English Book-Communication and Entrepreneurship Skills

ENGLISH BOOK
FOR SECONDARY STUDENTS
COMMUNICATION AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP SKILLS
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................... i

Introduction ........................................................................................................................ iv
Course Description......................................................................................................... iv
Course Objectives ........................................................................................................... v
Delivery Methodology .................................................................................................. vii
CHAPTER ONE: PARTS OF SPEECH ............................................................................ 1
1.1 Noun.......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1: Types of nouns: ................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Verb........................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Adjective ................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.1 Kinds of Adjectives............................................................................................ 2
1.4 Adverb....................................................................................................................... 3
1.4.1 Kinds of adverbs: ............................................................................................... 3
1.5 Pronoun ..................................................................................................................... 4
1.6 Conjunction ............................................................................................................... 4
1.7 Preposition ................................................................................................................ 4
1.7.1 Some selected prepositions (use) ....................................................................... 4
1.8 Interjection ................................................................................................................ 6
1.9 Article ....................................................................................................................... 6
1.10 Revision Questions for Chapter One .......................................................................... 6
CHAPTER TWO: SENTENCE REVIEW ......................................................................... 8
2.1 Kinds of sentences (according to use) ...................................................................... 8
2.2 Classification of sentences according to structure .................................................... 9
2.3 Revision Questions for Chapter Two .......................................................................... 11
CHAPTER THREE: TENSES.......................................................................................... 12
3.1 Simple Present Tense or Present Indefinite ............................................................ 12
3.2 Present Continuous or Present Progressive Tense .................................................. 13
3.3 Present Perfect Tense: ............................................................................................. 14
3.4 Present Perfect Continuous Tense: ......................................................................... 14
3.5 Simple Past Tense or Past Indefinite ...................................................................... 15
3.6 Past Continuous or Past Progressive Tense ............................................................ 15
3.7 Past Perfect Tense: .................................................................................................. 16
3.8 Past Perfect Continuous Tense: .............................................................................. 17
3.9 Simple Future Tense or Future Indefinite ............................................................... 17
3.10 Future Continuous or Future Progressive Tense ................................................... 18
3.11 Future Perfect Tense: ............................................................................................ 18
3.12 Future Perfect Continuous Tense: ......................................................................... 19
4.0 Revision Questions for Chapter Three ........................................................................ 19
CHAPTER FOUR: ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE .................................................... 21
4.1 Active and Passive voice in Simple Present Tense (examples) .............................. 21
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4.2 Active and Passive voice in Present Continuous Tense (examples) ....................... 21
4.3 Active and Passive voice in Present Perfect Tense (examples) .............................. 22
4.4 Active and Passive voice in Simple Past Tense (examples) ................................... 22
4.5 Active and Passive voice in Past Continuous Tense (examples) ............................ 22
4.6 Active and Passive voice in Past Perfect Tense (examples) ................................... 22
4.7 Active and Passive voice in Simple Future Tense (examples) ............................... 23
4.8 Active and Passive voice in Future Perfect Tense (examples) ............................... 23
4.9 Revision Questions for Chapter Four ......................................................................... 23
CHAPTER FIVE: QUESTION TAGS AND SHORT ANSWERS ................................. 25
5.1 Examples in positive statement:.............................................................................. 25
5.2 Examples in negative statement: ............................................................................. 25
5.3 Short Answers ......................................................................................................... 25
5.4 Revision Questions for Chapter Five .......................................................................... 26
CHAPTER SIX: PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION RULES ........................ 28
6.1 Period ...................................................................................................................... 28
6.2 Question Mark ........................................................................................................ 28
6.3 Comma .................................................................................................................... 28
6.4 Quotation Marks ..................................................................................................... 29
6.5 Capitalization Rules ................................................................................................ 29
6.6 Revision Questions for Chapter Six ............................................................................ 30
CHAPTER SEVEN: ERRORS IN SENTENCES ............................................................ 32
7.1 Sentence fragment ................................................................................................... 32
7.2 Misplaced Period .................................................................................................... 32
7.3 Incomplete Sentence. .............................................................................................. 32
7.4 Comma splice (Comma Fault or Run-on). .............................................................. 32
7.5 Fused sentences. ...................................................................................................... 32
7.6 Overloaded sentence. .............................................................................................. 33
7.6.1 Overloaded Grammatical Structure. ................................................................ 33
7.6.2 Too Many Ideas. .............................................................................................. 33
7.7 Mixed construction. ................................................................................................ 33
7.7.1 General Mixed Constructions .......................................................................... 33
7.7.2 "This-is-when" Construction. .......................................................................... 33
7.7.3 "Reason-is-because" Construction. .................................................................. 33
7.7.4 Doubled Preposition......................................................................................... 33
7.7.5 Faulty parallelism............................................................................................. 34
7.8 Revision Questions for Chapter Seven ....................................................................... 34
CHAPTER EIGHT: WRITING SKILLS ......................................................................... 35
8.1 Strategies to Succeed in Writing ............................................................................. 35
8.2 Paragraph Development .......................................................................................... 35
8.2.1 What is a paragraph? ........................................................................................ 35
8.2.2 How to Write a Paragraph................................................................................ 35
8.2.2.1 Prewriting a Paragraph .............................................................................. 35
8.2.2.2 Writing a Paragraph .................................................................................. 36
8.2.2.3 Editing a Paragraph ................................................................................... 36
8.3 Transitional Signals ................................................................................................ 36
8.3.1 Words that Show Addition............................................................................... 36
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8.3.2 Words that Show Time .................................................................................... 37
8.3.3 Words that Show Contrast ............................................................................... 37
8.3.4 Word that Show Comparison ........................................................................... 37
8.3.5 Words that Show Illustration ........................................................................... 37
8.3.6 Words that Show Location............................................................................... 37
8.3.7 Words that Show Cause and Effect ................................................................. 37
8.3.8 Words that Summarize or Conclude ................................................................ 37
8.4 Revision Questions for Chapter Eight ........................................................................ 38
CHAPTER NINE: REPORT WRITING .......................................................................... 39
9.1 What is a report? ..................................................................................................... 39
9.2 Types of reports ...................................................................................................... 39
9.3 Characteristics of a good report .............................................................................. 39
9.4: Report writing stages ............................................................................................. 40
9.4.1 Defining Your Aim .......................................................................................... 40
9.4.2 Collecting & Selecting Your Ideas .................................................................. 40
9.4.4 Structuring the Document ................................................................................ 41
9.5 Format of a field/research report............................................................................. 41
9.6 Revision Questions for Chapter Nine ......................................................................... 43
CHAPTER TEN: ENTREPRENEURSHIP CONCEPT ................................................. 44
10.1 Historical background ........................................................................................... 44
10.2 Definition of Entrepreneur today .......................................................................... 45
10.3 Intrapreneurship .................................................................................................... 45
10.4 Is an entrepreneur born or made?.......................................................................... 46
10.5 General Entreprising Tendencies/Traits [GETs] .................................................. 46
10.6 How can ‘GETs’ be developed? ........................................................................... 47
10.7 Types of skills required in Entrepreneruship ........................................................ 48
10.8: Comparison of Traditional Managers And Entrepreneurs ................................... 48
10.9 Revision Questions for Chapter Ten ......................................................................... 49
CHAPTER ELEVEN: FAMILY BUSINESS AND SUCCESSION ............................... 50
11.1: What is a Family Business? ................................................................................. 50
11.2 Advantages of Family Business ............................................................................ 50
11.3 Dangers/Disadvantages of Family Business ......................................................... 51
11.4: Copreneurs: .......................................................................................................... 51
11.5 Requirements for a successful Copreneurship ...................................................... 51
11.6 Succession Planning in Family Businesses........................................................... 52
11.6.1 Choosing the successor: ................................................................................. 52
11.6.2 Necessary qualities of a good successor ........................................................ 53
11.7 Why many businesses die with founders? ............................................................ 53
11.8 Revision Questions for Chapter Eleven .................................................................... 53
APPENDIX A: Instructors Teaching Plan for Communication and Entrepreneurship
skills Course-[CIT 04102] ................................................................................................ 55
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Introduction
Course Description
Communication and Entrepreneurship course allows students in an almost unlimited way

