland: International
Labor Organization.

19
 d. Limited access to institutional credit, training, and information: Patriarchal ideals within
the home, deprives women of equal access to education, training, and skills, and hence
contributes to their presence in lower paying jobs as they lack employable skills. In the
workplace, lack of access to skills training and other resources is commonly encountered
by women.33

e. Unequal access to resources and treatment: Women also have limited access to facilities
and resources such as sanitary facilities; allowances for drinking, eating, and resting; and
access to first aid, health care, and transportation. Women in the workforce are subjected
to sexual harassment and means to seek redress through expedited procedures, as
mandated by the government statutes are rarely implemented by organizations.

In addition, occupational segregation gives impetus to low women participation in the workforce
in India.34 Specific industries and services such as agriculture, handicraft manufacturing, and
being a domestic helper are open to women workers in India.35 Lack of education pushes a high
percentage of socially and economically underprivileged women (primarily in rural India) to turn
to employment in the informal sector, where wages are very low, barely helping these
uneducated rural women, who work for necessity, that is, to survive36 The India: Ministry of
Welfare. Listed three forms of labor in the informal sector: self-employment, contract/wage
work, and housework. Researchers continue to refer to these three forms of informal labor in
their work to this day. This form of unstable income further widens the gap in gender inequality,
leading to exploitation of women and pushing them further toward the bottom of the income
ladder. Although the informal sector constitutes a pivotal part of the Indian economy employers,
trade unions, and government organizations do not have formal policies related to safeguarding
women’s jobs. Economists believe that the state of affairs for urban Indian women is not much
different from rural women.37 Women in urban India are far more educated than their rural
counterparts and have the advantage of living in an area where white-collar jobs are
concentrated; yet, even educated women in urban India are opting out of full-time employment.
Notably, only 22% of educated women enter the workforce. An analysis of some of the reasons
for low women workforce participation demonstrated that urban Indian women with a lower
level of education (having completed 10th or 12th grade) appeared to be working out of
necessity if household incomes were very low. In comparison, educated women (having

33
Madhav R., Sankaran K. (2011). Gender equality and social dialogue in India. Geneva, Switzerland: International
Labor Organization.
34
Hussmanns R. (2004). Measuring the informal economy: From employment in the informal sector to informal
employment. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office
35
India: Ministry of Welfare. (1987). Encyclopaedia of social work in India. New Delhi, India: Ministry of
Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.
36
Das S., Jain-Chandra S., Kochhar K., Kumar N. (2015). Women workers in India: Why so few among so many?
https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2015/wp1555.pdf (April 16, 12:07 AM)
37
Klasen S., Pieters J. (2013). What explains the stagnation of female labor force participation in urban India? Bonn,
Germany: Institute for the Study of Labor.

20
completed their bachelor’s and master’s degrees) appeared less constrained by family and
economic circumstances in their decisions to participate in the workforce.38

Participation of women in the Indian workforce demonstrates a U effect where informal

workforce participation for illiterate women, primarily from rural India, is high; workforce
participation for women in India with low and intermediate education is lower; and there is an
upward trend for women with graduate/postgraduate degrees. 39 The primary difference is that
rural uneducated women’s decision to participate in the informal workforce sector is necessitated
by poverty and circumstance, whereas decisions made by their educated urban counterparts are
governed primarily by individual preferences of the woman, family circumstances, and
availability of jobs that women are particularly suited for, interested in, or where employment in
these jobs is seen as socially acceptablECONOMIC DEPENDENCY OF WOMEN

A woman in Indian society has been a victim of humiliation, torture and exploitation. There are
many episodes of rape, murder, dowry, burning, wife beating and discrimination in society. Men
pre dominate the Indian society, hence women are a victim of male domination in the respective
sphere of life; especially in economic life, over decision making on resources, on the utilization
of her earnings and her body. Hence, a woman’s life lies between pleasures at one end and
danger at another end. There might be many reasons for a woman to bear up with such atrocities.
The most common being, being financially dependent on her husband. Since, the Indian societies
have always been patriarchal, It’s no big deal for boys to get chosen over their sisters when it cae
to education. Specially in poor families. Without proper education and facilities a woman can
never be totally empowered. Yes, she might possess some skills but in order to be able to earn
from it and financially sound, she needs to brush upon it too. But of course in Indian societies if
not poor, then the social and patriarchal norms are enough to stop a woman to become
financially independent.

