Mechanics of Flame Jet PDF

11
THE MECHANICS OF FLAME AND AIR JETS

By R. F. Davis, B.Sc. (Eng.), A.M.1.Mech.E."
Consideration of the conditions existing within the turbulent zone formed
by a free disperse jet mixing with fluid at rest surrounding it, leads to the
conception of an equation for the mean velocity of the jet in an axial direction.
Combining the latter equation with that for the upward drift velocity of the
gases in a furnace, an expression is obtained for the trajectory of an overfire, or
secondary air jet, projected into the furnace. By a similar process the method
is extended to the case of a flame jet, taking into account its acceleration due
to buoyancy.
The mechanism of combustion is next considered, commencing with an
examination of the factors controlling the position of the ignition point in a
flame jet, and the derivation of an expression for its location in a powdered-fuel
flame. This is followed by the development of a formula for the burning rate
of powdered fuel suspended in air, which when combined with that for the
mean velocity in a flame jet, enables a relationship to be established between the
flame length and the particle size, for the ideal case of a uniform powder.
Subsequently, the grading or non-uniform nature of actual powders is taken
into account. A method is also described for plotting a flame characteristic,
showing the effect of fineness of grinding, turbulence, and burner design on
the losses due to unburnt combustible.
Introduction. Recent mathematical and experimental researches on

the dispersion of air jets, when projected into the atmosphere, have led
the author to investigate whether the knowledge thus gained could be
applied to the more intricate problems of flame jets and secondary air
jets projected into hot furnace gases. Most researches on flames have
been confined to the examination of the combustion process of a gas
which is initially at rest within a spherical or tubular container, whereas
in a flame jet the problem is essentially dynamic. T o obtain a com-
plete picture of a flame jet in which the combustible is projected at
high velocity from a nozzle, the progress of combustion must be
correlated with the dispersive characteristics of the jet.
The flow of a jet of water discharging from a plain nozzle into the
I
atmosphere is not appreciably affected by dispersion. A gaseous jet, I
on the other hand, disperses into the surrounding atmosphere, and has
three fundamental properties which distinguish it from a non-dispersive
or liquid jet. Except in the immediate vicinity of the nozzle or orifice :
~~
Technical Engineer, International Combustion, Ltd., Derby.

*,
[I.Mech.E.]
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12 MECHANICS OF FLAME AND AIR JETS
(1) The axial velocity of the jet decreases with increasing distance
from the orifice.
( 2 ) The velocity across any cross-section of the jet diminishes
from the centre outwards towards the jet boundary, where
it is zero.
(3) The divergent jet path consists of a turbulent zone which
absorbs into itself the surrounding atmosphere at a rate which
increases with the distance from the orifice.
The latter is a very important property from the point of view of

combustion, since in a flame jet it is the mechanism by means of which
the necessary air for combustion is absorbed by the combustible, ex-
cepting, of course, any primary air which may already have been
admitted with the combustible itself.
Air jets are used in conjunction with solid-fuel burning installations
to supply overfire or secondary air. Such air, when properly applied,
prevents the formation of smoke and soot and improves combustion
generally. I n the past the application of secondary air has been
determined by experiment and experience, observations being made
of the relative effects of varying the air quantity, size of jet, etc. From
a theoretical consideration of the properties of disperse jets, the
practical results obtained by the use of overfire air can be properly
co-ordinated.
I n addition to the combustion of gaseous and liquid fuels in jet
form, a further application of considerable industrial importance is
that of pulverized fuel. The latter is usually conveyed by an air
suspension and burnt in some form of jet, but the combustion in this
case is complicated by the varying burning rates of the different sizes
of the constituent fuel particles. The chief difficulty in attempting to
trace the progress of combustion in the flame path is the deficiency of
knowledge of the essential physical constants ;and in accurately deter-
mining the furnace conditions, such data can only be correlated by
experiment and observation.
The Turbulent Mixing Region Formed by a Jet. When a gaseous jet

is expelled from an orifice into the free atmosphere, the original kinetic
energy of the jet due to its initial velocity is gradually dispersed in the
turbulent mixing region of the jet. Throughout the jet the pressure
is nearly the same as in the surrounding fluid, but a surface of dis-
continuity of velocity exists at the boundary separating the initial jet
stream from the surrounding atmosphere. This surface is unstable, a
slight disturbance breaking it up into a serits of periodic vortices,
which above a certain limiting velocity are replaced by a turbulent

MECHANICS OF FLAME AND AIR JETS 13
mixing region, characterized by an irregular fluctuating motion super-
imposed on the mean flow.
Proceeding from the orifice, the axial velocity of the jet decreases
due to the exchange of energy with the atmosphere; also, proceeding
from the axis in a plane at right-angles, the velocity again decreases
due to the drag of the atmosphere on the outer layers. Since the
pressure is constant, the momentum of the jet does not vary and the
decrease in velocity with increase in distance from the point of outflow
is due to the frictional stresses alone. If the jet is considered as
made up of a number of concentric layers there would then exist an
L( apparent” shearing force between adjacent layers, proportional to
the difference in velocity of the layers. For this shearing stress
Prandtl (1925, 1936) * gives the expression
where x is the direction of the main component of flow, its magnitude

being a function of y, p is the density of the fluid, u is the mean velocity,
and 1 the “pixing length”.
Turbulence involves a transfer of momentum between neighbour-
ing fluid regions. The length 1 is proportional to the mean distance
that a fluid mass will travel in t h e y direction while retaining its initial
momentum. In the particular case of a free jet mixing with fluid at
rest surrounding it, the turbulence is free, since there are no confining
walls. It may be assumed, therefore, that I is constant over any cross-
section and proportional to the breadth of the mixing region, but the
proportionality constant must be evaluated empirically for each case.
Tollmien (1926) obtained a solution for an axially symmetrical jet
discharging into fluid at rest, and of the same density, on the assump-
tion that the jet issued from a point. According to Tollmien’s solution
the axial velocity is inversely proportional to the distance from the
orifice ; also the velocity profiles at any cross-section of the jet are
similar. From measurements made with a nozzle 137 mm. in diameter
discharging air, it was found that the above conclusions were correct, if
the point of origin was taken at 26 cm. behind the actual jet opening ;
or, the axial velocity U, may be expressed as
where U, is the initial outflow velocity of the jet, K is a constant for

the jet, x is the distance from the orifice, and d the orifice diameter.
* An alphabetical libt of references is given in Appendix I , p. 45.

Tollmien's analysis also gives the radius r of the turbulent region for
a point orifice as
r =0.214x . . . . . . - (2) .
which makes the angle of divergence of the boundary of the turbulent
region approximately 12 deg. with the jet axis.
Kuethe (1935) has examined in detail the case of the axially sym-
metrical jet discharging from an orifice of finite dimensions, with
Fig. 1. Diagrammatic Section of Flow from a Circular Nozzle

special reference to the portion near the orifice. Referring to Fig. 1,
which shows diagrammatically the construction of a circular or axially
5J
Fig. 2. Comparison of Theoretical and Experimental Velocity

Fields of an Air Jet (Kuethe)
- - - - Theoretical. Experimental.
symmetrical jet, the turbulent mixing region commences as an annular

ring around the jet mouth enclosing 8 conical-shaped core af potential

flow, in which the velocity is uniform and equal to the initial outflow
velocity. This first stage is denoted by the region A on the diagram.
At a certain distance from the mouth, the core of potential flow
vanishes and the entire jet becomes a turbulent mixing region, denoted
by B, in which the axial velocity U, decreases as x increases. The
velocity profiles and the x gradient of U, finally reach an asymptotic
RADII RADII
I.
Fig. 3. Experimental Profiles of an Air Jet at Various Distances
from the Orifice (Kuethe)
The slopes of the outer boundaries a e magnified in the ratio 2/1. The
t,
ordinate is displaced 0.2D,where D is he number of diameters from the
jet mouth along the velocity axis.
state as the fluid enters the region denoted by C . In this last region
Tollmien’s solution is valid ; that is, the central or axial velocity is
inversely proportional to the distance from some point near the orifice,
and all velocity profiles are similar.
According to Kuethe’s investigations, Tollmien’s solution was
found to hold good at all distances greater than eight diameters from

Fig. 4. Axial Velocity of Circular Air Jet

x Distance from orifice.
d Diameter of orifice.
Ux Axial velocity.
Uo Initial velocity.
Fig. 5. Velocity Profile of Circular Jet (Tollmien)

x Distance from orifice, is greater than 8d.
y Distance from axis.
U Velocity at any point in jet.
U, Axial velocity of jet.
Theoretical radius Y of jet =0.214(x+2.3d).

the orifice. A comparison of the theoretical and experimental velocity
field, as found by Kuethe within this limit, is reproduced in Figs. 2
and 3 for the longitudinal and cross-sections respectively. The ratio
of the axial velocity to initial velocity is shown plotted against the
distance from the orifice in Fig. 4,while the cross-sectional velocity
profile for all points at a greater distance than eight diameters, as
determined by Tollmien, is reproduced in Fig. 5.
From Fig. 5 it is clear that due to the asymptotic nature of the
velocity profile at the edges, the actual flow passes diffusely into the
external fluid without any perceptible boundary. The experimentally
determined practical limit of the jet, as defined by the turbulent region,
10 1
Fig. 6. Overfire Air Nozzle Test (London Power Company)

0 Pressure 17 inches water gauge.
0 2, 12 I* >% >,
x ,, 73 ,,
-- - - Theoretical l i t of jet.
1, ,s
Experimental limit of jet.
is therefore likely to be slightly less than the theoretical. The angle

of divergence of the air jet in Fig. 2 is shown as 10 deg., compared
with 12 deg. given by equation (2). Fig. 6 shows the practical limit
of the velocity field of an overfire air jet, as determined by the London
Power Company ;the average angle of divergence is 10%deg. It will
be noted that the spread of the jet is independent of the pressure or
initial velocity. A coal gas flame jet investigated by the author
appeared to fluctuate between 7%and 10 deg., as judged by the lumi-
nosity, and within limits was independent of the pressure. The outer
envelope, between 73 and 10 deg., appeared to consist of an unstable
region of combustion.
2

To find the axial velocity at any distance from the orifice it is

necessary to know the value of the constant k in equation (1). For
the jet shown in Fig. 2 it can be concluded that when xld=10, then
U,/U,=0.7. Also, since equation (1) is only valid for x>8d, it may
be simplified to the form
kdU,
Ux=-
x+2d
. . . . . . . . (3)
I 4 5
RA$Oj
Fig. 7. Orifice Shape Factor a

For x>8d.
1 Longest diameter or width of orifice.
d Least ,, ,,
Since all velocity profiles are similar at distances greater than eight
diameters, the mean velocity U, of the jet can be expressed as a
constant fraction of the axial velocity :-
ukdU,
UrnaaUx=
x+2d
-
cdU,
or um=xd
. . . . . . . . . (4)
where c=ak. The constant a will evidently depend on the shape of
the jet, which in turn is related to the shape of the orifice. I t will be
referred to, therefore, as the orifice shape factor. The constant c is a

function of both the shape and nature ,of the jet and will be referred to
as the jet characteristic.
From Tollmien’s velocity profile for a circular jet (Fig. 5) it is
calculated that the average velocity over the theoretical limit of the
jet is 0.2 of the axial velocity; or, U,/U,=a=O.2. Assuming tenta-
tively that the profile across a jet issuing from a long slot is similar
to Fig. 5, then the value of the constant a for this case becomes 0.4.
A curve for values of a corresponding to intermediate ratios of length
Fig. 8. Theoretical Streamline Diagram for Circular Jet from