to combine words to create new sentences. Being able to use the English language
competently will help students to improve their listening, speaking, writing, and reading
skills.
This course will give students intermediate practice with sentence completion and error
correction items, both of which represent common structures found in conversational,
professional, and academic English settings. Consequently, mastering the subject material
in this course will allow students to use English more fluently when communicating with
other English speakers, when using English at a job, and when using English in an
academic environment.
The second part of the course covers Entrepreneurship concepts. Students will be able to
appreciate historical background of entrepreneurship, understand the General
Enterprising Traits (GETs) and learn how Family Businesses operate. Having said that,
let us now discuss briefly the coverage of each particular chapter.
Chapter One covers Parts of Speech. It's quite important to recognize parts of speech.
This will help students to understand, construct and analyze sentences and understand
them.
Chapter Two discusses Sentence Structure. It covers simple, compound, complex and
Compound-Complex sentences. It also classifies sentences according to ‘use’.
Chapter Three discusses Tenses. This includes Present, Past and Future Tenses.
Chapter Four focus on Active and Passive voice. Sufficient examples are provided to
enable students understand how to convert sentences from Active to passive voice and its
vice versa.
Chapter Five cover Question Tags and Short answers.
Chapter Six discusses Punctuation and Capitalization rules. This chapter will enable
students improve their writing skills.
Chapter Seven discusses Common Sentence in sentences.

Chapter Eight discusses Writing Skills particularly construction of paragraphs.
Chapter Nine focuses on Report Writing. This will enlighten students on how to write
good reports.
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Chapter Ten discusses Historical Background of Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurship
concept in general.
Chapter Eleven focuses on Family Business and Succession. This chapter will enlighten
students on how Family Businesses operate.
Course Objectives
The manual is designed to ensure that learning objectives are met by a student for each
chapter.
Chapter One Objectives

 Define Parts of Speech.
 Classify various words in appropriate Parts of Speech
 Noun: types of nouns
 Adjective: kinds of adjectives
 Verb
 Adverb: kinds of adverbs
 Pronoun: kinds of pronouns
 Preposition: kinds of prepositions, Selected prepositions
 Conjunction
 Interjection
 Article
Chapter Two Objectives

 Classify sentences according to Structure
 Classify sentences according to ‘use’
Chapter Three Objectives
 Discuss Tenses
 Students to be able to convert sentences from one tense to the other
 Students to be able to construct sentences in correct tenses
Chapter Four Objectives

 Students to be able to convert sentences from Active to Passive voice
 Students to be able to convert sentences from Passive to Active voice
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Chapter Five Objectives
 Students to understand Question Tags and short answers
Chapter Six Objectives
 Students to understand punctuation marks
 Students to be able to punctuate sentences correctly
Chapter Seven Objectives

 Students to identify errors in sentences
 Students to be able to correct sentence errors.
Chapter Eight Objectives

 Students to acquire basic writing skills
 Students to understand how to construct paragraphs
 Students to understand transitional signals in writing.
Chapter Nine Objectives

 Students to acquire basic report writing skills
 Students to understand types of report
 Students to understand Format of a research/field report.
Chapter Ten Objectives

 Define Entrepreneurship concept
 Discuss the historical background of entrepreneurship
 Discuss General Entrepreneurship Traits (GETs)
 Discuss ways of developing/acquiring GETs
Chapter Eleven Objectives
 Define the Family Business concept
 Discuss Succession Planning in Family Business
 Discuss reasons as to why many ‘Family Businesses’ die with founders.
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Delivery Methodology
The course will mainly be delivered in form of lecturers in the classroom. Group works,
case studies and discussion groups will also be used to foster student understanding. The
manual is also designed such that one can follow the course at own time and pace.
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CHAPTER ONE: PARTS OF SPEECH
"Parts of speech" are the basic types of words that English has. Most grammar books say
that there are eight parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns,
conjunctions, prepositions and interjections. We will add one more type: articles.
It is important to be able to recognize and identify the different types of words in English,
so that you can understand grammar explanations and use the right word form in the right
place. Here is a brief explanation of what the parts of speech are:
1.1 Noun
A noun is a naming word. It names a person, place, thing, idea, living creature, quality, or
action. Examples; cowboy, theatre, box, thought, tree, kindness, arrival. of nouns:
1.1.1: Types of nouns:

There are different types of nouns that are used in grammar and composition in English.
They are distinguished on the basis of their nature and character.
i. Proper nouns: Is the name of a particular person, place, thing, etc.