Financial impediments, in particular, play a major role in restricting the freedoms enjoyed by
women who are abused by their intimate partners. Economics has both an empowering and
disempowering influence on abusive relationships. While a batterer is empowered by his

38
The developing world’s missing women workers.
http://www.livemint.com/Opinion/VhUIl1HfM60bvwG3LuqseM/The-developing-worlds-missing-women-
workers.html (April 16, 12:23 AM)
39
Nayar B. R. (1960). Community development program: Its political impact.
http://www.epw.in/system/files/pdf/1960_12/38/community_development_programmeits_political_impact.pdf
(April 16, 12:34 AM)

21
partner’s financial dependence, the autonomy of a woman who is victimized is diminished by her
abuser’s ability to control her through financial means. Moreover, financial instability is one of
the greatest reasons why, after gaining freedom, a woman who experiences battering has limited
choices and may ultimately acquiesce to her partner’s attempts to reconcile.40

Economic instability is a link that binds a woman to her abuser.41 Regardless of the interveners
in her case—law enforcement, family or friends—as long as she remains financially dependent
upon her abuser it is exceedingly difficult for a woman who experiences intimate partner
violence to put a stop to the batterer’s control over her. Arrest of the perpetrator, incarceration
for a period of time, entry of a criminal no-contact order, or the provision of a civil protection
order are all appropriate responses to intimate partner violence. Yet, without ensuring that a
survivor of domestic violence has food security, housing stability, healthcare, childcare, adequate
transportation, as well as reasonable assurances of continuing resources or a guarantee of
enforcement of any court ordered relief, a batterer will continue to maintain his power to abuse
and control. Economic independence can provide freedom from abuse. Yet, when it comes to
economic independence, gender matters. Given the historical experience of women in the labor
force and contemporary social factors, many women today continue to be financially dependent
on their partners, women in abusive relationships in particular. Financial inequality is central to
the female experience; it has shaped her role within the marital relationship, diminished her
autonomy, influenced her place within the labor force, and nurtured her oppression. Early on,
marriage and childbirth played a fundamental role in the extent to which women participated in
the labor force. Yet even today, marriage and children continue to negatively influence the extent
to which women engage in work for pay. A woman’s absence from the labor force results in
diminished economic power within the intimate relationship, as well as society generally.
Inequality results in reduced options for women which in turn places them at risk for
maltreatment. Not surprisingly, much of modern day economic instability of women derives
from our past. The reason for women’s increased risk of poverty at the time of separation is
multifaceted. Women generally are vulnerable to poverty due to social welfare policy, wage
inequality, gender discrimination, diminished access to capital, and a history of inequality.

40
. Economic Abuse, NAT’L COALITION AGAINST DOMESTIC VIOLENCE, http://www.uncfsp
.org/projects/userfiles/File/DCE-STOP_NOW/NCADV_Economic_Abuse_Fact_Sheet.pdf (April 16, 12:57 AM)
41
https://rentonwa.gov/errors/FileNotFound.aspx?aspxerrorpath=/living/default.aspx (April 16, 1:02 AM)

22
Additionally, our legal system’s failure to respond adequately to crimes committed against
women, in particular, and to provide the relief necessary to protect them from male exploitation
has placed women who are abused at even greater risk of both poverty and violence. Not only do
women who experience battering face gender discrimination, job sex-typing, and wage gaps
within the labor force, they also experience a multitude of employment-related problems created
by their batterers. Perpetrators of intimate partner violence tend to be ultra-controlling. A batterer
may restrict his partner’s access to resources, exploit or destroy her property, or diminish her
ability to build social capital.42

A consideration of the history of the marital relationship and gender based division of labor is
critical to understanding the ways in which money and power within that marital relationship
influence male violence against women, as well as the economic challenges women continue to
face today.43

