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Measurement methods for hydropower resources: a review

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 Water Utility Journal 18: 21-38, 2018.
© 2018 E.W. Publications

Measurement methods for hydropower resources: a review

O.J. Mdee1*, C.Z. Kimambo1, T.K. Nielsen2 and J. Kihedu1

1
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Dar es Salaam, P.O. Box 35091, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
2
Department of Energy and Process Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway
*
e-mail: ombenijohn@gmail.com

Abstract: Each hydropower plant is usually designed for specific amount of discharge and gross head. This paper presents the
methods used to measure the discharge and gross head variables with additional of assessment tools. Discharge
measurement methods covered include bucket, float, velocity-area, dilution, hydraulic structure and advanced
discharge measurement while gross head measurement methods covered include topographic and DEM maps, hose
level with pressure gauge, sight level, spirit level and advanced survey instruments. The assessment tools presented
include SMART MINI-IDRO, Integrated Method for Power Analysis, VIPIDRO ASTE 4.0, Hydromatch, Hydrohelp
and Renewable Energy Technology Screen tool. The assessment tools used to estimate the potential of hydropower
resources in terms of energy, hydropower plant components and financial analysis. Therefore, this review paper
indicated the possibility of conducting a pre-feasibility study of hydropower estimation by using the open access tools
and accessible equipment in the carpentry and mason works, especially in the developing countries.

Key words: Discharge; gross head; hydropower resource; measurement methods

1. INTRODUCTION

Hydropower is one of the most promising types of renewable energy source (Abazaj et al., 2016;
Singal et al., 2010). Probably, it is the most matured technology used to convert natural water
energy to electrical energy when compared to other sources of renewable energy (Abolhosseini et
al., 2014; Kaunda et al., 2012). Hydropower resource is a sustainable source of energy, which can
be harnessed as either run-off-river or storage hydropower schemes. In the Run-of-River (RoR)
scheme, water diverted from the river or stream to the intake point and directed by a penstock to the
turbine placed in the powerhouse with no or little storage. In storage schemes, water from the river
diverted to fill the water storage reservoir before being directed to the hydropower house (Nasir,
2013). Hydropower is an inflation-free source of energy due to the absence of fuel cost, reliable and
environmental friendly. Renewable energy contributed 23.7% of global electricity generation up to
the end of 2015, in which hydropower contributed by 16.6% (REN21, 2016).
The intermittent nature of river flow during dry and wet seasons can hinder the potential of
hydropower sites development (Adedokun et al., 2013). Some hydropower plant schemes have
ceased when the river dries up and the flow falls below the required minimum amount (Penche,
2004). This situation raises the awareness of proper estimating the discharge and net head before
starting to build expensive hydropower components (Fagbohun, 2016; Priyadarshana, 2014;
Wagman, 2013; Buehler, 2011). The hydropower components consist of civil works, mechanical
and electrical components as described in Kaunda at al. (2012). Also, the realistic penstock length
should be estimated by measuring the inclined distance from the intake to hydropower house (Hall
et al., 2006).
Hydropower resources can be grouped into small and large hydropower schemes. Small
hydropower is usually divided into Pico (<5kW), micro (<100kW), mini (<1MW) and small
(<10MW). Large hydropower scheme is greater than 10MW based on the European Union
specification (Kougias et al., 2014; HWWA, 2006). Alternatively, hydropower schemes are also
categorized based on the available head. High head hydropower scheme has head greater or equal to
100m, medium head ranges from 30 to 100m while low head ranges from 2 to 30m (Penche, 2004).
22 O.J. Mdee et al.

A lower head with a large amount of flow rate can still be viable although may require high
investment cost (Gaius-obaseki, 2010). Nevertheless, the assessment of the potential hydropower
sites can inspire the individuals and work as an incentive to establish the hydropower plant (Razan
et al., 2012). Potential of hydropower resources have been assessed and published on web-based
GIS tools (Punys et al., 2011; Gismalla and Bruen, 1996; Bergstrom and Malmros, 2005). Most of
the data collected for assessment of hydropower resources are either non-spatial or spatial data that
can be validated by conducting site measurement (ESMAP, 2015). Therefore, this paper reviews the
assessment tools, gross head and discharge measurement methods.