Point Orifice (Tollmien)
to breadth of orifice is given in Fig. 7. It should be noted, however,
that this curve has not been experimentally verified, but since so
many industrial applications of jets employ rectangular- or oval-shaped
nozzles, some approximate basis was considered desirable.
The rate of total flow in a jet is not uniform, because of the flow of
the surrounding atmosphere into the turbulent region. The theoretical
streamline diagram for the flow into a round jet issuing from a point
orifice is shown in Fig. 8. Consider a circular jet having an initial
outflow velocity U, through an orifice diameter d; the rate of flow Q,
through the nozzle is given by Q,=71d2UO/4. At any point x from
the orifice (x>8d), the mean velocity in the jet is, according to
equation (4), U,=cdU,/(x+%d) ; also the diameter d, of the jet at the
point x is approximately represented by the equation d,=0*428 (x+2d).
Therefore the rate of flow Q, at x is
71d,2Um
Q,=- 4
71
=-(O*
4 183)(X+ 2d)cdUo
or Q,=O*183(x+2d$Q0 . . . . . . (5)

which indicates that although the velocity decreases, the quantity

passing any cross-section of the jet increases in direct proportion to
its distance from a point near the orifice, as demanded by the principle
of conservation of momentum.
OverJire Air Jets. The beneficial effect of injecting overfire or

secondary air by means of nozzles placed above the grate surface of a
boiler, is now well established, but to obtain the best results from each
installation a certain amount of trial and error experimentation is
usually necessary. I n order to co-ordinate properly the results obtained
from different installations, some method of calculating the behaviour
of an air jet when projected into the furnace gases is obviously desirable.
The injected air is initially at a considerably lower temperature than
the furnace gases, but the turbulent zone forming the jet very quickly
attains the temperature of the surrounding gas by radiation, by con-
vection, and by turbulent mixing with the furnace gases. Combustion
may also take place in the path of the jet, but apart from the effect of
the resultant temperature change, the volume of the products of com-
bustion will not be appreciably different from that of the original con-
stituents. If Tois the absolute temperature of the overfire air initially
and T, the absolute temperature of the furnace gases, the ratio of the
increase in volume of the air, when heated from To to T, is TJT,,.
Since the air in the jet is equally free to expand in all directions the
linear velocity in any direction will be increased in the ratio (Ts/To)* ;
thus the mean velocity of the jet, as expressed by equation (4)when the
jet enters the furnace gases, becomes
. . . . . . .
I n addition to the heating effect experienced by the air jet on
entering the furnace, the upward drift of the furnace gases tends to
deflect the path of the jet upwards. Although a certain measure of
control is provided on some types of mechanical stokers for varying
the air flow through different sections of the grate, the correct adjust-
ment for any given fuel does not necessarily result in a uniform velocity
thrpughout the height and depth of the furnace ; nevertheless, in order
to facilitate the mathematical analysis, it will be assumed that the
upward drift velocity is uniform. The resultant path of the jet will
also be influenced by the conformation of the combustion chamber
and the position of the gas exit.
The path of an air jet in a furnace is shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 9 for a nozzle with its axis OQ inclined at an angle 4 with the
horizontal or x axis, discharging into a combustion chamber in which

there is a uniform vertical upward-drift velocity w . If an isolated
point on the axis of the jet travels the distance OQ in time 0 in a still
atmosphere, then under the influence of a uniform vertical drift of
the surrounding gases, it will travel in the same time along a path OP,
the point P being vertically above Q. In actual fact it is necessary to
consider not an isolated point, but the sum of the average effect on all
the points within the jet, because in its relation with external forces,
the jet path as a whole must be considered. In order to find the
trajectory of the axis of the resultant deflected jet path, it is necessary,
t
2)
Fig. 9. Diagram of Path of Air Jet in Furnace
therefore, to consider the mean jet velocity at any cross-section. If

U, is the mean velocity of the jet at Q in the direction of its own axis,
then according to equation (6)
Further, if (x, y ) are the co-ordinates of the point P, then

OQ=x/cos 4
Hence

22 NlECHANICS OF FLAME AND AIR JETS
Also, horizontally --=urn

SX
cos 4
68
and, vertically Y=~+u,
68
sin 4
Therefore -y 68- o+U, sin$

S
68 ' 6x- u, cos
If the jet is inclined downwards at an angle 4 with the horizontal

the sign of tan is negative. With a horizontal nozzle, tan $=O and
cos $= 1.
As an example of the application of the above analysis, the jet
trajectories have been calculated for the furnace conditions investigated
by Robey and Harlow (1933) with various proportions of secondary
air. In Fig. 10 the calculated trajectory of the overfire air jet has been
plotted for each percentage of secondary air, together with the corre-
sponding flame contour as observed by Robey and Harlow. The
calculations for the above are given in Table 1, Appendix IV, p. 50.
I t will be noted that there is a very close connexion between the flame
shape for each percentage of secondary air and the corresponding
calculated path of the air jet; small irregularities are bound to exist
on account of the inequalities in the furnace drift velocity, the spread
of the jet, and the furnace shape. The agreement is, however, such
as to make the prediction of the effect of any given arrangement of jets
possible within reasonable limits. It is clear, for instance, that the
condition where small particles of coal are lifted off the grate can be
avoided by ensuring that the resultant path of the outer boundary of
the jet does not impinge directly on the fuel bed ;on the other hand, if
the jet does not penetrate far enough into the furnace, the effect on
combustion is negligible.
Flame Jets. The problem of the flame jet is complicated by the

fact that flame consists of a heterogeneous mixture of gases, mutually
reacting with the emission of heat, and involving internal volumetric
changes within the structure of the jet. Externally the flame path is
governed by the motion of the fluid into which the combustible is
projected ; even in still air the local heating caused by a flame results
in air displacements and draughts. I n addition, the disparity that

exists between the flame density and that of the encompassing atmos-
phere, whether it be the products of combustion in a furnace or the
free air, results in an upward buoyant force acting upon the flame.
Fig. 10. Comparison of Observed Flame Contours and

Calculated Trajectories of Overfire Air Jets
Percentage of overfire air at the following points : A, 565; B, 10.5;
C,16.6 ; D, 20.0; E,21.4 ; F, 22.8 ; G , 26.8 ;H, 28%
In an enclosed furnace the problem is yet more intricate by reason

of such external factors as the conformation of the furnace walls, the

position and size of the gas outlet, the orientation of the burner and
superimposed turbulent effects, all of which affect the ultimate course
of the flame jet. It is also difficult to determine the relative tempera-
tures of the flame and the surrounding gases. Providing, however,
certain simplifying assumptions are made regarding the uniformity of
temperatures and furnace drift velocity, it is then possible to obtain
a fairly compact mathematical expression for the flame path, but it is
as well to bear in mind the limitations of such analysis.
Uniformity of flame temperature presupposes ignition at the burner
mouth. In the case of powdered fuel of low volatility, ignition may
be delayed until the combustible reaches a point at a considerable
distance from the orifice, so that the early stages of the “flame jet”
consist of relatively cold and possibly denser fluid than the surrounding
furnace gases, possessing a negative buoyancy, or tendency to sink
downwards. Correction for delayed ignition results in a very com-
plicated formula which, in the present state of knowledge of the
mechanics of jets and combustion, is hardly apposite. The following
analysis is, therefore, more in the nature of a statement of the problem
than its ultimate solution. In the case of an overfire air jet, it was
assumed that the temperature of the jet was sensibly identical with the
furnace temperature, but the generation of heat by combustion in a
flame jet maintains its temperature above the surrounding gases,
promoting upward acceleration of the flame through buoyancy. Thus,
if Af and A, denote the mean density or specific weight of the flame
gases, and of the surrounding gases respectively, then the weight of
each unit volume of flame Of being less than the weight of each
corresponding unit volume of surrounding gas A,, there exists an
upward force acting upon each unit volume of flame equal to (A,-Af).
The upward acceleration of this force upon each unit volume of flame
is, therefore,
whereg is the acceleration due to gravity. On the assumption that the

above accelerating force was acting upon an infinitely thin jet of hot
gases projected from the port of a furnace, Yesmann (see Groume-
Grjimailo 1923) developed an expression for the path of the jet, making
the further assumption that the jet velocity was uniform along its axis.
In the light of our knowledge of the structure of disperse jets neither
of the above assumptions is justifiable.
As already mentioned, volume changes take place within a flame jet
during the process of combustion, but in the problem of the pulverized
coal flame, the volume of the products can be taken as substantially

the same as the volume of air supplied, if measured at the same
temperature. It is only necessary, therefore, to correct the mean jet
velocity for the temperature change from the initial absolute primary
air temperature T, to the absolute flame temperature Tp I n the case
of a pulverized fuel flame, therefore, equation (6) for the mean jet
velocity becomes
. . . . . . .
, (9)
Taking the general case of a burner nozzle inclined at any angle 4

with the horizontal, discharging into a furnace, in which there is a
uniform upward drift velocity v of the surrounding furnace gases, the
conditions are similar to the case of an overfire air jet as represented
diagrammatically by Fig. 9, with the exception that there is in addition
the upward acceleration f due to buoyancy. As previously explained,
it is assumed that the temperatures are uniform throughout the path
of the jet. For the case under consideration, therefore, and using the
same notation as given in Fig. 9, equation (9) becomes
cdU, C O S ~ Tf 3
U -
"-x+2d cos #(%)
Also, horizontally %urn

68
cos 4
-
-cdU, cos24 Tf 3
x+2d cos $(q)
Integrating,
When 8=0,
x(x+4d cos #)=ZcdU, cos2 4 f 8+A
x=O ; thereforeA=O
(3
x(x+4d cos 4) T, 3
Hence 8=
2cdU, cos2 # (F)
Vertically, S2Y-
a2-f
6y 88- fB+v+U, sin$

I%*G-- UmCOS#

Substituting the values of Urnand 8,
Integrating and substituting the value off from equation (8),

x(x+4d cos 4 ) ( 3 ) + [ . ( x + 4 d cos 4)
2cdU, cos2 4 T, 4cdU, cos2 4
+x tan 4 . . . . . . . . (10)
If the burner nozzle is inclined downwards at an angle 4 with the
horizontal, the sign of tan 4 is negative. With a horizontal nozzle
tan 4=0 and cos $=1.
I n many practical problems burners are arranged to fire vertically,
or nearly vertically downwards ; in such cases it suffices to determine
the point at which the flame begins to curl upwards. In most cases
the upward drift velocity of the surrounding gases can be neglected
during the downward course of the flame. Assuming, therefore, that
the flame jet travels downwards a distance y from the burner mouth
in time 8, during which time the acceleration of buoyancy f has been
acting upwards,
whence
Also, at the point where the flame begins to curl upwards

f l - urn=
0
The distance y is usually large compared with d, so that approxi-
mately
As an example of the application of equation (lo), the flame path of

an experimental fantail burner for pulverized fuel has been calculated,
which in practice was found to give too short a flame. The calculated
path is shown in Fig. 11, and compares favourably with the observed
conditions. The calculations are given in Appendix 111, p. 47,under
Example 1. The distance at which the flame curls up has also been

checked by the approximate formula (11) which gives it as 7-5 feet
compared with the 5.6 feet given by the more exact method. The
agreement is sufficiently close in view of the fact that it was desired
to drop the flame to about three times the distance. It should be noted
that the foregoing formulz are limited to the condition where each
flame jet is free to disperse without impinging on any part of the
combustion chamber or upon other flame jets. Distortion of the flame
Fig. 11. Calculated Flame Path of Fantail Burner
envelope and intermingling of neighbouring jets will obviously modify

the conditions.
I n some types of burners a rotary motion is imposed on the jet, in
order to spread it out centrifugally, and so in this manner to obtain
a short flame. The mathematics of such a system has not yet been
worked out, but a secondary effect of the rotation is to set up a
gyroscopic action tending to throw the flame to one side. With a

horizontally fired burner, a torque is applied to the rotating jet by the

upward buoyancy and drift, which, combined with the rotation, results
in a torque at right-angles to the applied force. Thus a flame jet fired
horizontally and rotating clockwise, when looking at the burner from
the outside, will tend to deflect to the right-hand side during its
upward course in the furnace. An anticlockwise burner will likewise
deflect in the opposite direction. By properly combining right- and
left-handed burners this objectionable feature can to a large extent be
overcome.
Ignition and Rate of Propagation in Flame Jets. The chemical and

physical reactions involved in the process of ignition of a gas are of a
very complex nature, and various theories are held regarding the
causes of the marked increases in the reaction velocities as the tem-
perature gradually approaches the ignition temperature ; one of the
most usual explanations is by the theory of “chain” reactions (Ellis
and Kirkby 1936). The temperature of ignition has been defined as
that “at which reaction proceeds at a rate just sufficient to overbalance
the loss of heat from the burning layer of gas, s9 that the next layer
is put in the same state and steady combustion proceeds”. The above
definition leads to the concept of a steady progression of combustion
from layer to layer, resulting in propagation of flame throughout the
gas.
The rate of flame propagation is a physical constant, which can be
measured by burning a gaseous mixture in a tube and noting the time
taken for the flame to travel from one end of the tube to the other.
According to Haslam and Russell (1926) flame propagation is influenced
by the concentration of oxygen and combustible gas in the mixture,
and by the size and shape of the pipe or container in which the flame
propagation takes place. This is illustrated by Fig. 12 which shows
the effect of varying the tube diameter on the flame velocity in mixtures
of methane and air. I t is evident from the curves that the speed of
flame propagation is greatly decreased as the size of tube is decreased,
due in part to the proportionally greater cooling effect exerted by the
smaller tubes. It is evident, therefore, that reported values of speed
of propagation apply only to the specific conditions under which the
determination was carried out.
In a free jet, as would be expected, the rate of propagation is higher
than in a tube (see Fig. 13). Assuming that a jet of combustible
mixture already has an initial velocity relative to the burner mouth
greater than the propagation velocity, then ignition will not take place
until a point is reached in the jet where the velocity of the gas away
from the burner has fallen to a value equal to the rate of flame propa-

gation back towards the burner. From the velocity contours of Fig. 2,
p. 14,it is apparent that the theoretical shape of the ignition envelope
will be approximately a hollow cone. This is very well illustrated in
a Bunsen gas flame. The outer edges of the jet having practically
zero velocity, the flame spreads as a thin film or envelope surrounding
6 7 10 II I2 14
ME 4NE IN AIR-PER CENT
Fig. 12. Effect of Tube Size on Rate of Propagation of

Methane Flame in Air (Haslam and Russell)
the inner core of high-velocity gas, almost up to the burner mouth.

If the initial jet velocity is less than the rate of flame propagation,
ignition will take place at the burner mouth, or the flame may even
enter the burner opening, resulting in back-firing.
In Fig. 13 is also reproduced a curve showing the relationship
between the height of the ignition cone in a gas flame and the amount

of primary aeration (Haslam and Russell 1926). On the assumption

that the height of the cone tip is a measure of the rate of flame propa-
gation at that point, the axial velocity a t the cone tip has been deduced
from the relationship between the height and the axial velocity (as
given by the curve in Fig. 4, p. 16), and plotted as the propagation
Fig. 13. Rate of Propagation and Height of Cone of Coal

Gas Flame
Port diameter, 0.46 inch ; gas flow, 2.36 cu. ft. per min.
velocity. The calculations are given in Table 2, Appendix IV, p. 52.