EXAMPE: Kilimanjaro, Musa, dog, cow, house, radio, grass.
ii. Common noun: is a name given in common to every person or thing of

some class or kind. EXAMPLE: Girl, boy, prisoner, teacher, soldier, doctor,
student, etc
iii. Collective noun: Is a name of a number (or collection) of persons or things

considered as one. EXAMPLE; Class, team, army, choir, etc
iv. Material nouns: is the name of matter substance of which things are made.
EXAMPLE,wood, gold, iron, stone, rubber
v. Abstract noun: Is the name of something which we can neither see nor
touch, but we can only think of. EXAMPLE Honesty, Wisdom, love,
beauty, laziness, hate, happiness, truth etc
vi. Compound Nouns: Compound nouns are nouns made up of two or more
words. Some compound nouns are hyphenated. (This is covered in the
lesson Hyphens. E.g. Mother-in-law, Board of members, Court-martial,
Paper-clip
vii. Countable Nouns

Countable nouns are those that show its numerical status. As in, whether it is
single or plural.
viii. Mass /Uncountable Nouns

These nouns are the exact opposite of countable nouns. Hence, they are
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often known as uncountable nouns. Eg. We need to get them some water,
wood, information.
1.2 Verb
A verb is a word which describes an action (doing something) or a state (being
something). Examples:
walk, talk, think, believe, live, like, want
1.3 Adjective
An adjective is a word that describes a noun. It tells you something about the noun.
Examples:
big, yellow, thin, amazing, beautiful, quick, important
1.3.1 Kinds of Adjectives

1.3.1.1 Adjective of quality: describes what kind of a person or thing is. Example,
- White rose,
- red cat,
- a great scientist,
- a big city.
- The words white, red, great and big in the above sentences are adjectives
of quality
1.3.1.2 Adjectives of quantity: words that tell us ‘how much’ a thing is. Examples;
- I ate some chapati.
- James drank little milk.
- We have sufficient food
- He has much money.
- Word some, little, much, sufficient are adjective of quantity
1.3.1.3 Adjective of number: shows how many persons or things are meant; or in what
order a person or thing stand. Examples;
- Many people in Tanzania like football

- Monday is the second day of the week
- Few goats are ready for slaughtering
- The words many, second and few; are adjective of number.
1.3.1.4 Demonstrative adjectives: Words that point out which person or things are meant.
EXAMPLE:
- This girl is very beautiful
- These books are mine
- I love such girls
- That toy is mine.
- Words; this, these, such, that are demonstrative adjective in the above
sentences
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1.3.1.5 Interrogative adjective: Used for asking questions. Examples;
- Which pen is yours?
- What plans do you make?
- How many are you?
1.3.1.6 Possessive adjectives: show possession. examples;

- This is his book
- Those are their trees
- There are your shoes
1.4 Adverb
An adverb is a word which usually describes a verb. It tells you how something is done.
It may also tell you when or where something happened. Examples:
slowly, intelligently, well, yesterday, tomorrow, here, everywhere
There are 8 kinds of adverbs.
1.4.1 Kinds of adverbs:
1.4.1.1 Adverb of quality or state: They show how an action is done. EXAMPLES;
Wisely, foolishly, badly, quickly, fast, well, thus, nicely
1.4.1.2 Adverb of number: they show how often and in what order an action is done.
EXAMPLES; Never, often, once, seldom, again, always, twice, rather, thirdly,
frequently etc.
1.4.1.3 Adverb of degree: show to what extent a thing is done. EXAMPLES; Very, quite,
nearly, partly, completely, such, almost, hardly, entirely, fully etc
1.4.1.4 Adverb of time: They answer the question, ‘ when’. EXAMPLES; Daily,
yesterday, early, today, tomorrow, immediately, soon, etc
1.4.1.5 Adverb of place: They answer the question, ‘where,. EXAMPLES; Here, there,
backward, up, anywhere, elsewhere, far, near, etc
1.4.1.6 Relative adverb: they act as connectives in sentences. EXAMPLES;
- I know where she lives

- I don’t know why you failed
- He will see me when I come
1.4.1.7 Interrogative adverbs: Are used to ask questions like: How, where, why, when
1.4.1.8 Adverb of affirmation and negation: EXAMPLES;

- Affirmation words: yes, surely, certainly, truly
- Negation words: no, not, never
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1.5 Pronoun
A pronoun is used instead of a noun, to avoid repeating the noun. Examples:
I, you, he, she, it, we, they
1.6 Conjunction
A conjunction joins two words, phrases or sentences together. Examples:
but, and, because, or, not only …but also, neither...nor…, either…or…
1.7 Preposition
A preposition usually comes before a noun, pronoun or noun phrase. It joins the noun to
some other part of the sentence.
A Preposition is a word used to show the relation of a noun (or pronoun) to some other
word in a sentence. eg, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid, among, around,
at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, beyond, by, down, except,
for, from, in, into, of, off on, until, unto, up ..
Examples of simple prepositions: on, in, by, with, under, through, at, for, of, to, etc.
Examples of Complex prepositions: according to, apart from, because of, in spite of,
instead of, in accordance with, in order to, on top of, in comparison with, due to, along
with, with regards to, etc
1.7.1 Some selected prepositions (use)
Preposition Example
Abide by You must abide by the decisions of the instructor
According to According to the evidence, he stole the car.
Accused of The servant was accused of stealing a golden ring
Addicted to He is addicted to dinking
Adhere to You should adhere to school rules.
Afraid of Little children are afraid of dogs
Angry with My brother will be angry with me if I loss his pen.
Apologize for He apologized for arriving late.
Astonished at I was astonished at Juma’s failure
Beg for The hungry man begged for food
Beware of Beware of pick-pockets
Bless with God blessed the king with a prince
Busy with Students are busy with exams
Care for There was no one to care for the child after her parents
died.
Collide with The daladala bus collided with a cocacola truck
Compare with Compare a moon with a sun
Congratulate on I sent a telegram of congratulations on his wedding.
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Convinced of The judge was convinced of the guilt of the accused.
Deal in Musa deals in plastic goods
Deprived of He was deprived of his share
Desire for He has no desire for fame
Die of He died of malaria
Different from A hen is different from a pigeon
Eager to You look eager to go home early
Eligible for She is not eligible for the post
Escape from How could you escape from the locked room
Expert in Anna is expert in drawing
Fond of My little son is fond of chocolates
Free from I am free from this work
Gaze at I stand at the sea shore and gaze at the sea
Good at Juma is good at swimming
Guilty of Are you guilty of the theft or not?
Hope for Let us hope for the best
Ignorant of He is ignorant of the facts
Impressed of I was very impressed by his personality.
Interested in I am not interested in your work
Jealous of I am indeed jealous of your popularity.
Join with I will join with him in killing lion.
Knocked at The beggar knocked at the door.
Listen to Please listen to me.
Look at Why do you look at me
Married to Sita was married to Mary
Obedient to Be obedient to your parents.
Prefer to She prefers milk to tea.
Prevent from I tried to prevent the boys from quarreling
Repent for They repented for their mistakes
Similar to My pen is similar to yours
Suffer from He was suffering from malaria
Suitable for This film is suitable for children
Sympathy with Do you have sympathy with students who waste time?
Tired of I am tired of this job
Travel by We will travel by rail
Used to Jack is used to cycling
Wish for She wished for a long life
Write in I write letter in ink
Yield of We have an excellent yield of maize this year
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1.8 Interjection
An interjection is an unusual kind of word, because it often stands alone. Interjections are
words which express emotion or surprise, and they are usually followed by exclamation
marks. Examples:
Ouch!, Hello!, Hurray!, Oh no!, Ha!
1.9 Article
An article is used to introduce a noun. Examples: the, a, an
1.10 Revision Questions for Chapter One