2. SOURCES OF HYDROPOWER RESOURCES

Hydropower resources depend on the discharge and gross head. Discharge from the river
networks provides the fuel to the hydropower plants. While gross head or elevation difference
provides kinetic and potential energy to create water pressure driving the turbine.

2.1 Water flow cycle

The water flow cycle (Figure 1) illustrates the continuous movement of water below, on and
above the surface of the earth as described in Kuchment (2004) and Winter at al. (1998). Water is
stored in the lakes and oceans or as underground water. Lakes and oceans are both heated by sun to
form a water vapour. Then, water vapour condenses and precipitates in the forms of rain or snow
back to the earth surface as the surface runoff, added to the river networks (Pagano and Sorooshian,
2002).

Figure 1. Hydrological cycle showing water moving system (WC, 2017)

Most rivers obtained water from both surface runoff and groundwater discharge. Rivers are
enormously diverse in size, geometry, substrate, sediment type and stage of development. Also,
rivers are affected by the climate conditions. The discharge of river is the volume of water passing
through a given cross-section area at a given time as expressed in equation 1 (Lajqi et al., 2016).

Q=V⋅A (1)

where Q stands for discharge, V stands for mean velocity and A stands for cross-sectional area.
Water Utility Journal 18 (2018) 23

The cross-sectional area of river is estimated by multiplying the average water depth (D) and
width (W). The average depth and width variables are presented in Figure 2. Also, these variables
are described by using the equation (2) and measured by using a graduated ruler or tape measure
(Gordon et al., 2004).
O+D1 +D2 +D3 +D4 +D5 +D6 +D7 +O
A = W * D, D = (2)
9

Figure 2. A sectional view of river showing width and water depth (Gordon et al., 2004)

2.2 Gross head

The vertical height between the downstream at the hydropower house and upstream at the intake
point along the river is called the gross head. The gross head sometimes is called an elevation
difference. The gross head can either be resulting from natural or artificial elevated gradients from
the intake point to hydropower house as discussed below:
a) Natural elevated gradient: Water is diverted from the main channel at the upstream through
a series of penstock pipes to reach the turbine installed at the hydropower house before
returning to the river as presented in Figure 3. This method is commonly employed by the
RoR hydropower plants. It is mostly used in small-scale hydropower plants and
characterized with low cost and environmental friendliness (Modal et al., 2014). The RoR
hydropower plant can either be connected with canal, forebay and penstock or only penstock
connected between forebay and hydropower house. Forebay used to provide the short-term
water storage and sediment settlement as well as to dampen the surge oscillations due to
load changes or rapid opening and closure of turbine inlet (Neyshabouri and Naser, 2002).

Figure 3. Natural elevated gradient with canal, forebay and penstock (PA, 2017)
24 O.J. Mdee et al.

b) Artificial elevated gradient: It involves the use of barrage or dam to create a reservoir. The
barrage or tunnel connected with penstock to reach the turbine inlet. The barrage is usually
used to hold back water partially or fully to create a hydropower house. Figure 4(a) shows
the hydropower house as a part of diversion structure, while Figure 4(b) presents
hydropower house on the diversion channel (WRE, 2008). Again, the construction of dam
provides access to holding back water and creates a large water reservoir as the storage
facility (HPWU, 2017). However, the dam is connected with a tunnel or underground
penstock used to create the artificial elevated gradient for reaching the turbine inlet. Figure
5(a) presents the dam with a short tunnel (OEERE, 2017) and Figure 5(b) shows the dam
with horizontal tunnel and inclined penstock (WRE, 2008).