It will be noticed that the deduced propagation velocity follows the
general trend of such curves, that is, at first a rapid increase in velocity
with increase in primary aeration, followed by a falling off due to the
cooling effect of excessive aeration.
In a pulverized fuel flame, ignition is preceded by gasification of

the volatile constituents, but this does not take place until after the
surfaces of the solid particles have reached the temperature of their
distillation. For this reason the thin outer envelope forming the
turbulent region near the mouth of the burner does not usually ignite
in the same manner as a gas flame, since within this zone there is both
insufficient temperature and insufficient time for distillation to take
place. Thus, in most cases, there is not the same marked ignition
cone with a pulverized fuel flame as in a gas flame, and ignition takes
place more generally across the whole width of the jet. It is not always
easy, therefore, to assign a definite velocity contour to the ignition of
a powdered fuel flame ; and in most cases the mean jet velocity gives a
sufficiently accurate estimate of the ignition point.
The mean jet velocity at any section in the flame, as given by
equation (9), p. 25, is
Um=""-(")i
x+2d To
Putting Tf=T1 the absolute ignition temperature ; Um=U,, the mean

flame propagation velocity; and x=xl, the distance from the burner
mouth to the point of ignition,
or
Preliminary heating of the coal particles takes place partly by

radiation and by convection, from the surrounding furnace walls and
gases, but principally by intermingling of the surrounding hot gases
with the incoming jet of primary air and fuel. The manner in which
this flow of hot gases from the furnace is absorbed into the jet stream
is illustrated by Fig. 8, p. 19, whilst the rate of admixture can be found
by reference to equation (S), p. 19.
Preheating the air for combustion will obviously shorten the period
required for ignition; nevertheless with a coal of low volatility it is
also necessary to reduce the primary air and delay the admission of
secondary air until ignition has already taken place, so as to allow the
preliminary admixture of hot furnace gases to have its maximum effect
in raising the particles to the ignition temperature. Conversely, with
an easily ignited coal of high volatility the secondary air can be admitted
right at the primary air nozzle. I n all cases the ignition temperature
referred to is ignition proper, or rapid combustion, as distinct from
slow combustion or pre-ignition. Figures given for the latter must
not be confused with ignition proper. For instance, in the case of

volatile hydrocarbons the rapid ignition temperature is approximately

1,000 deg. F., whereas the slow combustion of powdered coal may
commence at about 400 deg. F.
The kind of fuel used has a decided influence on the rate of flame
46
I I
41
38
34
2
v)
Iz
w
f 30
Y
I
t
3
Lu
26
>
Z
0
522
W
2
2 18
14
10
6
2 3 4 5 7 9 in
WEIGHT
’ RAT’o, EK-m COAL
Fig. 14. Rate of Propagation of Pulverized Coal Flame

(Haslam and Russell)
propagation in powdered coal-air mixtures, as indicated in Fig. 14
which gives the speed of flame propagation for various ratios of air to
coal in mixtures, and for different kinds of coal, as determined by
experiments in France on coal dust explosions. The curves can only
be taken as representing comparative speeds, since both fineness and

moisture content will also influence the time required for ignition,
although with high-volatile coals the fineness can vary greatly without
affecting the inflammability. With coals of low volatility and high
ash and moisture content, the rate of propagation increases consider-
ably with increase in fineness. The effect of preheating the primary
air and the subsequent admixture of hot furnace gases is not known,
since the curves were obtained by firing into an unheated space under
atmospheric conditions.
In Appendix 111, p. 47, under examples 2 and 3, are given some
calculations for the propagation velocity of anthracite duff, according
to equation (12), p. 31, for two different installations, based on obser-
vations of the approximate position of the ignition point for each case.
The deduced propagation velocities for this fuel are 7.6 ft. per sec.
and 8.5 ft. per sec. respectively, which, considering its nature and
composition, agree very well with the general trend of the curves in
Fig. 14. The higher rate of propagation for the Iatter example is
probably due to the use of highly preheated air, whereas the former
is obtained with air at atmospheric temperature.
Combustion in a Flame Jet. Immediately following ignition of the

combustible mixture in the jet is a zone of combustion forming the
luminous flame. All flame consists essentially in the combustion of
an explosive mixture of gases. Technically the term “explosion” is
as applicable to the quiet burning of a gas as to the type of com-
bustion attended by percussive expulsion. An explosion occurs
wherever the radiant shell of combustion moves through the com-
bustible mixture, the speed with which the explosion travels
determining its nature. In a flame jet the radiant shell is normally
stationary relative to the orifice, but still possesses motion relative to
the outflowing jet of mixture, by virtue of the velocity of the jet ; thus,
in a Bunsen flame, the inner cone is a stationary explosion. The outer
hood consists merely of the burning of fuel surpluses and end products.
In a powdered-coal flame the combustion process is much more
complex than in a simple gas mixture ; each particle of fuel forms the
nucleus for the distillation of gases and subsequent combustion of the
solid residue. The principle factors involved in the combustion of
powdered fuel have already been studied by Rosin (1928), but he
defined the rate of heat liberation with respect to the combustion
chamber volume without reference to the dynamics of the flame jet ;
nevertheless, it is conceded that the problem of the rate of heat libera-
tion is a velocity problem, and that its chief characteristic is the time
required for the completion of combustion.
The expression “combustion time”, as applied to a powdered fuel
3

suspension in air, is a collective term, covering many partly inde-

pendent and partly interconnected factors, each of which is capable of
considerable variation. These factors in turn operate in varying
degrees upon the thermophysical, thermochemical, and thermo-
dynamic events involved in the combustion processes of the particles.
The main factors affecting the combustion time of pulverized coal
are :-
(1) Fineness of the powder.
(2) Temperature of combustion.
(3) Aerodynamic conditions, e.g. turbulence.
(4)Chemical composition, especially the quantity and heating
value of the volatile matter.
In the following analysis, an attempt will be made to couple the
volumetric relations proposed by Rosin (1928) with the dynamic
characteristics of the disperse flame jet. I n the first instance the ideal
case of a homogeneous powder of uniform grain size will be considered.
In any practical problem the powder will consist of a mixture of grain
shapes and sizes. It will be shown later how the combustion time of
the individual grains can be related to the characteristic of particle size
distribution within the powder.
Let H denote the net calorific value of the powdered fuel per unit
weight, and V the volume of the gaseous products per unit weight of
fuel measured at the flame temperature Tf deg. (abs.). The heat
production per unit volume of flame is H/V. If 01 denotes the time
required for complete combustion of the particular grain size under
consideration, the burning rate of the powder is given by
B=H/V01
where B is the burning rate in heat units per unit volume in unit time.
Further, if G is the weight of gaseous products per unit weight of fuel
burnt, then since the volume of gas is directly proportional to the
absolute flame temperature,
V= GTf/C,
where C, is the appropriate volume-weight conversion constant, its
numerical value depending on the constitution of the gaseous products.
By substitution, therefore, the burning rate may be expressed as
In a flame jet of pulverized fuel consisting of a uniform grain size,

if x1 is the distance from the orifice to the point of ignition measured
along the jet axis, and x2 the distance from the orifice to the point where

combustion is completed, also measured along the jet axis, then the
length of flame in which complete combustion takes place is given by
where U , is the mean velocity of the jet in the combustion zone between
the distances x1 and x2.
Once ignition commences, the flame temperature increases very
rapidly and, neglecting radiation losses, it can be assumed that the
mean flame temperature throughout the. combustion zone is very
nearly uniform. Further, since the mean velocity across any cross-
section of the jet is a linear function of its distance from some point
near the orifice, the mean velocity in the combustion zone, from
equation (9), p. 25, is given by
Substituting the value of U in terms of the combustion time 6, and

the distances x1 and x2, we get
---
xz-x1-cdU0 T 3
(2) 1 (-+&)
el 2 To x1+2d xz+2d
Further, substituting the value of from equation (13),
B= cdUoHC, 1 (-+-") . . (14)
2GTf3To~(x2-x1) x1+2d ~2+2d
The distance x1 at which ignition occurs can be found by reference
to equation (12), p. 31. It is clear, therefore, that for any given fuel
and size of burner, the flame length x2 required for the complete com-
bustion of a uniform grain size of pulverized fuel, when burned in a
simple jet type of flame, is determined by equation (14). The equa-
tion is, however, a quadratic in x2 and a graphical method of solution
is the easiest.
By plotting the relationship between the flame length xz and the
burning rate B, the value of x2 corresponding to the known burning
rate of the powder can be found. The above method has been adopted
in the case of the example No. 4 given in Appendix 111, p. 48. Fig. 15
shows the corresponding curve for the calculated burning rate and
flame length.
The burning rate of any particular sample of powdered coal can
only be found experimentally because, as already mentioned, it is a
function of the grain size, turbulence, temperature of combustion,
and nature of the coal. The influence of grain size upon the rate of

combustion, according to Rosin’s investigations (1928), can be ex-

pressed as the equation of a general hyperbola of the form
in which S is the geometric surface of the particle, W the weight of the

particle, B1 the time for complete combustion, K a constant, and
m an exponent. The ratio S/W depends on the shape of the particle.
I I I
I I DISTANCE
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 90
I
I I I I
6i 80 I00 120 I40 160 1iO
PARTICLE S1ZE.p-MICRONS
Fig. 15. Burning Rate of Pulverized Coal Flame

Bituminous coal : I(=1.000 : m =1.8.
I n the first instance it may be assumed that the particles are approxi-
mately cubical, but as combustion progresses the comers become
rounded off and the shape becomes more nearly spherical. The end
product of this process is exemplified by the cenospheres, which
mainly comprise the flue dust from pulverized coal plants.
Since powdered coal particle sizes are usually expressed in microns
(1 micron=0.001 mm.), it will be convenient to retain the metric system

for this part of the analysis. If the surface S of the particle is measured
in square millimetres and the weight W in milligrammes, the ratio
S/W for a cubical particle having a length of side b mm. and specific
gravity u, is given by
-
E
Sl=- 6b2 6
W ob3 ub
Similarly the ratio of surface to weight of a spherical particle of
diameter b is given by
S 6nb2- 6 d-
W-&iP-ab
Hence the ratio S/W still remains the same, should a cubical particle
of side b during the early stages of combustion be reduced to a spherical
particle of diameter b. Whether the particle ultimately shrinks or
swells does not matter, providing the combustion time is always stated
with reference to its initial size. Thus, substituting in equation (15),
Further, substituting the above value of 8, in equation (13), an ex-

pression is obtained for the burning rate in terms of the initial particle
size. Thus
B=- HC"
GTfK
. (2) m
. (16) . . . . .
The above is a general expression which reduces to a somewhat
simpler form when the appropriate quantities are inserted for any
particular kind of coal. For the bituminous coal in example 4,
Appendix 111, p. 48, the specific gravity of small particles may be
taken as u= 1.53 (in the solid) ; actually it will vary with the nature
of the coal and its ash and moisture content. The value of the
exponent m is a function of the furnace conditions, that is, the
temperature and the aerodynamic processes. According to Rosin
(1928), na= 1.8 for both bituminous and brown coals, whilst K= 1,000:
the burning time el being measured in seconds and the particle size
b in millimetres. For a bituminous coal, therefore,
Ol=86bl-* seconds
Ifp is the particle size in microns,
81=p1-*/2,920 seconds . . . . . (17)
and equation (16) reduces to
2,920HC"
B=
GTfp1.a

If the various quantities are in consistent foot-pound-second-degree

Fahrenheit units (with the exception of the particle size p, which it
has already been decided to measure in microns) the burning rate B
will be given in British Thermal Units per cubic foot per second.
Since it is more usual to express the latter quantity as an hourly rating,
we can write
B= 10'5x106xHCcB.Th.U. per cu. ft. per hour

GTfp'. 8
. . (18)
where H denotes the net calorific value of the coal, in British Thermal
Units per pound, C, the volume-weight conversion factor, in cubic
feet per pound per degree Fahrenheit absolute, G the weight of gaseous
products (in pounds) per pound of coal, Tf the flame temperature, in
degrees Fahrenheit absolute, and p the particle size, in microns.
In example 4,Appendix 111, p. 48,the burning rate has been cal-
culated for the particular coal according to equation (18) above, and
the resultant burning rate of the different sized particles plotted in
Fig. 15. It is evident from Fig. 15 that it is an easy matter to read off
for any given burning rate both the corresponding flame length and
particle size. Providing, therefore, the ideal condition of a uniform
size of powder is being dealt with, the jet flame length corresponding
to complete combustion of the powder can be calculated, assuming, of
course, that the value of the constant K and that the exponent m for
the given conditions are already known.
In practice the finer particles in an actual powder burn out before
the larger ones, and the proportion in which different sized particles
are present in the powder will obviously affect the combustion char-
acteristics of the flame. Commercially it is uneconomical to provide
sufficient space for complete combustion of all the particles, or con-
versely to grind the fuel so fine that even the coarsest particles are small
enough to be totally consumed.
As the result of experience an approximate balance is maintained
between the loss in efficiency due to unburnt fuel, the power consumed
in pulverizing, and the charges on the extra capital cost involved in
construction of a larger combustion chamber. This leads to the
desirability of being able to estimate accurately the unconsumed fuel
corresponding to any particular flame length. Hitherto the volumetric
rating of the combustion chamber has been taken as the criterion of
combustion chamber performance. I n the case of a jet type flame
the burning characteristic of the flame itself has an equal, if not greater,
claim to consideration.
The next step in the analysis is, therefore, to discover some means
of determining the amount of unburnt fuel at any point in a flame,

especially at the point where the flame enters the boiler tubes. The
extra rapid cooling effected by the boiler tubes quickly reduces the
Aame temperature below the normal combustion temperature, and
any particles not already completely burnt are likely to remain so,
constituting a definite loss in efficiency of the boiler plant. It will be
assumed that each particle burns away proportionally to the time ;
that is, the weight consumed, as a function of time, can be represented,
for example, by the straight line AB in Fig. 16. If at any interval of
I-
u
q
u
9:
2
A
4
* 8- 4 k
8,
---+
BURNING RATE WE OF M E ~ H P E N I N G
Fig, 16. Burning Rate of Single Fig. 17. Screening Character-