The colonial period signifies the long-term struggle for women in India both for financial
independence and freedom from male oppression. It is the historic oppression of women through
physical and sexual abuse which paved the way for male economic dominance over women.
Male violence against women, the economic dependence of females on males, and the legal and
social justifications for male dominance are so closely linked that it is difficult to consider one
without addressing the others. Marriage gave a man power over his wife. Marriage provided a
man with the power to control the property and finances of his wife, as well as her sexual
activities, social status, and liberty. In early Indian history a woman was not permitted to own
property and was, in fact, the property of the men in her life; first her father or brother, later her
husband. A colonial man was permitted to “chastise” his wife through corporal punishment. The
husband controlled a woman’s experiences with and in connection to the local economy. As a
result, much of a woman’s life experience depended greatly on the man she married. If she
married a perpetrator of intimate partner violence, she was at great risk of suffering abuse with
little protection or avenue of escape. Her abuser had the ability to control her life and work
experiences unrestrained.

42
Kalpan Sinha “Empowerment of Women in South Asia” Sunita Singh – Sengupta “Socio cultural Determinants
of Women in Leadership”. (2000) Page – 127
43
D.Purandeswari: Myths and Realities of Women Empowerment/” Univeristy News, Vol. 48 No. 44, Page 42

23
Men universally own the family assets and women have no say, in buying, selling and owning of
land, Re-marriage of widows to the brother of her husband is solely aimed at retaining property
entitlement. Male relatives in the rare cases use coercive force where women own property.
Though women contribute substantially towards the running of the house and subsistence of the
families, her mobility in controlled. There is a gender division of labour and women are expected
to perform the reproductive role. The burden of household chores and subsistence responsibility
leaves hardly any opportunity for productive role. Lack of skill and knowledge limits their access
to labour market. The following factors accentuate the negative self-image that the women have
inherited along the way.

 Women are considered as Shudras.

 Menstrual blood is dirty and polluting.

 Late marriage begets shame to her family.

 Women‟s sexuality is dangerous to society.

 It is woman‟s fault if she gives birth to a girl child.

 In addition, early signs of illness are neglected.

Women are generally deprived of Intangible resources such as information knowledge; skills,
self-confidence and articulation are integral elements in getting access to entitlements to material
resources and in asserting their rights. There are certain innate qualities like self-confidence, self
worth, communication skills, etc. are culturally suppressed and not fostered in women by
patriarchal society. Women come into the political system with many gender related handicaps
like illiteracy, responsibility of house work, child care, social and familial oppositions to their
involvement in public life, poor self image, lack of self confidence and ignorance about the
political system.44

The condition of women is more miserable in the rural India with respect to various socio-
economic aspects.

44
Kakar S’ “Indian Childhood: Cultural ideals and social reality” New Delhi, Oxford University Press (1979)

24
a) Poverty

Rural poverty is one of the important characteristics of India and nearly 45 percent of rural
people are below poverty line. Most of them are just surviving with dayto-day earnings. If we
take International poverty line (1994) into consideration in India there were 47 percent of the
population at below $ 1 a day category and 87.5 percent at below $ 2 at a day category (Vijaya
Kumar et al, 2002). Under such circumstances, within the family, the worst sufferers are needless
to say women and girl children. For this category of women, neither credit nor skill training is
accessible. Better health care and higher educational opportunities are far reaching dreams for
their children and there is no need to say about the status of girl child in such families. She (girl
child) is treated as a “silent lamb” born to suffer all evils in the male dominated society. So far
much has not been done for this vulnerable sub-culture of the society. 45

b) Violence

Indian society has been bound by culture and tradition since ancient times. The patriarchal
system and the gender stereotypes in the family and society have always showed a preference for
the male child. Sons were regarded as a means of social security and women remained under
male domination. Due to her subordinated position, she has suffered years of discrimination,
exploitation and subjugation. She became the victim of several evils like child marriage, sati,
polygamy, Purdah system, female infanticide, forced pregnancy, rape etc. In such
incidents/recorded cases surprisingly mother-in-law are also taking active part (forgetting the
fact that they are also women and some time back they also played daughter-in-law role). This
discrimination and violence against women had an effect on the sex ratio in India also (Table
2.1). The main causes of violence are unequal power-relations, gender discrimination, patriarchy,
and economic dependence of women, dowry, low moral values, negative portrayal of women‟s
image in media, no participation in decision-making, gender stereotypes and a negative mindset.
The Hindustan Times, New Delhi (May 10, 2005) reported, „„Delhi is not only the rape capital
of India; it has now taken lead in all types of crimes against women. As against 135 cases
(number of atrocities against women at the hands of their husbands and relatives) reported in
2003, the figure jumped to 1211 in 2004.Crime records compiled for 35 mega cities in December
45
Sharma, K., Sujaya, C. P. (2014). Towards equality: Report of the committee on the status of
women in India. New Delhi, India: Pearson.