(a) (b)

Figure 4. Artificial elevated gradient with hydropower house (a) as a part of diversion structure and (b) on the
diversion channel (WRE, 2008)

(a) (b)

Figure 5. Artificial elevated gradient for hydropower house with dam and (a) short tunnel (b) horizontal tunnel
connected with inclined penstock (OEERE, 2017; WRE, 2008)

Another type of artificial elevated gradient consists of two reservoirs with water bodies. One
is elevated than the other connected with two tunnels as presented in Figure 6. One tunnel is
connected to the turbine and operated during the high demand of electricity and another
tunnel is connected to pump for returning water to the upstream reservoir (Boysen, 2010).
This tunnel system is constructed underground and employed by the pumped storage
hydropower plant.

3. HYDROPOWER ASSESSMENT TOOLS

Hydropower is determined by using the available gross head and river discharge as presented in
equation (3). Whereby Q is the usable flow rate in m3/s; H is gross head height minus losses in m; g
Water Utility Journal 18 (2018) 25

is gravitational acceleration (9.81m/s2); ρ is the density of water, assumed to be 1000kg/m3 and η is

the turbine efficiency.

Pt = ρgQHη (3)

Figure 6. Tunnel for pumped storage hydropower plant (PSHP, 2017)

Each hydropower site has the unique variables that need to be assessed (ICEDSC, 2014). The
assessment variables are applied to estimate the hydropower resources as presented in Table 1 and
described in Moldoveanu et al. (2017), ECREEE (2016), ESMAP (2015), Khan at al. (2014), BHA
(2010), Kurse at al. (2010), Dudhani at al. (2006) and Carroll at al. (2004). Each variable has the
significant percentage to have the sustainable hydropower plant. The main variables that are used to
estimate the hydropower resources include gross head and discharge. Other variables include
infrastructure, parameters of energy demand and constraints factors are applied to find the possible
potential of hydropower resources.

Table 1. List of assessment variables and factors

1. Main Parameters 2. Parameters of energy demand
a. Hydrological data, i.e., mean annual rainfall and flow a. Number of households
rate b. Industries activities
b. Topographical map / Digital Elevation Model (DEM) c. Agricultural activities
c. Rivers and Lakes d. Entrepreneurial activities

3. Infrastructure 4. Constraint Factors

a. Power system - existing and ongoing of hydro and a. Land cover
thermal plants b. Soil features and erosion condition
b. Transportation network-roads, rails and airports c. Seismic information
c. Transmission and distribution networks - grid d. National parks and game reserves
connected and off-grid connected areas, voltage level, e. Environmental factors
etc. f. Any uncertainties

The assessment tools are used to estimate the hydropower resources for the given location during
feasibility stage. Zhang at al. (2013) classified the assessment tools of hydropower resources based
on the factors like accessibility, applicable in the regions, countries or individual sites, GIS-based or
conventional method, power and energy estimation, costing, economic evaluation, preliminary
design, proximity information and environmental attributes. The potential of hydropower is
presented in terms of interactive web-based and intended to the specific country are grouped either
on open access or commercial-based tools. The open access assessment tools include Rapid
Hydropower Assessment Model (RHAM) tool (KWLCE, 2017), Norwegian Water and Energy
Directorate (NVE) Atlas (NVE, 2017) and Virtual Hydropower Prospector (VHP) tool (VHP,
2017). Another one is the commercial-based assessment tool like Hydrobot tool (Hydrobot, 2017).
26 O.J. Mdee et al.

The assessment tools also used to assess the potential of hydropower in terms of energy and
financial analysis. The open access assessment tools with the main input variables and output
features are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. Summary of open access hydropower assessment tools

Assessment tools Operating system Input variables Output features

SMART MINI-IDRO (Peviani
et al., 2011)
Integrated Method for Power
Analysis IMP 5.0 (IMP, 2017)
Renewable Energy Technology
Screen tool (RETScreen, 2017)
VIPIDRO ASTE 4.0 (SM-SEE,
2017)
Microsoft Excel 2003
Window XP or Virtual XP
iii. Price list of hydropower
Microsoft Excel, Windows 7-
10, Vista SP2 and NET
Framework 4.6 or higher
ESRI ArcInfo GIS, Spatial
analyst and Microsoft Excel
i. Discharge based on the i. Power curve
flow duration curve ii. Energy estimation
ii. Gross head and losses iii. Financial analysis
components and interest
rate
iv. Residual flow based on the
environmental factor