1. With an example in each case, outline nine parts of speech.
2. With an example in each case, outline five types of nouns.
3. With an example in each case, outline eight types of adverbs.
4. Classify each word in the following sentences into appropriate parts of speech:
a. ‘Her beauty was for nothing, because she behaved and acted completely as a
professional prostitute’
b. ‘Bravo! A smart man is for a beautiful girl’
5. Fill in the blanks with suitable prepositions:

i. His dress is made………… cotton. [at. for, to, of ]
ii. The dog is suffering……….. rabies. [for, with, from, to]
iii. The teacher is pleased …………me [for, with, from, to]
iv. You have to knock ……….. the door. [at. for, in, to]
v. Students write exams……….ink [by, with, in, to]
vi. The King died………….cancer [at. for, to, of ]
vii. This school is suitable ………… my children [for, with, from, to]
viii. This room is full……………mosquitoes. [for, with, from, of]
ix. Ashok is waiting……………you. [for, with, from, of]
x. Masanja is not interested…………..singing. [at. for, in, to]
xi. The cheapest way to travel in town is ……….bus. [for, with, from, by]
xii. He is a man …………principles. [at. for, to, of ]
xiii. Don’t gossip………others [by, with, in, to]
xiv. I believe …………. fair play [at. for, in, to]
xv. Is your child good ……… diving. [at. for, to, of ]
xvi. Students must abide …………... examination rules [by, with, in, to]
xvii. We are afraid ………… bad weather [with, for, at, of]
xviii. Juma was eager ………. learn advanced mathematics [at. for, in, to]
xix. Little children prefer chocolate………..chapati [for, with, in, to]
xx. They were tired ……….waiting for something to happen [at. for, to, of ]
xxi. They have great desire……… success [for, with, of, in]
xxii. Does the president have sympathy …… citizens who commit crime? [at,
for, with, of ]
xxiii. Anna is fond………….. dancing [at, for, with, of ]
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xxiv. Why do you look ………….. me?
xxv. She was certain ……… her success.
xxvi. This film is suitable………children.
xxvii. Show respect………….your elders.
xxviii. He is a man …………principles.
xxix. The cheapest way to travel in town is ………….bus.
xxx. I believe …………. fair play.
xxxi. Is your child good ……… diving.
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CHAPTER TWO: SENTENCE REVIEW
A sentence is a group of words arranged to express a complete sense. Example:
- The girl is dancing in the room
- Do you want to read this book?
2.1 Kinds of sentences (according to use)
-There are five KINDS of sentences based on use:
 Assertive sentences
 Interrogative sentences
 Imperative sentences
 Exclamatory sentences
 Optative sentences
2.1.1 Assertive sentence: Is a sentence that makes a statement or assertion. Example:
- I am learning grammar.
- Students are always busy.
- They are not doing well
- If you are angry, then I am sorry.
-
2.1.2 Interrogative sentence: Is a sentence that asks a question. Examples;
- Who teaches you maths?
- Are you coming from home?
- Was he listening to the preacher
2.1.3 Imperative sentence: Is a sentence which contains some commands or request. Eg.
- Get out (order)
- Open the door (order)
- Please come here (order).
- Can you listen to me please? ( request)
2.1.4 Exclamatory sentence: Is a sentence which expresses some sudden feeling such as
surprise, anger, joy, etc. EG.
- Oh! We have lost the match.
- How intelligent the boy is!
- Bravo! Keep it up.
2.1.5 Optative sentence: Is a sentence which expresses a wish or a prayer. EG,

- May you live long!
- May God bless you!
- I wish you luck in your exams.
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2.2 Classification of sentences according to structure
Basing on structure, sentences can be grouped into four main types of sentences:
 Simple sentence
 Compound sentence
 Complex sentence
 Compound complex
2.2.1 Simple sentence:

A simple sentence is the one which has only one independent clause with a subject and
predicate. Eg,
- I read a book
- Anne is a good girl
- That dog is sick
- Man is a social animal
He understood.
S + Pred.
He and I understood.
S + S+ Pred.
(compound subject)
He understood my meaning and departed from the house.

S + Pred. + Pred.
(compound predicate)
2.2.2 Compound sentence:

Compound sentence is a sentence which is made up of two or more independent clauses
[i] joined by coordinating conjunction. Eg,
i. I tried to speak Kiswahili [i] and my friend tried to speak English [i]
ii. Mgosi played football, [i] so Mohamed went shopping [i]
iii. Tanzania is a rich country, [i] but still it has many poor people [i]
iv. Mr. Musa brought in his pet rabbit, [i] and he showed it to the class [i]
v. You can put wings on a pig, [i] but you don't make it an eagle [i].
vi. Always go to other people's funerals; [i] otherwise, they won't go to yours
[i]
NOTE that a sentence containing words like and, or, but, either …or, neither ….nor, not
only…but also.., are compound sentences; [i] means independent clause.
2.2.3 Complex sentence:
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A complex sentence consists of one independent clause [i], and one or more dependent
clauses [d]. The clauses are connected through either a subordinate conjunction or a
relative pronoun. The dependent clause may be the first or second clause in the sentence.
If the first clause in the sentence is dependent, a comma usually separates the two
clauses.
Examples:
i. When I went there [d], I found that [d] Jane was cooking [i].
ii. She got job [i] after completing her studies [d].
iii. Marwa told me [i] that he would marry me [d].
iv. When I received my salary [d], I went to Arusha [i] where my lover was
situated [d]
v. I had stayed in Tanga for six months [i] when I received the news [d] that
Juma had desired to see me [d]
vi. I believe [i] that she had married the person [d] whom she had loved [d]
vii. We had to go inside[i] when it started raining [d].
viii. When he handed in his homework [d], he forgot to give the teacher the last
page [i].
ix. The teacher returned the homework [i] after she noticed the error [d].
x. The students are studying [i] because they have a test tomorrow [d].
xi. After they finished studying [d], Juan and Maria went to the movies [i].
xii. Juan and Maria went to the movies [i]after they finished studying [d].
NOTE that a section of a sentence containing words like when, that, who, whoever, if,
unless, whenever, which, etc is a dependent clause, and the sentence is a complex
sentence; [d] means dependent clause.
2.2.4 Compound-complex sentence?
A compound-complex sentence is made up of at least one dependent clause [d], and two
or more independent clauses [i].
Examples:
i. I admire Tim, but he doesn't admire me, although I try hard to impress
him.
ii. Even if you fail, at least you tried and you're a better person for it
iii. If you come late, you will miss the exams and the teacher will punish you
iv. Students will not be admitted and their parents be happy unless they are
intelligent enough
v. I would have used the recipe that Kari gave me, but her cookies taste
funny.
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2.3 Revision Questions for Chapter Two
1. What is a sentence?
2. Classify each of the following sentences as, assertive, interrogative, Exclamatory,
imperative or optative sentence.
i. We wish you the best in your exams.