Particle istic of Composhe Powder
time 8 after ignition the weight of particle consumed is w and the un-
consumed combustible remaining is z, then
w1=z+w
where w1 denotes the original weight of combustible in the particle.
If 8, is the time for complete combustion of the particle, w = ~ ~ 8 / 8 ~
and , .
2=w1-0- . . W1
(19) . . .
81
which gives the weight of unconsumed combustible for any particular
particle which is not completely burnt in the time 8.
The composition of any powdered fuel can be represented by means
of a screening characteristic showing the particle size distribution in
the powder. By making a screening analysis through successive sizes
of sieves, the proportion by weight passing through and retained on
each size determines the characteristic. Referring to Fig. 17, let CD
represent diagrammatically the characteristic screening curve for any
powdered fuel, such that Rb is the residue retained on a screen having
a mesh opening of size b. Further let 8 b be the time required for

complete combustion of a particle of size b, so that in the time 8, all

particles smaller than and up to size b are completely consumed. Any
particle larger than size b, say b’, will require a longer period 8‘ for
complete combustion. If r’ is the proportion by weight of all particles
larger than size b’, then providing they are of uniform size and com-
position, by equation (19) the unburnt combustible z’ at time 8, is
Actually some of the particles retained as a residue on a screen

having a mesh opening b’ are larger than b’ as indicated by the char-
acteristic curve. These large particles will require a longer period
for burning so that the total unconsumed residue will actually be
greater than a’. It is evident that, if the residue Rb is treated as a
successive number of gradings 71, r,, r3, . . . . 7, taken at a sufficient
number of equal intervals of size, each corresponding to intervals of
burning time 8,, 82, B3, . . . . 8, a very close approximation to the
total unconsumed combustible z b at time 8, may be obtained thus :-
or
T o illustrate the application of the foregoing method to the problem

of the effect of fineness of grinding on the loss in efficiency due to un-
consumed combustible, two samples of powdered bituminous coal have
been taken from two different pulverizers feeding the same boiler.
The particle size distribution curve or screening characteristic for
each sample is shown in Fig. 18. O n the same diagram the burning
time of each particle size is plotted, having been calculated by equation
(17). The calculations are tabulated in Table 3, Appendix IV,
p. 52. From Fig. 18, both the burning time and the residue Rb eb
corresponding to each size are tabulated at convenient intervals as in
Table 4,Appendix IV, p. 53. By means of equation (20) the un-
consumed combustible zb is then calculated. By combining the latter
results with the corresponding flame length x, read from Fig. 15,
the relationship between the unburnt combustible and the distance
along the flame axis from the burner mouth can be ascertained.
This final result is plotted as a curve in Fig. 19, and represents diagram-
matically the calculated combustion characteristic of the flame.
I n the above example it has been assumed that the particles of
pulverized coal are either spherical or cubical, because Rosin’s

burning rate constants are based on this assumption. It is recog-
nized, however, that this assumption requires further consideration,
and that the burning rate constants should be re-orientated in the
light of the subsequent investigations of Heywood (1933) on the
specific surface (S/W) of pulverized coal ; together with the relation-
Fig. 18. Screening, and Burning Time of Pulverized Coal

Bituminous coal: K=1,000; m=14.
ship between its statistical diameter and the mesh opening. Another
assumption which is open to criticism is that the burning rate of a
particle remains constant throughout its burning period. While it is
burning, considerable changes take place in its character, which must
react upon its burning rate, although anything other than a straight-

42 MECHANICS OF FLAME A N D AIR JETS
line relationship inevitably leads to increased complication of the

calculations.
At the present stage, the limited knowledge of the correct values to
be used for the physical constants connected with the burning rate of
various fuels under different furnace conditions, disallows general
Fig. 19. Combustion Characteristics of Pulverized Coal Flames

Bituminous coal: K=1,000; m=1.8.
application of the above method as a means of accurately forecasting

the loss due to unburnt combustible. For instance, the constants used
for bituminous coal are evidently not applicable to anthracite. The
method does, however, enable a comparison to be made in a qualitative
manner of the effect of fineness of grinding and burner design. It is

clear, for example, from Fig. 19, that the major portion of the powder
burns out within a very short distance of the burner, but the small
residue of coarse material requires a considerable distance to burn out.
It is also apparent, on comparing the combustion characteristic of the
powder from mill No. 7 with that from No. 8, that the finer grinding
of mill No. 7 results in an appreciable theoretical gain in combustion
efficiency.
Actually the particular installation for which the above figures and
curves have been supplied is a corner-fired furnace, and comparison
of the results with the unburnt carbon losses obtained on the official
test of the boiler plant are not very conclusive. If it is assumed
that the flame enters the boiler tubes about 40 feet from the burner
mouth, then the calculated loss is higher than that obtained on test,
but possibly the improved aerodynamic conditions of corner firing
necessitate an increased value for the index m in equation (15),
p. 36. A further set of calculations, taking m=2 instead of m=1.8,
showed improvement in the combustion rate with reduction of the
calculated combustible loss to more nearly that given by the boiler
efficiency test.
As a matter of interest, the combustion characteristics of the flames
represented by Fig. 19 have been continued beyond the point where
the flame is expected to enter the boiler tubes, but actually it is
apparent from the shape of the curves that the really effective portion
of the flame probably terminates about 30-40 feet from the burner
mouth (measured along the flame axis). Obviously the equations for
a free disperse jet are not applicable after the gases have entered the
boiler tubes or even beyond the point where neighbouring jets inter-
mingle and fill the available cross-section of the furnace. It is as well,
therefore, to bear in mind the limitations of the above method when
attempting to apply it to an enclosed furnace.
The calculated combustible loss is also modified in practice, first
by the incompletely burnt fuel thrown out of the flame path by
gravity or by centrifugal action, and second by the possibility of
delayed combustion occurring beyond the furnace in the boiler tubes,
economizer, air heater, and gas passages, as explained by Robey and
Harlow (1933). The former process tends to increase the loss and
the latter to decrease it. The nature of the probIem is such, therefore,
that in most cases, even if the fundamental physical constants for the
fuel and the burner are accurately known, the actual operating con-
ditions are likely to preclude exact agreement between theory and
practice.
From a combustion viewpoint, the only active portion of a furnace
is that which is occupied by flame ; even so, a certain excess over and

above the flame volume is desirable, to act first as a buffer between

the flame and the furnace walls, and second as a reservoir of hot gas,
from which heat can be drawn for the purpose of ignition. The latter
point is more important in the case of low-grade fuels; in fact, the
nature of the fuel should determine the ultimate design of the burner
and combustion chamber. In the case of a boiler furnace the fusion
point of the ash is often another controlling factor, and it is usually
necessary to install a certain amount of cooling surface to ensure that
the ash does not become molten, unless special provision is to be made
for removing it in this condition.
With coal of low volatility, a refractory surface near the burner
mouth is desirable in order to conserve the maximum amount of heat,
but once ignition has commenced there is a definite advantage, apart
from the question of fusion of the ash, in maintaining the flame
temperature as low as possible; it is evident from equations (13) and
(14), pp. 34-5, that the burning rate is thereby increased and the flame
length reduced. The disposition of cooling surface in the combustion
chamber is largely a matter of boiler design, but providing ignition is
not retarded the maximum amount of furnace cooling surface should
be installed, and for this purpose bare boiler tubes provide the maxi-
mum heat absorption possible.
It is not within the scope of the present paper to discuss further the
design of burners and furnaces. The present design of combustion
equipment is the outcome of years of practical experience and has
reached a stage of high efficiency, although the underlying theoretical
requirements may not always have been fully appreciated, as evidenced
by the numerous patent burners described from time to time. It is
essential,if further advances in combustion technique are tQtake place,
that fundamental principles should be established ; but looking back
on all the assumptions that have of necessity been made in order
to elucidate a very complex problem, we can only be said to have
hazarded a rough guess at the answer. It is hoped, however, that
the paper may stimulate further thought and research.
In conclusion, the author gratefully acknowledges the assistance
given by Messrs. International Combustion, Ltd., in providing practical
data and examples of combustion problems from their extensive ex-
perience, also in the production of the diagrams.

APPENDIX I
REFERENCES
ELLIS, 0.C. DE C. and KIRKBY, W. A. 1936 “Flame”, Methuen,
London, p. 50.
GROUME-GRJIMAILO, W. E. 1923 “The Flow of Gases in Furnaces”,
Chapman and Hall, London, p. 63.
HASLAM, R. T. and RUSSELL,R. P. 1926 “Fuels and their Com-
bustion”, McGraw-Hill, New York and London.
HEYWOOD, H. 1933 PROCEEDINGS, VOl. 125, p. 383, “Calculation Of
the Specific Surface of a Powder”.
KUETHE,A. M. 1935 J1. Applied Mechanics (Trans. A.S.M.E.
vol. 57), vol. 2, No. 3, pp. A87-A95, “Investigations of the
Turbulent Mixing Regions formed by Jets”.
PRANDTL,L. 1925 “Bericht uber Untersuchungen zur Ausge-
bildeten Turbulenz”, Zeitschrift fur angewandte Mathematik
und Mechanik, vol. 5, p. 136,
1936 “The Physics of Solids and Fluids”, p. 250.
ROBEY,E. W. and HARLOW, W. F. 1933 PROCEEDINGS, vol. 125,
p. 201, “Heat Liberation and Transmission in Large Steam-
Generating Plant”.
ROSIN, P. 1928 Proc. Second International Conference on Bitu-
minous Coal, vol. 1, p. 838, “The Thermodynamics of the
Combustion of Powdered Coal”.
TOLLMIEN, W. 1926 Zeitschrift fur angewandte Mathematik und
Mechanik, vol. 6 , p. 468, “Berechnung turbulenter Ausbrei-
tungsvorange” .
APPENDIX I1
NOMENCLATURE
B Burning rate, thermal units per unit volume in unit time.
C” Gaseous volume per unit weight per unit degree of absolute
temperature.
G Weight of gaseous products per unit weight of fuel burnt.
H Net calorific value of fuel.
K Combustion constant.
Qo Rate of flow through nozzle.
Q, Rate of flow of jet at distance x.
Rb Screening residue by weight on mesh size b.

MECHANICS OF FLAME AND AIR JETS
Geometric surface of particle.

Initial jet temperature (absolute).
Ignition temperature (absolute).
Flame temperature (absolute).
Furnace temperature (absolute).
Velocity.
Mean velocity in combustion zone.
Mean velocity.
Initial jet velocity.
Velocity of flame propagation.
Axial velocity.
Volume of gaseous products per unit weight of fuel burnt.
Weight of particle.
Total unconsumed combustible.
Orifice shape factor.
b, b’, bl, b,. Particle size or mesh opening.
c Jet characteristic.
d Orifice diameter or width.
d, Jet diameter at distance X.
f Acceleration.
g Acceleration due to gravity.
k Jet constant.
I Length.
m Burning rate index or exponent.
Y Radius of jet or turbulent zone.
Y’ Screening residue on mesh size 13’.
r l , r2, r3, . . . . r,. Screening residues on mesh sizes b l , 62, b,, b .
respectively.
u Mean velocity.
‘u Furnace drift velocity.
w Weight of particle consumed.
w l Original weight of combustible in particle.
x Horizontal distance.
x1 Distance to ignition point from burner mouth.
x2 Distance from burner mouth to point of complete combustion.
y Vertical height or distance.
z, zI Weight of unburnt combustible.
z’ Weight of unburnt combustible at time 8,.
df Specific weight of gas in motion (flame).
d, Specific weight of surrounding gas (furnace).
T Shear stress.
8 Time.
el, 8,, 03, . . . .8, Intervals of combustion time.