Furthermore, there are assessment tools used to select the type of turbine and estimates its cost.
The assessment tools are used head and flow rate as presented in Table 3. The tools are online web-
based using the chart presented in Figure 7 to find the proper size of turbine for given hydropower
site.
Table 3. Open access tools for turbine selection
S/N Software tool Gross head and losses Flow rate Turbine cost
1 Hydromatch (Hydromatch, 2017) √ √ √
2 HRET (HRET, 2017) √ √ √
3 Hydrohelp 1.4 (Hydrohelp, 2017) √ √ √

4. MEASUREMENT METHODS
This section discussed the methods used to measure the discharge and gross head. The discharge
measurement methods are described in section 4.1 while the gross head measurement methods are
described in section 4.2.

4.1 Discharge measurement

Several techniques are available for river flow measurement including conventional and
advanced methods. The methods used to measure the water flow velocity, cross-sectional area and
flow rate. Conventional methods used to measure the flow rate for potential hydropower site are
simple and easy to use. But, it has low accuracy and applied only to measure low flow rate. The
advanced method is used to measure high flow rate with the high level of accuracy. The flow
duration curve provides a convenient means for studying the flow characteristics of river or stream.
The flow within the ranges of 70 - 99% time exceeded is usually most widely used as design low
flow rate (Smakhtin, 2001). The following are the methods used to measure the flow rate.

4.1.1 Bucket method

The bucket method is based on the capturing of all water flowing in the river and diverted to the
container or bucket over the time interval. The bucket method used to measure the flow up to 15l/s
(FESSR, 2016). The procedure involves the bucket of choice and collects the water for time taken
to fill it as presented in Figure 8. The bucket should then quickly be removed from the river and
stop recording the time. Water fetched in the bucket is gently dumped into the measuring cylinder.
Water Utility Journal 18 (2018) 27

The ratio of volume of water collected over time has taken is equal to the flow rate. This process
should be repeated to two or three times and recorded on the data sheet (Kazyak et al., 2015). It
requires a stopwatch, a large bucket, and preferably two to three assistants.

Pelton
1000 Crossflow
Francis
Kaplan
Multi-stage radial flow PAT
Radial flow PAT
Mixed flow PAT
Axial flow PAT
Double entry flow PAT
Archimedes screw
100 Bevel Bulb
Nautilus
Banki
Head, m

10

1 Flow rate, m3/s

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Figure 7. Typical performance range of the turbine selection adapted from DHP (2017), HRET (2017)
and Chapallaz et al. (1992)

4.1.2 Float method

The float method is the simple method used to measure the velocity and flow rate in a river by
putting a floating object just beneath to reach a specified distance. The time taken for float object to
travel from point A1 to A2 is recorded over a known distance (L) to calculate the surface velocity as
presented in Figure 9. Also, water depth and stream width are measured by using a graduated ruler
at the same width interval. Repeating the float measurement at various constant distance intervals,
will give the average water depth and stream width; when multiplied with the constant divided by
time taken, to get the average flow rate. The constant values varied with the degree of roughness of
the river at the bottom such as for sand or mud, constant is 0.9; for coarse gravel or loose rock is 0.8
(DME, 2016; Hooper and Kohler, 2000). But, the method is much more affected by wind and flow
direction (Hooper and Kohler, 2000).
28 O.J. Mdee et al.