ii. How did you manage to escape?
iii. ‘Please, do not let me down’.
iv. He was asked if he would come the following day.
v. Bravo! We have done it.
vi. Jackson is a famous doctor.
vii. Go out.
viii. Is the red car yours?
ix. ‘What a wonderful boy!’ the Preacher exclaimed.
x. ‘May the almighty God rest his soul in eternal peace.’
3. Classify each of the following sentences as, simple, compound or complex sentence.
a. The man whom I loved was my uncle.
b. I appreciate your effort.
c. The cat running but the rat is standing still.
d. It rained heavily on Monday morning and many passengers missed the bus..
e. Whenever you see him tell him that the teacher wants to meet him
f. She is a Member of Parliament but her husband is a preacher
g. Musa told me that he planned to marry her.
h. My sister sent me a present, but the Post Master lost it.
i. The sun rises in the east.
j. We were tired and our teacher stopped teaching.
k. Please tell me when the meeting takes place
l. The constitution declared that every citizen has a right to vote
m. Tell me your achievement
n. He opened the door and went away
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CHAPTER THREE: TENSES
Tense is the term used in grammar to indicate the time of the action or event. In any
language, tense is divided into three main classes; names:
Present tense
Past tense
Future tense
Present Tense:
Present Tense is divided into four sub categories:
Simple Present Tense

Present Continuous Tense
Present Perfect Tense
Present Perfect Continuous Tense
Past Tense
Past Tense is divided into four sub categories:
Simple Past Tense

Past Continuous Tense
Past Perfect Tense
Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Future Tense
Future Tense is divided into four sub categories:
Simple Future Tense

Future Continuous Tense
Future Perfect Tense
Future Perfect Continuous Tense
Note:
Verb1=plain form; eg. Want, take, etc
Verb2 = ed form eg. Wanted, waited, etc
Verb3 = en form eg taken, eaten, etc
3.1 Simple Present Tense or Present Indefinite
Simple present tense is used to express repeated, customary or habitual action.
3.1.1 Affirmative sentence:

Sub + Verb1 + Object
She reads books always.
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He goes to school everyday
They want something
The cat drinks milk.
3.1.2 Negative sentence:

Sub + do/does + not Verb1 +Object
She does not read books.
They do not want something.
3.1.3 Interrogative sentence:

do/does + Sub + Verb1 +Object + ?
Does she read books?
Do they want something?
3.1.4 Interrogative negative sentence:

do/does +Sub +not +Verb1 +Object + ?
Does she not read books?
Do they not want something ?
3.2 Present Continuous or Present Progressive Tense
Present continuous tense is used to show that an action is in progress and is incomplete at
the moment of speaking or writing.

Sub + is/am/are + Verb1 + ing +Object
She is reading a book.
They are eating some food.

Sub + is/am/are + not + Verb1 + ing +Object.
She is not reading books.
They are not eating something.

is/am/are + Sub + Verb1+ ing +Object + ?
Is she reading books?
Are they eating some food?
What/When/how + is/am/are + Sub + Verb1 + ing +?

What is she doing?
How are they doing?

is/am/are + Sub + not + Verb1 + ing +Object + ?
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Is she not reading books?
Are they not eating some food?
What/When/how + is/am/are + Sub + not Verb1 + ing +?

What is she not doing?
How are they not doing?
3.3 Present Perfect Tense:

Present Perfect tense is used to indicate completed activities in the immediate past.

Sub + has/have + Verb3 +Object
She has read the books.
They have eaten some food.

Sub + has/have + not + Verb3 +Object.
She has not read the books.
They have not eaten some food.

has/have + sub + Verb3+Object+....+?
Has she read the books?
Have they eaten some food?

have/has + Sub + not +Verb3 + Object +?
Has she not read the books?
Have they not eaten some food?
What/When/how + have/has + Sub + +not +Verb3 + Object +…+ ?

Why has Salma not read the books?
Why have I not gone to the market?
3.4 Present Perfect Continuous Tense:

Present perfect continuous tense is used to express an action which began in the past but
still continuing.

Sub + has/have + been + Verb1 +ing +Object+ since/for + time phase.
She has been reading the books for two hours.
They have been eating some food for ten minutes.

Sub + has/have + not + been + Verb1 +ing+Object+ since/for + time phase.
She has not been reading the books for two hours.
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They have not been eating some food for ten minutes.
has/have + sub + been + Verb1 +ing + Object+ since/for + time phase +....+?
Has she been reading the books for ten minutes?
Have they been eating some food since morning?

has/have + sub + not + been +Verb1 + ing+Object+ since/for + time phase+....+?
Has she not been reading the books for ten minutes?
Have they not been eating some food since morning?
3.5 Simple Past Tense or Past Indefinite

Simple past tense is used to express repeated, customary or habitual action in the past.

Sub + Verb2 +Object
She wrote a letter
You went to the market.

Sub + did + not Verb1 +Object
She did not write a letter
You did not go the market.

Did + Sub + Verb1 +Object +….+ ?
Did she write a letter?
Did you go to the market?

Did + Sub + not +Verb1 +Object +…+ ?
Did she not write a letter?
Did you not go to the market?
3.6 Past Continuous or Past Progressive Tense

Past continuous tense is used to denote an action going on at sometime in the past. The
time of the action may or may not be indicated.