25
2003 by National Crime Records Bureau, shows that Delhi accounts for 30.5 percent of the total
crime against women”. If such is the magnitude of domestic violence against women in Delhi,
the capital city of India, it would not be surprising if the situation is worse in other areas. Uttar
Pradesh reported the highest cases of cruelty by husband and his relatives against women (15%)
in the year 2001 (see Status of violence against women in India: Decadal trends 1991-2001,
NIPCCD). The information Brochure published by SWAYAN, an NGO, has shown that in 1994
there was a rape every 42 minutes, a molestation every 22 minutes, a dowry death every 106
minutes and a criminal offence every five minutes ─ all that does not include the innumerable
cases that go unreported. Data of 2001 also reveals that every hour there is a case of one sexual
harassment, one dowry death, two rapes, four molestation and six cases of cruelty by husband
and his relatives. Dr. Brenda Gael Mcsweeney, UN Resident coordinator has rightly remarked ─
“we must ask ourselves when the female half of the world is living with the daily threat of
physical violence or mental violence, are we truly free?”.

c) Economic Exploitation

On the world level, women and girls together carry two-third of the burden of the world‟s work
yet receive only a tenth of the world‟s income. They form 40 percent of the paid labour force.
Though women constitute half of the world‟s population yet they own less than one percentage
of the world‟s property (UNDP Human Development Report 1995). According to UN Report
(2005): „women constitute half the world‟s population, perform nearly two-third of its work
hours, receive one-tenths of the world‟s income and own less than one-hundredth of the world‟s
property‟. The condition of women in India is more miserable in every field of social life. They
are paid half of three-quarters of the money while their male counterparts earn for the same job.
In India a predominantly agricultural country, women do more than half of the total agricultural
work. But their work is not valued. On an average, a woman works 15 to 16 hours a day unpaid
at home and underpaid outside. According to National Committee of Women, the growth in the
percentage of women labour force in the organized sector is minimal in the last sixty years i.e.
3.44 percent in 1911 to 17.35 percent in 1971; besides, the work load either in the field or in the
factories or offices, the women have to do the household such as cooking, washing, cleaning up
the house etc. The younger women, besides all these, have to carry the burden of early
pregnancy, childbirth and breast-feeding. In terms of help offered to people for their various

26
functions women seem to receive the least attention from the society. The status of women is
intimately connected with their economic status, which in turn, depends upon rights, roles and
opportunity for the participation in economic activities. The economic status of women is now
accepted as an indicator of a society‟s stage of development. However, all development does not
result in improving women‟s economic activities. Pattern of women‟s activities are affected by
prevailing social ideology and are also linked with the stage of economic development. 46

d) Educational Deprivation

In India the literacy rate of women is much lower than men because boys receive more
schooling than girls. T.P. Sechan says that there are parts of India where the literacy rate of
women today is as low as 3 percent. So stark is the gender inequality in India that it is one of the
43 countries in the world where male literacy rate are at least 15 percent higher than female rates.
Educational deprivation is intimately associated with poverty. The UNICEF Executive Director
Mr. Carol Bellamy says; “No country has ever emerged from poverty without giving priority to
education.”(Indian Currents, 13 June 2004). However, modest improvement is gradually coming
up in educational level of women. After independence many steps have been taken to improve
the lot of women. Many laws have also been passed. A National Commission on Women was
setup to act as a watchdog on the matters concerning women in 1992. Many programmes in the
areas of education, health and employment have been initiated for development of wom47en,
rural as well as urban. As a result, literacy rates are going up and fertility rates coming down.
Universalisation of education, elimination of drop- out from schools, promotion of Balwadi‟s
and Crèches, Girls Hostels, Technical Institutions for women and distinct emphasis on health,
nutrition and family welfare programes etc. are some such initiatives.48