Figure 8. Bucket water and stopwatch for flow rate measurement (Hamilton, 1998)

Figure 9. Flow rate measurement by using float method (GESSF, 2014)

4.1.3 Dilution method

The dilution method used in rivers where turbulent flow or non-uniform channel shape are
present (Gravelle, 2015). Dilution method has been used many years to measure flow rate by using
chemical tracers (Fanget et al., 2009). The dilution method involves the injection of a tracer into a
river and travel at a given distance to get the complete mixing with water. Tracer substance involves
the use of chemicals, fluorescent, or radioactive materials. However, the most commonly used is
sodium chloride, in the form of common salt. The salt is less expensive, easily available and quick
dissolved into water. The amount of tracer used largely depends on the length of the reach measured
and the volume of water it contains. Although in natural water with low background conductivity,
0.2kg of salt per 1 m3/s is considered enough (Herschy, 1995). Using the continuous injection
technique in the steady state flow of the river, flow rate is calculated by using equation (4) (Shaw,
1994). Where co is the background concentration already present in the water, c1 is the known
concentration of tracer added at a constant rate (q), and c2 is the final concentration of tracer in the
flow injected at A1 and A2 as presented in Figure 9.

C1 −C2
Q= ∗q (4)
C2 −C0

Furthermore, tracer substance injected into a stream at a defined rate, q(l/s) and become
uniformly mixed across the stream at some distance below the injection point as a result of turbulent
Water Utility Journal 18 (2018) 29

flow. When enough time has elapsed, an equilibrium state developed, where the relative
concentration, RCes of the tracer in the stream is measured and linearly related to the electrical
conductivity, EC (µs/m). The flow rate of the stream is calculated as presented in equation (5)
where subscript bs and ss stand for electrical conductivity in the background prior to injection. K is
the proportionality constant derived from the graph of RC against EC. The computation of the
stream flow rate requires knowledge of the rate of injection to be constant, fully dissolved and
mixed (Moore, 2004; WMO, 2008).
q
Q= (5)
k ESss −ECbs

However, the effectiveness of dilution method is reduced where there is either inflow of water
into or abstraction of water. Either of these occurrences will result in loss or excessive dilution of
the tracer being used (Herschy, 1995). Dead water zones or infiltration of the tracer into pathways
may have a similar effect, preventing the tracer from reaching the sampling location (Moore, 2004).

4.1.4 Velocity-area method

The most commonly used techniques to measure velocity include the velocity distribution, 0.6
depth, two-point and three-point methods (Gravelle, 2015). The velocity distribution method
involves measurements being taken at a number of vertical sections distributed across a river
channel (Gordon et al., 2004). The velocity distribution method involves taking the vertical flow
velocity and water depth at the several points between the riverbed and water surface. The
increments depth ranges between 0.1 and 0.9. The vertical flow velocity data were plotted against
water depth to estimate the curved area. Mean velocity is obtained by dividing the area beneath the
curve with the water depth. Also, 0.6 depth method involves measurements being taken at a single
point at each vertical section, the value is assumed to be the mean velocity for that vertical section.
The two-point method involves measurements being taken at 20% and 80% of water depth at each
vertical section, similar to the 0.6 depth method. The three-point method is effective and takes the
control of 0.6 depth, and two-point method, requiring measurements at each of the three depths and
more details are described in WMO (2008). The river cross-sectional area and wetted perimeter are
grouped as presented in Table 4.

Table 4. River/stream shape, cross-sectional area and wetted perimeter formula (Michaud and Wierenga, 2005)
Shape Diagrams Wetted perimeter, WP Cross-sectional area, A

Circle WP = 2π*r, r is the radius A = π*r2

WP = 2*H*(1+ W2)0.5,
Triangle H is the height and W is the width A = W*H2

Rectangle WP = W+2*H A = W*H

Trapezoid WP = T2+(2*H)* (1+W2)0.5, A = [T2+ (W*H)]*H

(equal side slopes) T is the river width
30 O.J. Mdee et al.

4.1.5 Advanced measurement methods

The advanced methods for measuring the discharge are illustrated in Table 5.