Ob Time for complete combustion of particle size 6.
81 Time for complete combustion of particles size 6'.
p Particle size in microns.
p Density of fluid.
Q Specific gravity of solid.
4 Angle of inclination of burner or nozzle with horizontal.
APPENDIX I11
TYPICAL
EXAMPLES
Example 1: Flame Path of Fantail Burner. Burner nozzie, 18
inches x 1 i inches; pressure, 13 inches water gauge; primary air
temperature, 70 deg. F.; velocity at nozzle U,=80 ft. per sec.;
l/d= 18/1.125= 16 ; a=0-40 approximately; jet characteristic c=ak
=0.4x 8.4=3.36 ; angle of depression of burner +=Sl$ deg. below
horizontal ; fuel, anthracite duff; percentage of carbon dioxide in
furnace, 18 ;theoretical flame temperature, 3,500 deg. F. ; temperature
of flame entering boiler tubes, 2,000 deg. F.; assumed mean flame
temperature, 2,750 deg. F. (Tf =3,210 deg. F. abs.) ; cos 4=0.1478 ;
cos2 r$=0*0218; tan r$=-6-6912; 4,=0.01613 Ib. per cu. ft.; df
=0.01236 lb. per cu. ft.
At normal load the amount of air supplied through the front wall is
5,000 cu. ft. per min. at 70 deg. F. This air is absorbed by the flame
and any tendency to drift is across the combustion chamber rather
than upwards. It will be assumed that the upward drift velocity is,
therefore, negligible. According to equation (lo), p. 26,
x(x+O-O55)
'=2 x 3.36 x 0.093 x SOX 0.0218
x(x+O.055) x 0.00377x 32.2
[ 4 x 0.995 x 0.0124
-6.69~
In this case the term (4dcos95) is so small compared with useful

values of x that it can be neglected ;thus
y= 1.235~4-6.69~
Differentiating gives a minimum value of y when x= 1.1 feet :-
x, feet .. 0.5 0.8 1.1 1.5 1.8
y , feet .. -3.28 -4.84 -5.55 -3.79 +0*93

Using the same data in the approximate formula ( l l ) , p. 26, for a

vertical nozzle,
y3’
2 x 0*0124(3*36x 0.093 x 80)2
0.00377 x 32.2
Hence y=7.51 feet.
Example 2 : Propagation Velocity of Anthracite Duff (Cold Air).
Fuel, anthracite duff; percentage of volatile matter, 5.68 ; percentage
of ash, 16.60 ; burners, oval shape; length I, 9+ inches; width d,
63 inches ; burner pressure, 0.55 inch water gauge ; temperature of
primary air, 70 deg. F. ; absolute temperature T0=530 deg. F. ; from
burner pressure, initial velocity U,=50 ft. per sec. ;Z/d=9.5/6*5= 1-46 ;
from curve (Fig. 7 , p. 18) orifice shape factor a=0.264; jet character-
istic c=ak=0*264x 8-4=2.22.
Taking ignition temperature as 1,000 deg. F., the absolute ignition
temperature Tl=1,460 deg. F.
From observation, the ignition point is 10 feet from the mouth of
the burner, or x1=10x 12=120 inches.
Propagation velocity Up, by equation (12), p. 31 :-
2 . 2 2 ~6.5 x 50( 1,460)t =7.6 ft. per sec.

u9=120+ (6.5 x 2) 530
Example 3 : Propagation Velocity of Anthracite Duff (Hot Air).
Fuel, anthracite duff as in example 2 ; rectangular burners; 1=18
inches ; d= 33 inches ;volume of primary air at 540 deg. F., 3,000 cu.
ft. per min. per burner; area of burner mouth, ( 3 4 18)/144=0.437
~
sq. ft.; velocity U, at mouth, 114.5 ft. per sec.
NOW l/d= 18/3*5=5.15.
Therefore a=0.362
c=0*362 x 8.4=3.04
T,=540+460=1,000 deg. F. abs.
Assume ignition temperature, as before, TI= 1,460 deg. F. abs.
Distance x1 to point of ignition= 13 feet= 156 inches.
3 . 0 4 ~3.5 x 114.5 1,460 3
Then
up= 1 5 6 + ( 2 ~ 3 - 5 ) (E)
=8-5 ft. per sec.
Example 4 ; Combustion in Pulverized Coal Flame.
Coal: percentage of moisture, 9.03; of volatile matter, 27.0; of
carbon, 70-3; of hydrogen, 4.55 ; of ash, 7.3 ; gross calorific
value, 12,570 B.Th.U. per Ib. ; net calorific value, 12,043
B.Th.U. per lb.

Burners : rectangular ; 1=32+ inches ; d= 12 inches ; ratio l/d
=2*71 ; orifice shape factor a=0.326. Assume k=8.4 ; then
jet characteristic c=ak= 0.326 x 8.4= 2.74. Initial velocity
U,=120 ft. per sec.; initial temperature T,=960 deg. F.
abs. ; assume ignition temperature Tl=1,460 deg. F. abs.
Owing to the construction of the burner it is difficult to arrive at
the coal/air ratio, as the admixture of secondary air is allowed to take
place before reaching the burner nozzle. The primary air in the coal
pipes is probably 1 5 2 lb. air per pound of coal, being a variable
quantity dependent on the mill operation. The total airlcoal ratio is
about 11/1. During the ignition period the ratio is probably between,
say, 511 and 611. According to Fig. 14, p. 32, the rate of propagation
in cold air may be taken as 40 ft. per sec. The effect of hot air at
500 deg. F. (960 deg. F. abs.) will be to increase the speed of propaga-
tion to about 60 ft. per sec. Assume, therefore, Up=60 ft. per sec.
Then by equation (12), p. 31,
This is not strictly correct for the ignition point, since xl<8d, but
it will serve the purpose for insertion in the formula for the burning
rate. It will not greatly affect the result because x2 is large in com-
parison.
The percentage of carbon dioxide in the furnace is 16.0, so that
C,,=40*8, and G = l l . 7 lb. per pound of coal. The mean flame
temperature may be assumed to be between the theoretical tem-
perature (3,400 deg. F.) and the temperature of the gas entering the
boiler tubes (1,800 deg. F.), say, 2,600 deg. F.; or Tf=3,060 deg.
F. abs. By equation (14), p. 35,
B= 2.74 x 1 x 120x 12,043x 40.8 ( i + 1 ) X 3 , 6 0 0
2 x 11-7(3,060)*X(960)4(~2-4*3) 6.3 (x2+2)
- B.Th.U. per cu. ft. per hour.
Assuming various values of x2, corresponding values are obtained

for B, as tabulated below:-
x2, feet . 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 25 30 35
B (thousands oi B.Th.U.
per cu. ft. per hour) 510 333 244 191 160 113 89 73
x2, feet . 40 45 50 60 70 80 90 100
B (thousands 01 B.Th.U.
per cu. ft. per hour) 61 53 47 38 32 27 24 21
4

APPEN-
TABLE
1. OVER-
No. of nozzles, 18 ; size, 3%X2+ inches ; total area, 0.985 sq. ft. ; ratio l/d=1*555 ;
furnace, 15 ~ 1 feet
6 (average)=240 sq. ft. plan section; average furnace tem-
C O S ~420.75; d=2.25/12=0.1875 foot.
From equation (7), p. 22,

-
Reference Oyerfire Fercentage Air Total Initial Drift
air as of carbon temp.,
percentage dioxide at deg. F. (%>”overfire
air,
velocity velocity
U,, ft. 0, ft.
of total boiler exit cu. ft. per sec. per sec.
air per min.
--
A 5.65 10.1 222 0.65 1,990 33.7 9.4
B 10.5 9.3 234 0.65 3,780 64.0 8.9
C 16.6 9.0 242 0.65 6,050 102.5 8.3
D 20.0 8.8 244 0.65 7,300 123.5 8 *O
E 21.4 9.0 244 0.65 7,780 132 7.8
F 22.8 8.9 242 0.65 8,300 140.5 7.7
G 26.8 8.5 244 0.65 9,750 165.0 7.3
H 28.8 9.5 246 0.65 10,500 178 7.1

DIX IV
FIRE AIRJETS
a30.272; c=0.272 X8.4-2.28 ; jet inclination 4=30 deg. downwards ;
perature, 2,100 deg. F. (2,560 deg. F. abs.); tan 410.5774; cos $=0.866;
sox(x+4d cos 4) T4
y=
~
2cm, cos2 4
-($1 -- -x tan
- -
x,feet . 1,875 3.75 5.625 7.5 9.375 11.25 13.125 r5.0
xtan 4 . 1.08 2.17 3.25 4.33 5.42 6.50 7.59 8-67
x+4d cos 4 2.525 4.40 6.275 8.15 10.025 11.90 13.775 15.65
-
Y +x tan 4 1.34 4.67 10.0 17.30
Y 0.26 2.50 6.75 12.97
Y+X tan 4 0.67 2-33 4-98 8.61 13-25
Y -0.41 0.16 1.73 4.28 7.83
Y+x tan 4 0-39 1.36 2.90 5.01 7.72 11.00
Y -0.69 -0.81 -0.3 5 0.68 2-30 4.50
Y +x tan 4 0.31 1.09 2.32 4-02 6.18 8.80 11.90
Y -0.77 -1.08 -0.93 -0.31 0.76 2.30 4.31
Y+X tan 4 0.28 0.99 2.12 3.67 5.65 8.04 10-82 14.10
Y -0.80 -1.18 -143 -0.66 0.23 1.54 3.23 5.43
Y + x tan 4 0.26 0.92 1-97 3.40 5-22 7.45 10.05 13.05
Y -0.82 -1.25 -1.28 -0.93 -0-20 0.95 2.46 4.38
Y +x tan 4 0.21 0.74 1.59 2-74 4.22 6-02 8.12 10.50
Y -0.87 -1.43 -1.66 -1.59 -1-2 - 0.48 0.53 1.83
Y+X tan 4 0.19 0.67 1.43 2.48 3.81 5.43 7.32 9.50
-0.89 -1.50 -1.82 -1.85 -1.61 -1.07 -0.27 0.83
Y
- - - --

2. RATEOF FLAME
TABLE AND HEIGHT
PROPAGATION OF CONE
IN COALGASFLAME
Port diameter d, 0.46 inch; area of port, 0.166 sq. in.; gas flow, 2.36
cu. ft. per min.
---
Volume ratio, airlgas . 3 4 5
-I -~
Total volume through jet, cu. ft. per

min. . . 7.08 9,44 11.80 14.16
Initial velocity U,, ft. per sec. . . 102 136 171 204
Height x of cone, inches . . 12.8 5.3 2.0 1.5
Ratio x / d . . 27-8 11-50 4.35 3,37
Axial velocity ratio U&J0 . . 0.28 0.62 1.o 1.o
Velocity at tip, ft. per sec. . . 28.5 84 171 204
-
TABLE
3. BURNINGRATEOF PULVERIZED
BITUMINOUSCOAL
Taking K=1,000 and m=1.8, for the conditions given in example 4,
p. 48, by equation (18) the burning rate B is given by
And, by equation (17), p. 37, the burning time 81=p1'8/2,920 second.
p, microns $4 81, seconds Burning rate B,

thousands of B.Th.U.
per cu. ft. per hour
20 219 0.075 658

30 457 0.157 315
40 767 0.263 188
50 1,148 0.394 125
60 1,585 0.543 90.8
70 2,090 0.716 68.9
80 2,660 0.912 54.2
90 3,162 1.082 44.5
100 3,981 1.36 36.2
120 5,495 1.88 26.2
140 7,330 2-51 19.6
160 9,330 3.20 15.4
180 11,750 4.03 12.2

TABLE
4. BURNING-OUTDISTANCE
AND UNBURNT COMBUSTIBLE
Burning-out distance x 2 (flame length) is obtained from Fig. 15, p. 36.
From equation (20), p. 40, unburnt combustible
Burning time %b and residue Q are read from Fig. 18, p. 41.
__
Mill No. 8 *
-
I Mill No. 7'
, -I
F?
mi-
x2,
feet
eb 9
secs.
Rb,
per
-
I
'
e' 2; Y'
-
8' 'bz;
crons cent
- - - - -I -- -
180 130 4.03 0.3 0 0 0 0
170 124 3.60 0.7 0.075 0.075 03 0.4
160 !17 3.20 1-2 0.1 11 0.186 0.6 0.6
150 I09 2.85 1.8 0.156 0.342 1.0 0.8
140 100 2.51 2.5 0.210 0.552 1.4 1.1
130 90.5 2.18 3-3 0.279 0.831 0 0 0 0
120 82.5 1.88 5.0 0.367 1.20 0.229 0.229 0.4 0.6
110 72c 1.60 7.0 0.905 2.1 1 0.266 0.495 0.8 1.5
100
90
80
62.5
534
44.c
1.36
1.08
0.912
10.0
13.5
18.5
1.25
2.21
3.24
3.36
5.57
8.81
4.6
6.0 7.5 1 I
4.2 0.812
5.4 6.5 1.40
2.13
1.31
2.71
4.84
1.8
2.9
4.4
2.4
3.6
5.1
70 36.5 0.716 25.0 5 *48 14.3 3.29 8.1 3 5.8 7.7
60 29.5 0.543 33.5 9.08 23.4 5.60 3.7 7.5 11.5
I
50 24.C 0394 43.5 i 5.6 39.0 10.1 13.8 9.4 17.1
40 17.: 0.263 58.0 !5.4 64.4 16.9 141.1 136.5 19.0 r2.8 11.3 25.2
30 134 0.157 73.0 i5.2 120 is.8 54.2 150.0 38.0 10.8 12.7 37.3
20 94 0.075 90.0 j5.5 216 16.2 73.8 70.0 $6.0 167 12.5 57.5
-- - - - - -- - -
* There are two mills, No. 7 and No. 8 respectively, firing one boiler.
As the method of calculation adopted in the above table may not

be self-evident, the following explanatory key is given. The differ-
ences between the successive residues R,, RZ,R3,etc., represent suc-
cessive intervals in the approximation of the unburnt residue.
Key to Table 4 :-