Sub + was/were + Verb1 + ing +Object
She was reading books.
They were eating some food.

Sub + was/were+not + Verb1 + ing +Object.
She was not reading books.
15
They were not eating something.

was/were+ Sub + Verb1 + ing +Object + ?
Was she reading books?
Were they eating some food?
What/When/how + was/were + Sub + Verb1 + ing +?

What was she doing?
How were they doing?

was/were + Sub + not + Verb1 + ing +Object + ?
Was she not reading books?
Were they not eating some food?
What/When/how + was/were + Sub + Verb1 + ing +?

What was she doing?
How were they doing?
3.7 Past Perfect Tense:

Past Perfect tense is used to show an action that had been completed before a given time
in the past.

Sub + had + Verb3 +Object
She had read the books.
They had eaten some food.

Sub + had + not + Verb3 +Object.
She had not read the books.
They had not eaten some food.

had + Sub +Verb3 +Object + …+?
Had she read the books?
Had they eaten some food?

had + Sub + +not +Verb3 + Object +…+ ?
Had she not read the books?
Had they not eaten some food?
What/When/how + had + Sub + +not +Verb3 + Object +…+ ?
Why had Sam not read the books?
Why had I not gone to the market?
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3.8 Past Perfect Continuous Tense:
Past perfect continuous tense is used to express/ denote an action which had been going
on before another action in the part;

Sub + had + been +Verb1 +ing+Object +since/for + time + object.
She had been reading the books for two hours when he arrived.
They had been eating some food for ten minutes when their mother arrived.

Sub + had + not + been +Verb1+ing +Object+ since/for + time +object.
She had not been reading the books for two hours when he arrived.
They had not been eating some food for ten minutes when their mother arrived.

had + sub + been +Verb1+ing+Object+ since/for + time +Object +....+?
had she been reading the books for two hours when he arrived?
had they been eating some food for ten minutes when their mother arrived?

had + sub + not been +Verb1+ing+Object+ since/for + time +Object +....+?
had she not been reading the books for two hours when he arrived?
had they not been eating some food for ten minutes when their mother arrived?
3.9 Simple Future Tense or Future Indefinite

Simple present tense is used for an action that has still to take place.

Sub + will/shall + Verb1 +Object
He will go to Mombasa
I shall see the President during the coming holidays.

Sub + will/shall + not Verb1 + Object.
He will not go to Mombasa
I shall not see the President during the coming holidays.

will/shall+Sub+Verb1+Object+ ?
Will he go to Mombasa?
Shall I see the President during the coming holidays?

shall/will + Sub+not +Verb1 +Object + ?
Will he not go to Mombasa?
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Shall I not see the President during the coming holidays?
3.10 Future Continuous or Future Progressive Tense

Future continuous tense is used to show that an action as going on at sometime in the
future.

Sub + will/shall+be+Verb1+ ing +Object
She will be going to Mombasa
I shall be meeting the President during the coming holidays.

Sub+will/shall+not be+Verb1+ing +Object
She will not be going to Mombasa
I shall not be meeting the President during the coming holidays.

will/shall+Sub+not be+Verb1 + ing +Object + ?
will she be going to Mombasa?
Shall I be meeting the President during the coming holidays?

will/shall + Sub+ not be +Verb1 + ing +Object + ?
Will she not be going to Mombasa?
Shall I not be meeting the President during the coming holidays?
3.11 Future Perfect Tense:

Present Perfect tense is used to show an action that will have been completed at a future
time.

Sub + will/shall have + Verb3 +Object
I shall have eaten the food.
The train will have left before he reaches the station.

Sub + will/shall not have + Verb3 +Object
I shall not have eaten the food.
The train will not have left before he reaches the station.

will/shall+Sub+Verb3+ Object + ?
Shall I have eaten the food?
Will the train have left before he reaches the station?
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will/shall+Sub+not have+Verb3+Object + ?
Shall I not have eaten the food?
Will the train not have left before he reaches the station?
3.12ý ure Perfect Continuous Tense:

Present perfect continuous tense is used to show an action that will be going on over a
period of time and will end in the future.

Sub+will/shall have been+Verb+ing+ Object.
She will have been reading the books.
They will have been eating some food.

Sub+will/shall not have been +Verb1+ing+ Object.
She will have not been reading the books.
They will have not been eating some food.

will/shall + Sub+ not have been +Verb1+ing+Object+?
will she have been reading the books?
will they have been eating some food for ten minutes

will/shall + Sub+ not have been +Verb1+ing+Object.
She will have not been reading the books.
They will have not been eating some food.
4.0 Revision Questions for Chapter Three

1. Change the following tenses as directed.
i. You ride a bicycle (into future perfect continuous)

ii. Boys are playing cricket (into future perfect)
iii. They have driven a car (into future continuous )
iv. We had gone to school (into simple future)
v. Rita ate a mango (into past perfect continuous)
vi. Neema was making tea (into past perfect)
vii. Sam had played football (into past continuous)
viii. We had been going to Tanga. (into simple past)
ix. I will dream a sad dream (into present perfect continuous)
x. Mr Kato will be teaching maths (into present perfect)
xi. The cat will have been sleeping for 2 minutes (into present continuous)
xii. They will have been digging the trench for 4 hours (into simple present tense.
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xiii. You ride a bicycle (into past perfect continuous)
xiv. Boys are playing cricket (into past perfect)
xv. They have driven a car (into past continuous )
xvi. We had gone to school (into simple past)
xvii. Rita ate a mango (into future perfect continuous)
xviii. Neema was making tea (into future perfect)
xix. Sam had played football (into future continuous)
xx. We had been going to Tanga. (into simple future)
xxi. I will dream a sad dream (into simple present)
xxii. Mr Kato will be teaching maths (into present continuous)
xxiii. The cat will have been sleeping for 2 minutes (into present perfect)
xxiv. They will have been digging the trench for 4 hours (into present
continuous).
xxv. Do you do it? (into future perfect continuous)
xxvi. Had they arrived? (into present perfect)
xxvii. Did students challenge the teacher? (into simple future)
xxviii. What will you say? (into simple past tense)
xxix. Are you listening? (into present perfect tense)
xxx. Will you have done it? (into present continuous
tense)
2. Choose the correct verb form from those in brackets.
i. She ……………to Dodoma yesterday. [has gone, went, had gone]