Table 5. Advanced methods for flow rate measurement

S/N Instrument Description
1 Price AA and Pygmy i. The number of revolutions of bucket wheel over a given period of time used to determine
Current Meters the velocity (FCM, 2001). The standard rating table for each Pygmy meter is provided by
manufacturer to read the number of revolutions per seconds with respect to flow velocity.
Also, standard rating table is described in Hubbard at al. (2001).
ii. Recommended flow velocity to use the current meter range from 0.1 to 12m/s
(Thibodeaux, 2007; Fulford et al., 1994).
2 Hydraulic Structure i. Two hydraulic structure methods include weir and flume are discussed. A weir is an
obstruction in an open channel which tightens the flow and causes it to fall over a crest
(Piratheepan et al., 2007).
ii. Various types of weir are available including triangular or V-Notch, rectangular, and
trapezoidal together with their empirical equations in Adkins (2006).
iii. Most common flume is the Parshall flume with parameter dimensions as illustrated in
SGEA (1998) and Hamilton (1998). A single measurement of water surface level in or
near the restriction of hydraulic structure and empirical equations used to estimate the flow
rate up to 150l/s are described in FESSR (2016).
3 Slope-area Manning i. The flow rate calculated depends on the surface slope, cross-sectional area and wetted
perimeter over a length of uniform section channel. The method depends on
the Manning factor n values.
ii. The manning n values depend on straight uniform channels, cross-sectional area
irregularity, variety of channels, relative effect of obstructions, type and density of
vegetation and the degree of meandering. More detail discussed in Seybert (2006) and
Douglas (1997).
iii. It is mostly used after floods to estimate the flow rate.
4 Electromagnetic flow i. Faraday attempted to determine the flow velocity of the river Thames in 1832 by
meter measuring the voltage induced in flowing water with the earth’s magnetic field
(Lipscombe et al., 2014; Kopp and Liptak, 1993).
ii. The induced voltage in the electromagnetic flow meter depends on the magnetic field
strength, mean flow velocity and tube diameter. The induced voltage is picked up to signal
sensor converter for digital recording data or measured flow velocity is multiplied with
diameter to obtain the flow rate.
5 Ultrasonic device i. Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) technologies attached to moving boats
(Chauhan et al., 2015; Muste, 2012).
ii. During the traverse of a boat across the stream, a sonic sounder records the profile of the
cross-section and a continuously operating current meter senses the combined stream and
boat velocities (Bialik et al., 2014).
iii. The ADCP uses the Doppler effect principle of sending a sound pulse into the water and
reflected back by sediment or other particulates to determine the change of frequency,
which is then translated into water velocity (WSS, 2016).

4.1.6 Indirect flow rate measurement

The indirect flow rate measurement is commonly applied to the ungauged catchment. The flow
rate in the ungauged catchments is measured by using rainfall-runoff models, catchment area ratio,
stage-discharge relationship, regression and spatial interpolation techniques. Flow rate measurement
by using the rainfall-runoff models is described in Chea and Oeurng (2017), Mdee (2015) and Post
and Jakeman (1999). The area-ratio method is applied when the ungauged catchment is nearby the
gauged catchment and assumed two catchments must have similar hydrological conditions in terms
of topography, geomorphology, lithology and land-use. Then, the mean annual flow of ungauged
catchment is equal to the ratio of ungauged and gauged catchment area multiplied with the mean
annual flow of gauged catchment (Mrope and Kihedu, 2014; Mohamoud, 2008).
The catchment area ratio can have an exponent constant value to regulate the effect of rainfall
intensity and natural storage. The exponent constant values range from 0.5 to 0.85 (McMahon et al.,
2002). The periodic measurements of stage and discharge data are used to plot the rating curve. The
water level is recorded in the ungauged river and used in the rating curve to estimate the flow rate
(Braca, 2008). The regional regression method is used in the delineating hydrological homogeneous
Water Utility Journal 18 (2018) 31

regions based on catchment characteristics to estimate the flow rate (Grandry et al., 2013).
Catchment characteristics of the ungauged and gauged river depend on the area, elevation, main
stream length, slope, stream frequency, drainage density, proportion of catchment area under
various soil types, geological formations, land cover and geographical location (Mazvimavi, 2003).
The regression approach involves the use of catchment area and slope-area methods (McMahon et
al., 2002). Other methods include the use of time-series simulation, regional prediction curves, or
spatial interpolation as described in Smakhtin (2001).