54 DISCUSSION ON
Discussion
Dr. R. LESSINC (London) said that the study which the author had
presented would enable those who were dealing with problems relating
to powdered fuel to approach them in a much more comprehensive and
reasoned manner. He proposed to address himself particularly to the
latter portion of the paper, in which chemical questions were con-
sidered. The author had rightly emphasized the complexity of the com-
bustion process of the individual fuel particles. The processes of car-
bonization and combustion, which in massive coal occurred successively,
took place simultaneously in each particle when burning powdered coal,
and influenced each other as they proceeded. The author was also right
in emphasizing the importance not only of the quantity but the character
of the volatile matter in the coal. There had been a tendency in the past
to regard volatile matter as a definite substance but in fact its influence
on ignition and combustion might vary considerably. In coals which
were regarded as low rank, namely those containing a high percentage
of oxygen, as well as in coals of very high rank, such as anthracite, the
volatile matter, in the first case on account of its low calorific value and
in the second on account of its small quantity, had very little influence.
With ordinary bituminous coal, on the other hand, where gas and tar
were released during the course of combustion, the ease with which the
volatile matter was ignited and the fact that it produced sufficient heat
in the course of its combustion to bring the solid constituents up to
ignition temperature was of the utmost importance.
It could not be sufficiently emphasized that coal was not a uniform
substance. However well prepared, it consisted of a number of separable
components about which very much more was beginning to be known
than in the past. These components behaved very differently in the
combustion process. I n pulverized fuel each particle might be supposed
to represent a single component, but the particles were mixed together
as they were fed into the furnace. First there were the particles having
a high coking value which fused at a relatively low temperature. Due
to the release of gas from the interior of these particles, they tended to
assume the shape of hollow spheres and were therefore called ceno-
spheres. They formed an important factor in the study of the com-
bustion of powdered fuel on account of their rapid change of volume
weight. Moreover, whilst the gas and tar released in the first few
moments assisted combustion of the coke residue, the latter itself
burned with greater difficulty and the rate of combustion therefore
decreased. Another component of coal called “duraine”, which com-
posed the bulk of what were commonly known as steam coals, did not

fuse with the same readiness. I n this case the particles remained rigid
throughout the combustion process and their burning rate more or less
constant. The third type of particle comprised the natural coal dust
which contained the substance now called “fusaine”, and formerly
“mother of coal”, which was in character like charcoal. These particles
also did not change their shape during the burning process, except, of
course, that they diminished in total mass and volume ;but they had a
very high burning rate, and in fact, apart from its somewhat high ash
content, this constituent formed a most desirable portion of a coal seam
for the purpose of coal dust firing.
The variation in the quantity and particularly the character of the ash
left behind afforded a ready means of following the process of the com-
bustion of powdered fuel from the combustion chamber through the
passes of the boiler, economizer, and air heater to the top of the
chimney. In a paper” before the Second World Power Conference he
had given details of this method. Although indirect, the general diffi-
culty of studying the process of combustion made it necessary to take
advantage of this line of approach to the problem.
At the end of the paper the author dealt with the question of cal-
culating combustion losses, a matter of importance to those concerned
with a guaranteed thermal efficiency. Generally, the procedure was to
ascertain, as far as possible, the amount of combustible matter left in
the flue dust and to compare it with that in the fired fuel. But it was
often overlooked that the calorific value of the combustible in the flue
dust was, in most cases, different from that of the combustible matter
in the fuel, owing to the changes the fuel underwent during combustion,
and a correction ought to be applied in order to arrive at a true valuation.
Dr. H. HEYWOOD (Member of Council) expressed his appreciation of

the clear explanation which the author had given of the structure of the
air jet. I n designing a pulverized-fuel burner the object was to obtain
the minimum velocity possible without danger of the flame burning
back into the burner mouthpiece. The curves shown in Fig. 14, p. 32,
had led to the design of an interesting type of burner in which the
stream of primary air and coal dust was separated into two parts,
namely, a very rich and a very weak mixture respectively. The propaga-
tion velocity of these two components therefore fell on the lower
portions of the curves and it was possible to obtain a lower exit velocity
from the burner, the two streams being combined subsequently to give
the correct air-coal ratio. On p. 37 the author compared the ratio of
surface to weight of a cubical and a spherical particle of coal, the first
* Trans. Second World Power Conference, Berlin, 1930, vol. 4, p. 174;
Fuel in Science and Practice, 1930,vol. 9,p. 348.

56 DISCUSSION ON
two equations on that page respectively dealing with these cases. The
fact that the two equations were identical tended to give the impression
that the ratios were equal for a cube and a sphere, and might lead to
misunderstanding. The reason was that the equations referred to a
sphere having the same diameter as the length of one side of the cube,
whereas when comparing surface-weight ratios it was necessary to
consider solids having the same volume. The actual value of the ratio
of the surface areas of cubes and spheres of equal volume was 1.24. It
was, of course, obvious that a sphere had the minimum specific surface
because that was the form which liquid drops took under the action of
surface tension. I n practice the particles were nearly always somewhat
21.6
0
a!
u
=1.2
a!
w
U
l-
wI O . 8
5
50.4
Y
U
go
PARTICLE SIZE-MICRONS
Fig. 20. Pulverized Coal Fig. 21. Air-Extracted Natural

Coal Dust
Through 60 mesh 99.7 per cent Through 40 mesh 9 7 3 per cent
1, 100 , I 95.3 ,, ,, 9,60 ,, 93.5 ,, 1,
,, 150 ,, 86.4 ,, ,, >, 100 ,, 75.5 ,, ,,

,, 200 ,, 76.9 ,, ,, ,, 150 ,, 56.4 ,, ,,
,, 200 ,, 45.2 ,, ,,
Unburnt combustible 2.33 per cent Unburnt combustible 17.0 per cent
flattened, and if allowance were made for this fact the figure 6 in the
two equations referred to should be between 10 and 12.
He had calculated the amount of unburnt combustible matter for
two cases of pulverized coal firing by a rather different method from
that of the author. The calculation was based on the same principle,
Rosin’s law, and the time of combustion was taken as 1.3 seconds.
Figs. 20 and 21 showed the resulting curves which were the differential
curves of the type of curve shown in Figs. 17 and 18, pp. 39 and 41.
He preferred them because they showed changes in the distribution of
size more clearly. From the time of combustion it was possible to cal-
culate that all particles smaller than about 130 microns in diameter
would be completely burned, and particles larger than that would be

burned in proportion to their size, as the author himself had shown.
For example, it could be calculated that roughly one-quarter of a particle
of 200 microns diameter would be consumed ; hence, it was possible to
Fig. 22. Course of Combustion of a Particle (Mayers)
construct the lower shaded curve which represented the unburnt carbon.
The diagram gave results for a pulverized coal and an air-extracted
natural coal dust. The considerable difference in the proportion of

58 DISCUSSION ON
unburnt combustible matter would be noted. It did not follow, how-

ever, that in practice the proportion of unburnt combustible matter
would be quite so large, because, particularly in the case of Lancashire
boilers, the deposited flue dust continued to burn in the flues.
He had made the assumption, as was also made in the paper, that a
particle burned at a uniform rate. That, however, was not true and
Fig. 22," reproduced from a paper by Mayers, showed the actual course
of combustion of a particle. The upper curve showed the temperature
rise. At the point A ignition commenced and a rapid rise of temperature
occurred as far as B, after which combustion proceeded at a more or
Re=3 &=150
Streamline Turbulent
Fig. 23. Fluid Flow Downwards
1 cm. particle; water at 15 deg. C.
less constant rate as a further supply of oxygen was brought into contact
with the particle. The lower curve showed the change of weight. For the
first half of the heating period volatile matter was driven off, and from
B onwards there was a gradual decrease in the weight of the particle.
As a first approximation-and the calculations could only be recorded
as an approximation-it would probably involve no great error if a
straight line were drawn through such a curve as the lower one.
He thought that Fig. 23 might prove of interest as showing the great
difference between streamline and turbulent motion around the particle.
A particle of pulverized coal required for complete combustion about
~~ ~
* Trans. Am. Inst. Min. and Metallurgical Eng., 1936, vol. 119, p. 304.

60,000 times its own volume of air measured at the furnace temperature,
so the extent to which turbulence would aid combustion would be
realized. Fig. 23 demonstrated the flow of water, but so long as the
Reynolds numbers were the same the type of flow would be the same
for a burning particle in air.
Mr. J. G. BENNETT(Combustion Appliance Makers’ Association)

welcomed the title of the paper as emphasizing an aspect of the com-
bustion of pulverized fuel which had not been studied sufficiently in
the past. In his opinion the author had made an important step forward
from the point to which the study of pulverized fuel combustion had
been taken by Rosin in his classical paper to the Second International
Congress op Bituminous Coal.” The author had taken into account the
characteristics of the jet, and in so doing had forged a powerful weapon
for future research. He referred to the work of Tollmien and Kuethe,
the latter of whom had taken into account the effect of an orifice of
finite dimensions, but it did not appear whether the author knew of the
work of Gumz t and Schultes,f which appeared -about the same time
as that of Kuethe. Those authors to some extent differed from Kuethe
regarding the distribution of axial velocity in a jet from an orifice of
finite dimensions. It was clear, of course, that Tollmien’s assumptions
were fundamentally unsound, since a jet issuing from a point would lose
the whole of its energy in the form of heat. He would also like to refer
to the work published a few days ago by Dr. Karl Cleve,§ of the
Research Department of the Rheinmetall-Borsig Company of Tegel.
Cleve’s work was based on the experimental study of velocity distri-
bution in a jet, and gave valuable data showing the connexion between
pressure and distribution. He reached a conclusion which was of great
importance for mechanical stoker firing, namely that the most effective
mixing of gases in the combustion chamber was obtained, not by a jet
issuing from orifices of equal cross-section, but from a line of jets with
large and small orifices alternating. Another paper recently published
by Dr. De Juhasz 11 seemed to throw light on that problem, and the
graphical method of analysing jet characteristics which he proposed
should have considerable possibilities.
* “Thermodynamics of Combustion of Powdered Coal”, Second Inter-
national Conference on Bituminous Coal, 1928, vol. 1 , p. 838.
t “Zweitluftzufiihrungbei Rostfeuerungen”, Feuerungstechnik, 1935, vol. 23,
D. 123.
a 1“Wanderrostfeuerungenmit Wirbelluftzufiihrung”,Archiv f ur Warmewirt-
schuft, 1935, vol. 16, p.. 117.
-
0 “Die Wirkungsweisevon Wirbelluftdusen,”Feuerungstechnik, 1937, vol. 25,
p. J9.1-
Ll.
I/ “Graphical Analysis of Transient Phenomena in Linear Flow”, J1. Franklin
Inst., 1937, vol. 223, p. 463.

60 DISCUSSION ON
The author’s formulz for jet paths had been found by his Association
very useful in their work on the use of gas jets for the ignition of
domestic coal fires. Equation (ll),p. 26, had been used to calculate
the path of a downwardly inclined gas jet issuing from a +-inch orifice
at a pressure of 3 inches water gauge. The equation gave the distance
from the orifice at which the jet would turn up as 20 cm. as compared
with 28 cm. actually measured, a very satisfactory agreement. T h e
angle of spread of the jet was 12.4 deg., which agreed exactly with the
value calculated from equation (2).
The application of secondary air jets in boiler combustion chambers
was of great importance, and he noted from Fig. 10, p. 23, that the
calculated trajectories agreed well with the observed flame contours
found by Robey and Harlow. I n practice, however, jets were not
observed to reach the points indicated by the ends of the dotted lines
A, B, C, D , etc. He supposed it would be agreed that, subject to perfect
mixing in the combustion chamber, it was desirable to keep the quantity
of secondary air used with travelling-grate stokers to a minimum,
provided that the thickness of the fuel bed was such as to minimize the
amount of carbon monoxide formed. It was clear that the greater the
quantity of primary air that could be passed through the stoker, the
better would be the cooling of the stoker links. Hence the problem was
to obtain thorough mixing of the combustion gases with the smallest
possible jet, and it seemed to him that this afforded an important field
for further investigation in order to discover the most effective method
of carrying the jets across the furnace with minimum air pressure. I n
that connexion the mutual interference of jets close to one another was
of importance. The work of Cleve had shown that it could result in a
much greater reduction of jet velocity than might be supposed, and it
had been proved in practice that a series of jets alternately from large
and small orifices promoted more effective mixing.
The section of the paper referring to pulverized fuel burners was
of great interest and the author was to be congratulated on the simplify-
ing assumptions which he had made in order to obtain workable
formulae. He would, however, like to emphasize that equation (15),
which was taken from Rosin’s paper, was approximate only and referred
mainly to experimental work on one particular class of coal. Rosin
himself, in the paper quoted, emphasized the fact that the exponent m
only had the value 1.8 for German brown coal. Rosin was doubtful of
its applicability to bituminous coal, and that, taken in conjunction with
what Dr. Lessing had said that evening, meant that to assume a con-
stant value for the exponent might be rather misleading. It was also
probable that the value of the exponent was to some extent influenced
by furnace conditions. He thought that systematic investigation on that

point, coupled with the methods which had been developed by the
author for dealing with jet characteristics, should place the design of
pulverized fuel burners and combustion chambers upon a sounder
footing than it had hitherto enjoyed.
Major W. GRECSON (Member of Council) said that those who had been
concerned with the subject of the paper knew how extremely difficult
it was to obtain really basic data. When considering the question of flame
propagation and furnaces, it was usual to start with the assumption
that the conditions were static, but further investigation revealed that
they were dynamic, and a fresh start had to be made. He therefore
thought that the author had done extremely well in accomplishing as
much as he had, and he thought that he was too modest in claiming to
have hazarded only a rough guess in answer to the problem.
There were one or two small points he might criticize. On p. 20,
for example, overfire jets were referred to as if they were quite a recent
adjunct to furnace practice-the author spoke of them as I ‘ being now
well established”. He remembered in his apprenticeship days thirty
years ago fitting overfire air jets to water-tube boilers to reduce smoke
in long-flaming coals, and in the days of the coal-fired Navy all the
ships were equipped with overfire air jets, both front and back, for the
same purpose. It had long been almost standard practice in the case of
hand-fired marine water-tube boilers to employ controlled overfire air,
either admitted under pressure from a closed stokehold or by a fan
arranged to give the correct dispersive angle. The interference of jets
of secondary air referred to by Captain Bennett had been found a very
real problem in practice, and in his opinion the arrangement of such jets
could make or mar their whole success.
The author referred on p. 31 to the preliminary heating of coal
particles and implied that this was accomplished principally by inter-
mixing of the surrounding hot gases with the incoming jet of primary
air and fuel. He thought, however, that in the conditions applying to a
pulverized-fuel furnace the greater proportion of \he heating of the coal
particles would be done by radiation from the gases in the furnaces as a
whole rather than by direct contact.
On the last page of the paper the author made a statement which
required very careful consideration. He said that “providing ignition
is not retarded the maximum amount of furnace cooling surface should
be installed, and for this purpose bare boiler tubes provide the maxi-
mum heat absorption possible.” The correctness or otherwise of this
sentence revolved round the words “providing ignition is not retarded”,
since the entire combustion in a furnace depended on that condition.
In the earlier refractory type of furnace it was theoretically possible to