ii. Hussein ……….. his arm in an accident. [hurt, has hurt, hurted]
iii. I…………… basketball for ten years. [teach, am teaching, have been
teaching]
iv. When I went to the theatre the play……. [ already started, will start, had
already started]
v. He ……….a new car tomorrow. [ buy, will buy, bought]
vi. Always………to answer the questions briefly. [tries, had been trying, try]
vii. The match…….. before they reached the stadium. [ begun, had begun, has
begun]
viii. His mother waited patiently till he……his meat. [eats, was eat, had eaten].
ix. She ……… her games regularly during his school days. [ plays, has played,
played]
x. He ……….. his lessons now. [learns, is learning, had learned]
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CHAPTER FOUR: ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
Sentences can either be active or passive.
Active form
The thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence. The thing receiving the action is
the object.
The thing doing the action + (VERB) + (the thing receiving action. eg.
- The professor teaches the student
- John washes the dishes
- Students were sweeping the floor
Passive form
The thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence; the thing doing the action is
the object of the sentence
The thing receiving action + (BEING) + past participle of verb) + by + (the doer of
action). eg
- Students are taught by the Professor

- Dishes are washed by John
- The floor was being swept by students.
** REMEMBER: The sentence MUST BE kept in the same TENSE.
4.1 Active and Passive voice in Simple Present Tense (examples)
Active: Juma writes a story

Passive: A story is written by Juma
Active: He drives a car

Passive: A car is driven by him
Active: Do children love flowers?

Passive: Are flowers loved by children?
4.2 Active and Passive voice in Present Continuous Tense (examples)
Active: They are picking some flowers.

Passive: Flowers are being picked by them
Active: The peon is ringing the bell.
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Passive: The bell is being rung by the peon.
Active: He is driving a car

Passive: A car is being driven by him
4.3 Active and Passive voice in Present Perfect Tense (examples)
Active: She has cleaned the cups.

Passive: The cups have been cleaned by her.
Active: Have you decorated the room?

Passive: Has the room been decorated by you?
Active: He has driven a car

Passive: A car has been driven by him
4.4 Active and Passive voice in Simple Past Tense (examples)
Active: The mad dog bit the beggar.

Passive: The beggar was bitten by a mad dog.
Active: Dick wrote this poem.

Passive: This poem was written by Dick
Active: He drove a car

Passive: A car was driven by him
4.5 Active and Passive voice in Past Continuous Tense (examples)
Active: He was repairing the car

Passive: The car was being repaired by him
Active: Was he catching birds?

Passive: Were the birds being caught by him?
Active: He was driving a car

Passive: A car was being driven by him
4.6 Active and Passive voice in Past Perfect Tense (examples)
Active: They had won the match.

Passive: The match had been won by them.
A: We had defended the country.

P: The country had been defended by us.
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Active: He had driven a car
Passive: A car had been driven by him
4.7 Active and Passive voice in Simple Future Tense (examples)
Active: Keti will cook the food

Passive: The food will be cooked by Keti
Active: Will he deliver the letter?

Passive: Will the letter be delivered by him?
Active: He will drive a car

Passive: A car will be driven by him
4.8 Active and Passive voice in Future Perfect Tense (examples)
Active: The girls will have won the race

Passive: The race will have been won by the girls.
Active: He will have driven a car

Passive: A car will have been driven by him
NOTE:
Present perfect continuous tense,
Past perfect continuous tense,
Future continuous tense and
Future perfect continuous tense DO NOT HAVE PASSIVE VOICES.
4.9 Revision Questions for Chapter Four

1. Change the following sentences into PASSIVE VOICE
i. Asha has written a story
ii. Did children love flowers?
iii. We celebrated Independence Day on 9th of December.
iv. My father helped me
v. The doctor prepares medicine
vi. They are picking flowers
vii. She has cleaned the cup
viii. I am reading this book
ix. I have lost my book
x. She has cleaned the cups
xi. My sister is painting a picture
xii. Mosses has posted a letter
23
xiii. Nyerere preached peace.
xiv. They had finished the exams.
xv. We will kill the lions.
2. Change the following sentences into ACTIVE VOICE
i. Food was not taken yesterday by me

ii. Were all questions answered by you?
iii. The box was being painted by the girls.
iv. The match had been won by them
v. Food will be cooked by Anna
vi. The work will have been finished by me
vii. He is a man to be admired
viii. The race will have been won by the girls
ix. A story was told to me by my mother
x. A reply must be sent by Hussein
xi. The plane was hijacked by terrorists.
xii. The window was broken by wind.
xiii. Students had been challenged by the teacher.
xiv. Flowers have been picked by the girls
xv. The floor will be swept by the boys.
24
CHAPTER FIVE: QUESTION TAGS AND SHORT
ANSWERS
In English, people often make a statement and then add a line question to the end of it.
We frequently hear saying things like:
- It is very hot today, isn’t it?
- Musa torn the pages, didn’t he?
This type of sentence- a statement followed by a little question is called a ‘question tag’.
There are two patterns of question tags:
i. Type I- auxiliary (helping verb) + n’t + subject, if the statement is positive
ii. Type II- auxiliary (helping verb) + subject, if the statement is negative.
5.1 Examples in positive statement:

- You are coming tomorrow, aren’t you?
- We shall serve our country, shall n’t we?
- She went there, didn’t she?
- You know her well, don’t you?
- You have met her brother, haven’t you?
- He goes to school every day, doesn’t he?
5.2 Examples in negative statement:

- I am not making noise, Am I?
- This is not my book, is it?
- They haven’t come yet, have they?
- You did not break the glass, did you?
5.3 Short Answers
5.3.1 Affirmative form:

Yes + subject + questions auxiliary verb.
Examples
25
- Do you help her? Yes, I do.
- Can you speak French? Yes, I can.
- Did he pass her exam? Yes, he did.
- Does he speak the truth? Yes, he does.
- Is your daughter married? Yes, she is.
5.3.2 Negative form:

No + subject + questions auxiliary verb + n’t.
Examples
- Did you help him? No, I didn’t.
- Do they like it? No, they don’t.
- Can you swim? No, I can’t.
- Does she sing well? No, she doesn’t.
5.4 Revision Questions for Chapter Five