4.2 Gross head measurement

The measurement methods included the use of topographic, DEM map, hose level and pressure
gauge, sight and spirit levels, altimeter, hypsometer, clinometer, theodolites and total stations to
estimate the gross head as described below;

4.2.1 Topographical map

The topographic map used to give an idea of the vertical drop along the river. The gross head
calculated by taking the difference of the contour lines between point A and B as presented in
Figure 10. The points A and B are presented the contour line located at the proposed intake and
hydropower house. This method is mostly used during desk work studies (Wali, 2013). The
topographic map that is commonly used with the scale of 1:50,000. The scale presents 1cm on the
map equals to 0.5km on the ground (Klunne, 2016). Contour lines in topographic maps are
imaginary lines that connect points of equal elevation above mean sea level.

River
River

1:
1: 2400
2400

Figure 10. Topographic map showing contours lines and river (WCM, 2017)

4.2.2 DEM map

DEM raster map is processed by using GIS software to determine the gross head from intake to
hydropower house by using spatial analyst tool. The method practices the similar procedures like
the way of using a topographic map and mostly used during desk work studies (Meijer et al., 2012).
The USGS has started to distribute global Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) elevation
data at 1arc-second approximately to 30m by 30m cell size resolution and more data is obtained in
USGS (2017).

4.2.3 Hose level

The hose is filled with water and one end is located at the uphill and another at the downhill. The
32 O.J. Mdee et al.

method requires a graduated ruler, hose and water. Height, H1 and H2 were measured by using a
graduated ruler to get the gross head as presented in Figure 11. The height difference is taken when
two ends of hose are in equilibrium. Repeat the steps downhill or uphill to reach the intake or
hydropower house. It is fairly accurate and mostly used in low head hydropower sites (NREL,
2001). The small hose diameter is mostly used with a length of 6 to 9m (ES, 2017).

Figure 11. Gross head measurement by using hose filled with water and graduated ruler (HPB, 2010)

4.2.4 Hose with pressure gauge

The elevation difference is measured by taking one end of the hose filled with water at the uphill
and another end is connected with a pressure gauge and located downhill as presented in Figure 12.
Then, record the pressure gauge difference for each step and calculate the gross head as shown in
equation (6). It consists of hose, pressure gauge and water (New, 2004).

Figure 12. Hose filled with water and pressure gauge for gross head measurement (SHMH, 2009)

4.2.5 Spirit level

The spirit level method required to propose the location of hydropower house to intake point.
The route between the hydropower house and intake point is marked as R1 to R6 as presented in
Figure 13. One end of spirit level is fixed at the mid of graduated rod R1 and R3 levelled to measure
Water Utility Journal 18 (2018) 33

height h1 and h2. Again, the spirit level located at the mid of rod R3 and R5 to measure h3 and h4.
Then, positioned at the mid of rod, R5 and R6 to measure h5 and h6. The total gross head is
expressed in equation (7) and the total error is generally around 2% (Singh, 2009).

Gross head = h1 - h2 +h3 - h4 +h5 - h6 (7)

R
R55 Spirit
Spirit R
R66
level
level Intake
Intake
R
R33 Spirit
Spirit hh66
R Spirit
Spirit level
level hh55
R11
level
level hh44
hh33
hh22
hh11 R
R
Hydropower Bubble
Bubble
plant levelled
levelled

Spirit
Spirit level
level

Figure 13. Spirit level method used for measuring the gross head (Boninella, 2015)

4.2.6 Sight level

The gross head is measured by a shooter with level directed a signal to a graduated ruler located
downhill as presented in Figure 14(a) or shooter with level directed a signal to the leg of an assistant
located uphill as presented in Figure 14(b) (WNCREI, 2007). Record the height and shooter moved
to the location of the graduated ruler, as well as the assistant moved further downhill or uphill. For
downhill, subtract the height of sight level from graduated ruler to determine gross head; for uphill
measurement, add the head of leg 1 and leg 2 to get the first gross head. Repeat to record each step
between the intake and hydropower house to get the gross head. The error is between 2 and 10%
and depends upon the skills of the user (Singh, 2009).