However, despite that, women continue to stay in abusive relationships, some might earn also
but that just might not be enough to sustain her or her children. The special relationship between
a woman and her abusive partner places her at an increased risk of harm. Unlike other crimes, a

 46
Iberra, H. Ely, R. and Kolb, D. (2013) Women Rising: The Unseen Barriers. Harvard Business
Review.
47
Nancy Salamone, Domestic Violence and Financial Dependency, FORBES , http://www.forbes.com/women-
money-domestic-violence-forbes -woman-net-worth-personal-finance.html. (April 16, 1:45 AM)
48
http://mhrd.gov.in/bridging-gender-and-social-gaps (April 16, 1:57 AM)

27
victim of intimate partner violence is tied to and dependent on the individual who commits the
crime against her. Moreover, the batterer has easy access to and information about her help-
seeking efforts, which is not typical of other crime victim and perpetrator associations. As a
result, it is particularly difficult for a victim of intimate partner violence to put in place measures
to ensure her safety and economic security prior to ending the abusive relationship. Today,
poverty acts as a barrier to exiting an abusive relationship for many women regardless of marital
or employment status.398 Given the current economic crisis, women face greater difficulties
given the larger number of individuals overall in need, as well as the lack of available resources.

28
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

The review of the status of women in India tells the story of a fall in the status of women to an
abysmally low position from a relatively high status and nobility of the Vedic times. The fall in
status has led to a socio-economic and religio-cultural deprivation of women. From the womb to
tomb women are victims of violence and deprivations. The vulnerability of women in rural India
is worse compared to the all India levels. Of course, there are certain initiatives in the country,
especially after the Independence towards raising the status of women. However, there are miles
to go in order to reach the goal of gender equality. Apart from this general condition of gender
inequalities, the situation seems more miserable in case of Dalit women. They are victims of a
double deprivation.49 One, on the gender front, and the other on the caste front. Although there is
no single reason why intimate partner violent relationships endure, it is clear that batterers are
able maintain control over their victims due, in large part, to the economic insecurity of women
who are abused. Economic dependence is the link that binds a woman to her abuser, drawing her
in over and over again; it is, in effect, one of the best predictors of continuing violence once the
abuse begins. Financial insecurity increases the danger levels, limits avenues of escape, and
reduces the likelihood that a survivor of intimate partner violence, once liberated, will remain
free from her abuser. The present state of our economy suggests that the intersection between
financial inequality and intimate partner violence poses significant risks to women who are
abused. Studies suggest that the economic crisis may be the cause of both increased conflict
within the intimate relationship, as well as a rise in the number of women seeking services.
Because this problem is complex and extensive, the solution must be comprehensive. Our
response must take into consideration the economic implications of intimate partner violence and
respond with economic solutions.50 This approach must be comprehensive, including reform
within our legal system, governmental programs, and labor industry. Because paid labor alone
will not solve the problem, our legal system must improve batterer-mandated support
obligations, as well as court enforcement of those orders. At the same time, social welfare
programs must be strengthened to appropriately meet the needs of battered women and their
children and to end the cycle of violence fueled by resource control, male-power, and abuse.51 At
the same time, men need to be taught similar language skills that value women for their skills
and not allow personal opinions impact their ability to work together. It’s been well documented

49
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. (2007). Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan—Programme for Universalization of Elementary
Education. Available from http://ssa.nic.in/ (April 16,2018, 1:45 AM)
50
https://www.mygov.in/group-issue/bridging-gender-and-social-gaps/ (April 16, 2:05 AM)
51
https://www.learnhowtobecome.org/closing-gender-gap/ (April 16, 2:12 AM)

29
that women make certain choices to remain “nice” or “likable” but it’s quite common for women
to be passively put “back in their place” for acting “aggressive” when they are really voicing
their worth and expectations. Both men and women need more evolved personal reflections on
how to better communicate with each other to avoid these traps that have been engrained in us
from generations gone by.