62 DISCUSSION O N
obtain all the conditions required for perfect combustion, namely

temperature, turbulence, and time. These conditions were interrelated.
The higher the temperature the more efficient and rapid the heat pro-
duction and absorption. The temperature was, moreover, further raised
by preheating the air, and theoretically, therefore, the refractory furnace
ought to be perfect. In actual practice, as was well known, the results
fell far short of what might be expected, because of the troubles
due to ash and slag consequent upon high temperatures. The main
reason, therefore, why water-cooled surfaces were considered preferable
to refractory furnaces was to overcome this difficulty of slag and ash
which was especially troublesome when firing with pulverized fuel.
The characteristics of the two types of furnaces were entirely
different. In the case of a refractory furnace fired with pulverized fuel,
an increase of load tended to increase the temperature until a point was
reached at which the ash fused and stuck to the furnace walls. The only
way to prevent that was by reducing the temperature, by increasing the
excess air supply which therefore was the limiting factor of efficiency
for a furnace of that type. On the other hand, considering the case of a
furnace made up of a completely bare tube wall, the exactly opposite
condition occurred. The proportion of excess air had to be increased as
the load decreased, since overcooling of the furnace occurred with
decrease in load, and the tendency was for combustion to be delayed
unless additional air was supplied to provide the necessary mixing and
for combustion. He did not agree with the author that a bare tube
would provide optimum conditions for the maximum absorption of heat.
He thought that this was afforded by an intermediate type of design
embodying a protected tube wall or block tube wall as it was called.
The solid cast iron blocks assisted heat transference, and intermediate
conditions could be regulated by the material of the blocks. I n very
large furnaces with plain vertical tubes the mechanical conditions were
not ideal, for the tubes were long and contained a high proportion of
rapidly ascending steam bubbles. These tubes were supported only at
each end, whereas in the block construction they were mechanically
anchored at intermedate points. In the case of boilers fired by mechani-
cal stokers, these tubes, if the furnace was of the bare tube wall type,
were always bent well away from the firebed of the stoker. The author
rather argued that the idea of putting refractories covering the bare
tube walls near the firebed was to improve combustion, but when the
troubles which could result from slagging refractories at the level of the
firebed were considered, it seemed that this method overcame one diffi-
culty at the expense of another.
A striking fact which was not often recognized was that at every point
in the circuit of a complete power production unit, starting with coal

and ending with electricity, there was a factor of safety on every con-
stifxent section, with one exception, namely the boiler furnace which,
if refractory-lined, had practically no margin of safety at all, being
worked up to its safe temperature limits.
Mr. W. M. SELVEY remarked that for manufacturers there had been

no adequate theory to afford guidance in the design of pulverized-
fuel furnaces, and it was astonishing to him that in spite of the number
of variables the author in fact produced some equations which might
be called practicable. He hoped the author would continue his work
and extend it to corner firing, which presented a still more complex
problem for him to tackle. He himself had tested pulverized-fuelfurnaces
manufactured by the firm with which the author was connected, almost
from the beginning, and looking back over the intermediate period he
could testify that great improvements had been made and that the
knowledge gained had resulted in an extraordinary reduction in the
amount of unburned fuel. That was not entirely due, of course, to the
improvement of the burners ; but also to improvements in the pul-
verizers themselves and in respect of one thing which the author had
had to leave out of his equations, namely the moisture in the flame,
which certainly had played a part in the past, and probably still did so.
In the most recent tests which he had conducted on corner-fired boilers,
the figures for unburnt coal were as low or lower than he had ever
previously encountered, even with boilers fired by mechanical stokers.
It was true that the amount of unburnt coal in the case of a mechanical
stoker depended very much on whether the stoker was being pressed
beyond its normal output or not, but at any rate the loss from unburnt
fuel had been brought entirely under control in the case of pulverized-
fuel firing.
The PRESIDENT, referring to Mr. Selvey’s statement that other factors

than the burners had played their part in the reduction of unburnt fuel,
mentioned that he had noticed a very material increase in the size of the
combustion chamber in pulverized-fuel boilers. He thought possibly
that was one of the things Mr. Selvey had in mind.
Mr. CHARLES ERITHcommented on the author’s claim that the pre-

sent design of combustion equipment represented a stage of high
efficiency. He himself thought that something approaching perfection
in regard to combustion in boiler plants was reached many years ago.
It was now eight years since he had retired, but before that time it was
usual for his company to guarantee the same high efficiency, either for
the multiple retort stoker, or for the travelling grate stoker, or for

64 DISCUSSION ON
pulverized-fuel firing, and he did not think that that efficiency had
since been exceeded.
The overfire air jets referred to in the paper were common practice
ten years ago, and the question arose whether any practical results
were likely to be obtained by further experiments in that direction. It
might be pointed out that Fig. 14, p. 32, which gave the rate of pro-
pagation of a pulverized coal flame, was taken from a work published
eleven years ago in America and was merely a series of curves obtained
by firing into an unheated space under atmospheric conditions.
He failed to find anything in the paper to indicate any direction in
which further appreciable improvement could be obtained in boiler
firing, and a study of recent power plants including Deptford, Battersea,
Fulham, Stepney, and several in the provinces, had failed to reveal a
single case of the employment of pulverized coal. Although he himself
had been concerned with pulverized coal equipment, it had always
seemed to him that there was little justification for going to the expense
of drying and reducing the fuel to an impalpable powder, and inci-
dentally discharging most of the ash up the chimney, when the same
efficiency could be obtained from untreated coal fired by a mechanical
stoker.
Mr. K. C. BARRELL referred to Haslam and Russell’s curves repro-

duced in Fig. 14, p. 32. He recognized that they were old, but that
did not upset their validity. They were, he believed, obtained in
examining dust explosions travelling along a gallery, and their appli-
cation to the stationary flame of a pulverized coal jet involved pre-
sumably some laws of similarity which the author might perhaps
explain.
He hoped to be able to try some of the formulae suggested by the
author, particularly in the case of boilers with overfire air jets. He had
some such boilers in his charge which did not give quite the results he
would like. He also would like to know the method employed to
examine a flame in a boiler furnace, for he wished to apply the formulae
to a rotary cement kiln. Such a kiln consisted of a rotating steel tube
lined with firebrick, and it would be extremely difficult to follow what
happened to the flame, and to ascertain what its limits were.
Mr. L. T. MINCHIN(The Gas Light and Coke Company) said he

thought the generalization on p. 29 of the paper, that the shape of the
Bunsen cone was a sympton of the change in velocity across the jet, was
not a justifiable one. Almost all the workers who had discussed the shape
of the Bunsen flame attributed the cone which was normally observed
to the envelope of the resultants of the velocity of the mixed gases and

MECHANICS OF FLAME AND AIR JETS 6.5
the flame velocity, treated as a vector triangle. Some years ago
Ubbelohde and Koelliker * worked out very ingeniously the complete
shape of the Bunsen cone by assuming a parabolic distribution of
streamline flow across the orifice and combining it with the flame
velocity by a geometrical construction. It had to be modified slightly
to account for the rounded tip of the cone and for the fact that the cone
sat on the burner port at all, because, since the velocity was zero at the
extreme edge of the flame, the flame would always backfire but for
some other factor, which was usually taken to be the conduction of the
walls of the tube. An approximately parabolic distribution of velocity
was to be expected at the mouth of an atmospheric Bunsen burner with
a straight nozzle, since the velocities were of a different order from those
obtaining in the gas jet.
Mr. B. S. BRAILEYsaid that he had been trying to judge from his

own practical experience to what extent the actual flames would con-
form to the shape shown in Figs. 10 and 11, pp. 23 and 27. I n the
case of the downward flame shown in Fig. 11 he thought that if the
velocity of the incoming gas were increased beyond a certain fairly
early limit, the flame, instead of extending in length, would decrease
in length and, so to speak, bypass the heater. He presumed the limit
depended on the shape and size of the combustion chamber, but the
point was of great importance, and he asked what were the limits within
which the formulae given in the paper were applicable. The value of
the formulae would be lost if the limits were not indicated. Unless the
amount of fuel supply conformed with the size and shape of the com-
bustion chamber the correct shape of flame could not be attained, and
the whole of the combustion volume would not be utilized.
Mr. BENJAMIN HANDLEY (Member of Council)emphasized Mr. Erith’s

contentions that there seemed to have been no great advantage in
employing pulverized fuel, whereas there were obvious disadvantages
such as the difficulty in preventing the emission of flue dust from the
chimney. At the same time he thought the paper was of value since
much of the theory put forward might possibly be equally applicable
to boilers fired with mechanical stokers.
Mr. R. F. DAVISin reply, said that, in the main, the criticisms offered
in connexion with the burning of pulverized fuel had served only
to emphasize the complexity of the problem. I n order to reach a
satisfactory conclusion it was really necessary to study experimentally
the influence of each factor separately, a very difficult matter. For
-
* Gas wid Wasserfach, 1916, vol. 59, p. 49.
5

66 DISCUSSION ON
instance, Dr. Lessing had emphasized the importance of the chemical

constitution of the coal as affecting the combustion rate, especially ,
the ability of coking coals to form cenospheres, which increased
enormously the exposed surface of a particle.
Dr. Heywood referred to the comparative specific surface of a cube
and a sphere; the reason a cube and a sphere of the same lineal
dimensions had been taken in the paper, was that the size relative to
the same mesh opening was being considered. It would be realized
that the constants in the various formula: required a considerable
amount of study, and the values given in the paper were only by way
of example. Dr. Heywood’s method of plotting the unburnt com-
bustible was without doubt more exact and gave a better illustration
of the state of affairs at any particular instant, but it suffered from the
disadvantage that a series of such diagrams would be needed to cover
the progress of combustion over a period of time.
Mr. Bennett mentioned the work of Cleve. Cleve’s method of
arbitrarily defining the jet boundary at the 1 metre per sec. velocity
contour was apt to be misleading. Also, while his observations on
the axial velocity showed fairly good agreement with the formulae
given in the paper, Cleve combined this figure with the furnace drift
velocity in obtaining his calculated jet trajectories, instead of using
the mean velocity, a procedure which in his opinion was incorrect.
The calculated jet trajectories shown in Fig. 10, p. 23, indicated
the course which the deflected air jet axes would take if the simplifying
assumptions made in their calculation held good indefinitely, and
did not take into account the position of the baffle opening above the
furnace, which would modify slightly the position of the terminating
point, and was probably what Mr. Bennett had in mind.
The statement that the use of overfire air jets was “now well es-
tablished,” was not meant to imply, as Major Gregson had interpreted
it, that they were “quite a recent adjunct to furnace practice,” but
rather that their scientific application was. Although he could not
claim so long an experience as Major Gregson, yet he was not ignorant
of the length of time during which overfire air jets had been used ;
in fact, the firm with which he was associated had used them prior
even to the period ‘mentioned by Major Gregson. Major Gregson
also contested the opinion that radiation accounted for most of the
heating up of powdered coal particles, but in the combustion of gases
the reaction velocity was in most cases a linear function of the thermal
conductivity (Ellis and Kirkby 1936), and there was every reason to
believe that this still held good in the case of powdered fuel.
He had anticipated that the statement on the last page of the paper,
with regard to bare tube walls, might invite criticism, and it had in

fact done so. Major Gregson implied that it was advantageous to
cover tubular walls with refractory blocks, because the higher resulting
furnace temperature promoted a more rapid heat production. On
the contrary, experimental evidence indicated that high temperatures
beyond the ignition point retarded combustion, as demonstrated by
the curves in Fig. 24, which had been plotted from the results of
experiments made at the U.S. Bureau of Mines. The burning period
was ascertained by dropping carefully sized particles into a specially
constructed furnace, maintained at constant temperature during each
Fig. 24. Observed Burning Period of Particles with Constant