Figure 14a. Gross head measurement by using a sight level with downhill approach (New, 2004)
34 O.J. Mdee et al.

Figure 14b. Gross head measurement by using a sight level with uphill approach (New, 2004)

4.2.7 Advanced methods for gross head measurement

The advanced methods used to measure the gross head are illustrated in Table 6.

Table 6. Advanced methods for gross head measurement

S/N Instrument Description
i. It works by using the change of atmospheric pressure with the head of 9mm of
mercury for every 100m (von Flotow, 2012).
1 Altimeter ii. The principle of the altimeter and sources of error are described in Jackson and
Crocker (1999).
iii. Surveying altimeter gives errors of less than 3% in 100m (Singh, 2009) or
accuracy in gross head measurement of ±5m (Maher et al., 1998).
i. Hypsometer is a device used to measure the height above sea level or elevation
difference.
2 Hypsometer ii. It requires the shooter with hypsometer directed to the reflection device to
measure the elevation.
iii. It provides fairly accurate when used correctly and used the principle of
trigonometric (NRC, 2004).
i. It measures the gross head with respect to gravity. By holding the instrument to
the eyes and targeted to the uphill within the zone of visibility.
3 Clinometer/ ii. It measures the horizontal distance, percentage values to reach the uphill and
Inclinometer downhill. Elevation difference is obtained by multiplying the horizontal distance
and subtraction of percentages (Vongsay and Bounsou, 2013).
i. It is the most accurate survey instruments and consists of a pole with a prism,
4 Theodolites and tripod, computer interface, batteries and radio.
Total Stations ii. The control points are required before taking measurements.
iii. It needs the skills and knowledge of surveying to operate the instrument (Wagner
et al., 2015; SSRRL, 2010).

4.3 Penstock length

The penstock pipes are arranged down to cover the distance from the intake to hydropower
house. The penstock pipe connected between the two points is not only conveying water to the
turbine, but is also creating head pressure with increasing vertical drop. The length of a penstock
depends upon the topography and the distance of hydropower house and intake point as presented in
Figure 15. The gradient of river is determined by measuring a section of a river and dividing the
Water Utility Journal 18 (2018) 35

distance into the vertical difference between the two points of contour lines (UTP, 2017). Penstock
length depends on the vertical angle (α), head (Z), horizontal distance (Hr) as shown in equation 8.
Both, horizontal distance and elevation difference were measured by using section methods
presented in section 4.2. Also, the distance between the intake and hydropower house is reduced by
making the longer channel or canal with shorter enclosed plastic, timber or iron pipe to reach the
hydropower house (Gatte and Kadhim, 2012).
H H
Pl = sinrα , α = tan-1 Zr (8)

Figure 15. Hydropower site showing penstock length (ES, 2017)

5. CONCLUSIONS

This paper presented the measurement methods applied during hydropower resources
development. The assessment variables include the gross head and discharge, parameters of energy
demand, infrastructure, constraint factors and environmental issues. Also, the paper indicated the
natural and artificial elevated gradient techniques used to define the gross head of the specific
hydropower plant. The field methods used to measure the gross head include topographic and DEM
maps, hose level with pressure gauge, sight level and spirit level. Nevertheless, the correct and
expensive methods of measuring gross head include an altimeter, hypsometer, clinometers,
theodolites and total stations. This paper also discussed the field methods used to measure the flow
rate include bucket, float, velocity-area, dilution and hydraulic structure as applied in the low flow
measurement. These methods are cheap and easy to use compared to the methods applied to
measure the high flow rate. The methods used to measure medium to high flow rate include current
meters, electromagnetic and ultrasonic. Therefore, this review paper presented the assessment tools
used to estimate the hydropower resources and common methods available for measuring the gross
head and discharge.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is part of ongoing PhD research work and supported by NORAD under Energy and
Petroleum (EnPe) Programme at the University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM), Tanzania and the
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway.

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