However there is still a silver lining that gives us hope that on implementation, the gender gap
would bridge. There are certain steps we can take so as to create a better living society for
women. Such as :

1) Economic Independence

This is especially important for women who are live in abusive households. It has been reported
that 70% women in India face some form of domestic violence. One such form of conducting
this violence is by using ‘controlling behavior’ i.e., restricting access to financial resources.
Hence, women who face abuse often have no option but to continue living in the same house
with their abuser as they lack financial independence, which would otherwise enable them to
have a choice.52

2. Internalisation of conceptions of freedom and dignity

The whole thing could be resolved if people internalise the concept of freedom. Freedom means
each person in every role respects the other's liberty and dignity. This respect is accorded both at
work and at home. Unfortunately, conceptions of freedom and dignity are not yet known, leave
alone internalised, in India. The idea that women should choose their life, their career, their gods,
their husbands, their future: this idea is anathema to many Indians.

3. Education

Sadly, economic clout is not a trivial matter to accumulate. Not all women can manage economic
independence, particularly with discrimination against women in so many roles. And the spread
of the ideas of freedom is so slow in India it may take another 10 generations. So active
education must come into play. This being a social issue, it will take quite a bit of education to
change. And good education, as we well know, is a disaster in India: virtually non-existent for

52
https://www.jaagore.com/power-of-49/why-is-financial-independence-for-women-important (April 16 2:35 AM)

30
the vast majority of the people. So the solution will be for people like you to write textbooks that
treat both men and women equally; create movies that show equality at work and at home. And
so on. A very hard task. But unavoidable. Social reform is not necessarily the task of
government. And it is very tedious. But there are no short cuts here. Like the caste system needs
constant reform, if it is to die out, so also the liberation of women (and men) will take a lot of
work.

4. Equal opportunity law

5. Enforcement of law and order

Again, the law and order machinery (policy, justice) is so flawed it can't possibly
provide the desired level of security to women. That needs to be changed.

31
BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Women and Economics (New York: Source Book Press, 1970)
p. 182.
2. Michael Kimmel & Amy Aronson. “Introduction” to Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Women
and Economics. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.)

3. Esteve-Volart B. (2004). Gender discrimination and growth: Theory and evidence from
India. London, England: London School of Economics and Political Science.
4. Menon-Sen K., Shiva Kumar A. K. (2001). Women in India: How free? How equal? New
Delhi, India: United Nations Development Assistance Framework.
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state level analysis of India. The Journal of Developing Areas, 46, 147-164
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psychotherapy. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 55, 299-309.
8. Kaushik, N., Sharma, A., Kaushik, V. K. (2014). Equality in the workplace: A study of
gender issues in Indian organizations. Journal of Management Development, 33, 90-106.
doi:org/10.1108/JMD-11-2013-0140
9. Krishna, A., Monappa, A. (1994). Economic restructuring and human resources
management. Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 29, 490-501.
10. Menon-Sen, K., Shiva Kumar, A. K. (2001). Women in India: How free? How
equal? New Delhi, India: United Nations Development Assistance Framework.

32
…. gap is far from just being a woman’s problem. It is often felt rather than overtly seen and occurs
on a daily basis in small instances that may seem easy to overlook. Women need to present
themselves as a skilled professional with the end goal of fulfilling a job successfully and be
comfortable re-directing conversations that may be slipping towards their personality rather than
accomplishments. Economic empowerment: Six out of 10 of the world’s poorest people are women.
Economic disparities persist partly because much of the unpaid work within families and
communities falls on the shoulders of women and because women continue to face discrimination in
the economic sphere.

Educational empowerment: About two thirds of the world’s illiterate adults are women. Lack of an
education severely restricts a woman’s access to information and opportunities. Conversely,
increasing women’s and girls’ educational attainment benefits both individuals and future
generations. Higher levels of women’s education are strongly associated with lower infant mortality
and lower fertility, as well as better outcomes for childreolitical empowerment: Gender equality cnot
be achieved without the backing and enforcement of institutions. But too many social and gal
institutions still do not guarantee women equality in basic legal and human rights, in access to or
…………………………………

33