Furnace Temperature and Oxygen Concentration of 21 per
cent
+ Coal same weight particle as -45 +50 mesh semi-coke.
Semi-coke -45+50 mesh.
o Coal --50+60 mesh.
Coal -45+50 mesh.
experiment, and photographing the tracks of the burning particles

on a moving film. The burning time was less than would occur in
a boiler furnace, because in the experiment the oxygen concentration
was kept constant at 21 per cent. The experiments did, however, con-
firm his deduction on p. 44 that, “once ignition has commenced, there
is a definite advantage . . . in maintaining the flame temperature as
low as possible; it is evident . . . that the burning rate is thereby
increased.” Major Gregson’s reference to the increase in the pro-
* U.S. Bureau of Mines Co-operative Bulletin 50,

68 DISCUSSION ON
portion of excess air at low ratings with bare tube walls was not clear.
At low ratings the primary air was often unavoidably excessive, in
order to prevent deposition in the coal pipes ; or, with the unit firing
system, it was governed by the air flow through the mill. These
factors bore no relation to the type of furnace. It was the practice
of the firm with which he was associated to anchor mechanically all
long vertical bare tubes at frequent intervals, and it was therefore by
no means a unique feature of block covered walls.
Mr. Erith appeared to be labouring under a misapprehension
regarding the purpose of the paper; but even if he failed to notice
any improvement in the efficiency of boiler firing since he had retired
eight years ago, and did not anticipate any further appreciable improve-
ment, he must concede that a considerable increase in the average
size and rating of boiler units had occurred, calling for greater skill
in design and improvement in technique.
Regarding the present position of pulverized fuel firing, an analysis
of a table published in a recent number of Power showed that in the
U.S.A., out of a total number of 149 new boiler units installed in
central stations during the past year, only 25 per cent were stoker-
fired, while 60 per cent used pulverized fuel, the remaining 15 per
cent being oil- or gas-fired. Corresponding figures were not available
for this country, but so far as he could judge, the proportion of pul-
verized fuel units would not be so high as in the U.S.A., largely
due to the popularity in this country of the louvre type of travelling
grate stoker. The curves of flame propagation in Fig. 14, p. 32, were
given merely by way of illustration, because, as far as he knew there
was no later information on that point.
He appreciated Mr. Barrell’s difficulty in attempting to examine the
flame inside a rotating cement kiln, but as he had had no experience
with cement kilns he felt diffident about making a suggestion. He
thought that a series of observation ports might be provided along
the length of the kiln and the flame observed while the kiln was
stationary.
It seemed to him that the method mentioned by Mr. Minchin of
obtaining the shape of the Bunsen cone by assuming first a parabolic
velocity distribution at the orifice, was an artifice employed to obtain
a “cone” shape to fit as near as possible the actual shape observed.
The method proposed in the paper had the advantage of simplicity
and did not involve the need for any such a priori assumption.
Mr. Brailey would find that the limiting conditions of the formule
given in the paper had been indicated on p. 43. They were not
applicable after the gases had entered the boiler tubes or beyond the
point where neighbouring jets intermingled and filled the available

cross-section of the furnace. The flame shown in Fig. 11 was for an
experimental burner and was in no way a desirable condition in the
combustion chamber.
He did not wish to be drawn into a discussion on the comparative
merits of pulverized fuel and mechanical stokers, as this was not the
purpose of the paper, but Mr. Handley’s objection to the emission of
flue dust with pulverized fuel firing had now been quite satisfactorily
overcome by the employment of electrostatic precipitators.
Communications
Dr. M. W. TRAVEFS (Bristol) wrote that though the various aspects
with which the author dealt belonged rather to applied physics than to
chemistry, he had done a service to applied chemistry as well as to
engineering. The work of the Russian school in developing the chain
theory of combustion processes was making it possible to understand
something about the chemical mechanism of flame. A great deal had
been learned about flame from the study of flames in tubes and con-
tainers, particularly about the effect of thermal conduction, which had
much more to do with the maintenance of the steady state in pulverized
fuel flames than radiation. From the scientific standpoint, and probably
from the technical standpoint also in the long run, interest centred on
what was called the chain-beuking process which took place at sur-
faces, the specific character of which was important. Dust particles
might act as surfaces so far as chain-breaking processes were concerned,
removing hydrogen atoms from the system, and thus breaking the
reaction chains by which the combustion of hydrogen was continued,
and slowing down the reaction. It would be interesting to study the
influence of dust when other factors were kept constant.
Elsewhere he had called attention to the need for investigating such
secondary oxidation processes as the formation of nitric oxide (a high-
temperature process), and of sulphur trioxide (a low-temperature
process). Such investigations required laboratory work ; but he felt
sure that much might be learned from the scientific study of the com-
bustion process on plant in operation. Here it was possible to maintain
steady conditions, essential for the observation of combustion pheno-
mena, which were difficult to attain in the laboratory.
Mr. A. H. WARING wrote to congratulate the author on a real attempt

to consider the factors governing the process of combustion in a boiler
furnace. He hoped that any criticism he would make would be regarded
as constructive. It seemed that the author had not stressed sufficiently
the great effects of both turbulence and oxygen concentration gradients,

70 DISCUSSION ON
as affecting rate of combustion. In the application to a chain-grate fired

boiler this point was well illustrated by the flame contours shown in
Fig. 10, p. 23. At this point it was, perhaps, apposite to mention the
basis on which large gas burners were generally designed for a short
flame. The basis was high turbulence in conjunction with the dividing
up of the gas and air into the largest possible number of correctly pro-
portioned pockets in the shortest possible distance.
The burning of small particles of coal in an air stream was certainly
a much more difficult problem. As was pointed out in the paper, there
were such questions as when the particle would ignite and how long it
would take for reasonably complete combustion to be attained. These
questions really led to the flow pattern in the combustion chamber. The
author had clearly shown the great effect of particle size, as affecting the
time required for burning of the particle, so that the percentage carbon
in the ash did not represent a serious loss. However it would appear
that the author had not stressed sufficiently the effect of turbulence and
oxygen concentration gradients on the rates of burning of the particle
during its time of passage through the combustion chamber.
I n regard to the slower burning properties of pulverized anthracite
as compared with pulverized bituminous coal, it would appear that the
following factors wese jointly responsible :-
(1) Higher ignition temperature of anthracite particles.
(2) Less gas generated with anthracite, during the initial stages of
combustion (gas burns more quickly than a solid carbon
particle).
(3) Difficulty of attaining high turbulence and favourable oxygen
concentration gradients during the later stages of combustion.
(4) Less favourable surface factor of the anthracite particles
during the later stages of combustion.
Higher preheating of the air should help the early ignition of
anthracite particles on entering the combustion chamber. However, for
reasonably complete combustion in a “Lopulco” combustion chamber
with down-shot fantail burners, it would seem that the flames should
travel well down the combustion chamber, and tertiary air should be
admitted so as to give high turbulence and favourable oxygen con-
centration gradients during the latter part of the process of combustion.
I n this connexion it would be interesting to know what was the average
loss due to unburnt carbon in the ash, when Wclsh anthracite was burnt
under the above conditions.
Generally it would seem that, for pulverized fuel firing, a good coni-
bustion chamber and burner arrangement would have the following
features:-
(1) Adequate air preheat and adequate heating of the particles of fuel

by radiation on entry to the combustion chamber, so as to ensure
ignition of the particles soon after leaving the burner mouth.
(2) The combustion chamber and burner design should lead to a
good flow pattern in the combustion chamber. This would imply
spreading of the fuel particles evenly into the air, but with such
velocities as to ensure adequate turbulence, time of passage, and oxygen
concentration gradients for the reasonably complete combustion of the
larger particles; that the flame should fit the combustion chamber
reasonably well, would also be implied.
(3) The combustion chamber not to be unnecessarily large and
expensive in first cost, but its shape and cooling by bare tubes to be
such that no limitations in service would result from the building up of
slag, either on the walls of the combustion chamber, or in the convection
bank, or in the superheater.
Mr. K. F. DAVIS wrote in reply that he appreciated Mr. Waring’s

contention that the oxygen concentration might have an appreciable
effect on the rate of combustion. It was certainly to be expected
that the rate of contact-making, and therefore the rate of burning,
would be influenced by the concentration. In a boiler furnace the
oxygen concentration varied from 21 to about 2 per cent ; in powdered
fuel firing the larger particles were those most affected, but this was
offset to some extent by their greater facility for “turbulent” movement
through the gas. If it was decided to take such factors into account
quantitatively, then the formation of an ash layer and an envelope of
carbon dioxide round each particle also must not be neglected, as
indicated by Kreisinger” in a recent paper before the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers. The burning of anthracite had been very
adequately described by his colleague Mr. J. Mayer,t in a recent paper
before the Institute of Fuel. It was found that the average percentage
of carbon in the ash when burning anthracite duff with a down-shot
fantail burner was 30 per cent, representing a combustion efficiency
loss of about 4 per cent.
Dr. Travers’s observations confirmed his own belief that thermal
conduction had far greater influence upon the ignition and combustion
of pulverized fuel than radiation; from which it followed that the
influence of refractory surfaces was only of secondary importance.
Another factor, the importance of which in his opinion was often
overstressed because the term was misapplied, was turbulence.
-
* KREISINGER, H. Combustion, 1938, vol. 9, No. 7, Combustion of Pul- “
verized Coal.”
* MAYER, J. J1. Inst. of Fuel, 1938 vol. 11, “The Combustion of Anthra-
cite Duff in Pulverised Form.”

Macro-turbulence, as it had been called, was necessary to bring

comparatively large masses of air into contact with large masses of
fuel, but micro-turbulence, that is turbulent movement of air relative
to individual particles of powdered fuel, was almost non-existent, as
became evident from a consideration of Stokes’s Law. It had been
shown by Hurley” that a fuel particle rapidly acquired the velocity of
the air stream carrying it, also that mere turbulence was insufficient
to remove the inert atmosphere by which it quickly became sur-
rounded.
It was, then, the mechanism of the chemical processes, referred to
by Dr. Travers, which ultimately limited the speed of reaction, except
in so far as macro-turbulence could cause a particle to change from
one stream of air to another by centrifugal force, as in tangential
corner firing and centrifugal type burners. In the latter an outer annulus
of secondary air rotated in streamlines around an inner cone of
primary air and fuel, from which the fuel was compelled to travel,
and across the streamlines by centrifugal force.
* HURLEY, T. F. J1. Inst. of Fuel, 1930-1, vol. 4, p. 243. “Some Factors
Affecting the Design of a Small Combustion Chamber for Pulverised Fuel.”

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11

THE MECHANICS OF FLAME AND AIR JETS

Introduction. Recent mathematical and experimental researches on

Technical Engineer, International Combustion, Ltd., Derby.

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The latter is a very important property from the point of view of

The Turbulent Mixing Region Formed by a Jet. When a gaseous jet

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where x is the direction of the main component of flow, its magnitude

where U, is the initial outflow velocity of the jet, K is a constant for

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Fig. 1. Diagrammatic Section of Flow from a Circular Nozzle

Fig. 2. Comparison of Theoretical and Experimental Velocity

symmetrical jet, the turbulent mixing region commences as an annular

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Fig. 4. Axial Velocity of Circular Air Jet

Fig. 5. Velocity Profile of Circular Jet (Tollmien)

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Fig. 6. Overfire Air Nozzle Test (London Power Company)

is therefore likely to be slightly less than the theoretical. The angle

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To find the axial velocity at any distance from the orifice it is

Fig. 7. Orifice Shape Factor a

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Fig. 8. Theoretical Streamline Diagram for Circular Jet from

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which indicates that although the velocity decreases, the quantity

OverJire Air Jets. The beneficial effect of injecting overfire or

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Fig. 9. Diagram of Path of Air Jet in Furnace

therefore, to consider the mean jet velocity at any cross-section. If

Further, if (x, y ) are the co-ordinates of the point P, then

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Also, horizontally --=urn

Therefore -y 68- o+U, sin$

If the jet is inclined downwards at an angle 4 with the horizontal

Flame Jets. The problem of the flame jet is complicated by the

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Fig. 10. Comparison of Observed Flame Contours and

In an enclosed furnace the problem is yet more intricate by reason

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whereg is the acceleration due to gravity. On the assumption that the

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Taking the general case of a burner nozzle inclined at any angle 4

Also, horizontally %urn

6y 88- fB+v+U, sin$

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Substituting the values of Urnand 8,

Integrating and substituting the value off from equation (8),

Also, at the point where the flame begins to curl upwards

As an example of the application of equation (lo), the flame path of

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Fig. 11. Calculated Flame Path of Fantail Burner

envelope and intermingling of neighbouring jets will obviously modify

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horizontally fired burner, a torque is applied to the rotating jet by the

Ignition and Rate of Propagation in Flame Jets. The chemical and

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Fig. 12. Effect of Tube Size on Rate of Propagation of

the inner core of high-velocity gas, almost up to the burner mouth.

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of primary aeration (Haslam and Russell 1926). On the assumption