Add the appropriate question tags:
i. A soldier is an important person,………………………
ii. We must leave soon,…………………………………
iii. She came early this morning,……………………………
iv. The boy won the first prize,………………………………
v. We must serve our country,………………………………..
vi. She can speak Kiswahili,………………………………….
vii. We shouldn’t tell lies,……………………………….
viii. They didn’t tell lies,……….........................................
ix. We mustn’t be impatient,…………………………..
x. They don’t know her,…………………………..
xi. He hasn’t paid her fees yet, ………………………..
xii. It is very cold today,……………………………….
xiii. We must hurry,………………………………
xiv. I needn’t get up early tomorrow,………………………
xv. It didn’t hurt you, ………………………………
xvi. He didn’t paint it himself, ……………………………..
xvii. You aren’t going home, ……………………………..
xviii. The horse didn’t win the race, ………………………………
Answer the following questions in the affirmative form:

i. Can you swim?
ii. Do you smoke?
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iii. Are they your friends?
iv. Has he given you my books?
v. Am I in your class?
vi. Has he met you?
vii. Does your father drink?
viii. Is Ashok staying with his uncle?
Answer the following questions in the negative form

i. Do you like movies?
ii. Will you be at the stadium?
iii. Is it going to rain?
iv. Are they your friend?
v. Does Gagan like Football better than cricket?
vi. Did they fight bravely?
msomibora.com
27
CHAPTER SIX: PUNCTUATION AND
CAPITALIZATION RULES
One of the most important aspects to take into consideration when you write is
punctuation. It will tell your reader when to stop or when to change the interpretation of
your paper. Speakers use intonation and writers use punctuation. Some of the most
common marks in English are the following:
6.1 Period
- Use a period after a statement or command.

Turn on the television.
We are studying English.
- Use a period after most abbreviations.
Mr.
Ms.
Dr.
Exceptions:
UN
NATO
IBM
AIDS
6.2 Question Mark
Use a question mark in an interrogative statement. In a direct quotation, the question

mark goes before the quotation mark.
He said, "Are you coming home?"
6.3 Comma
- Use a comma before a conjunction (and, or, so, but) that separates two independent
clauses.
She wanted to learn to cook, so she decided to buy herself a book.
- Don't use a comma before a conjunction that separates two incomplete sentences.
She worded in the library and studied at night.
- Use a comma to separate interrupting expressions from the rest of the sentence.
Do you know, by the way, what time it is?
- Use a comma after yes and no in answers.
Yes, my father is a doctor.
- Use a comma to separate an apposite form the rest of the sentence.
Mr. Smith, the new teacher, really knows how to teach.
Would you like to try a taco, a traditional Mexican dish?
28
6.4 Quotation Marks
- Use quotation marks at the beginning and at the end of exact quotations.
He said, "I'm going to get married."
- Use quotation marks before and after titles of stories, articles, songs, and TV shows.
Do you want to watch "Friends" on TV?
My favorite song is "Disappear" by INXS.
6.5 Capitalization Rules
We use a capital letter in the following cases:
i. First letter of sentences
- Capitalize the fist letter of every sentence.

- Capitalize the first letter of a quotation.
ii. Personal Names
- Capitalize the names of people including initials and titles of address.

- Capitalize family words if they appear alone of followed by a name.
Let's go, Dad.
Where's Grandma?
- Do not capitalize family words with a possessive pronoun or article.
My uncle
An aunt
- Capitalize names of God.
Allah
Jesus Christ
Place Names
iii. Capitalize the names of countries, states, provinces, cities, lakes, rivers, islands,
mountains
Mexico
Mt. Everest
the Amazon
Lake Ontario
- Do not capitalize the names of seasons
summer
spring
fall
winter
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6.6 Revision Questions for Chapter Six
1. Mention and show eight punctuation marks used in English language.
2. Mention four situations where capital letter must be used.
3. Punctuate the following sentences correctly:
i. juma is a serious student
ii. Cats dogs cheetah and lions are carnivores
iii. Fatumas farther taught me swimming.
iv. The preacher said I will always worship my messiah
v. What a wonderful girl. the President exclaimed
vi. The team will be composed of the following members doctors nurses
counselors and extension officers
vii. John’s wife margreth has resigned from her position as Head Nurse.
4. Choose the correctly punctuated sentence
The children's books were all left in the following places: Mrs Smith's room, Mr
Powell's office and the caretaker's cupboard. [ √ ]
The children's books were all left in the following places; Mrs Smith's room, Mr
Powell's office and the caretaker's cupboard.
The childrens books were all left in the following places: Mrs Smiths room, Mr
Powells office and the caretakers cupboard.
The children's books were all left in the following places, Mrs Smith's room, Mr
Powell's office and the caretaker's cupboard.

She always enjoyed sweets, chocolate, marshmallows and toffee apples. [ √ ]
She always enjoyed: sweets, chocolate, marshmallows and toffee apples
She always enjoyed sweets chocolate marshmallows and toffee apples.
She always enjoyed sweet's, chocolate, marshmallow's and toffee apple's.

Sarah's uncle's car was found without its wheels in that old derelict warehouse.
Sarah's uncle's car was found without its wheels in that old, derelict warehouse. √]
Sarahs uncles car was found without its wheels in that old, derelict warehouse.
Sarah's uncle's car was found without it's wheels in that old, derelict warehouse.

a. We decided to visit: Spain, Greece, Portugal and Italy's mountains.
b. We decided to visit Spain, Greece, Portugal and Italys mountains.
c. We decided to visit Spain, Greece, Portugal and Italy's mountains. [√]
d. We decided to visit Spain Greece Portugal and Italy's mountains.
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After stealing Tims car, the thief lost his way and ended up the chief constable's
garage.
After stealing Tim's car the thief lost his way and ended up the chief constable's
garage.
After stealing Tim's car, the thief lost his way and ended up the chief constable's
garage. [√]
After stealing Tim's car, the thief lost his' way and ended up the chief constable's
garage.

I can't see Tim's car, there must have been an accident.
I cant see Tim's car; there must have been an accident.
I can't see Tim's car there must have been an accident.
I can't see Tim's car; there must have been an accident. [√]
Tims grandmother, a formidable woman, always bought him chocolate, cakes, sweets
and a nice fresh apple.
Tim's grandmother a formidable woman always bought him chocolate, cakes, sweets
Tim's grandmother, a formidable woman, always bought him chocolate cakes sweets
Tim's grandmother, a formidable woman, always bought him chocolate, cakes, sweets
and a nice fresh apple. [√]
Paul's neighbours were terrible; so his brother's friends went round to have a word.
Paul's neighbours were terrible: so his brother's friends went round to have a word.
Paul's neighbours were terrible, so his brother's friends went round to have a word.
[√]
Paul's neighbours were terrible so his brother's friends went round to have a word.

a. Spain is a beautiful country: the beaches are warm, sandy and spotlessly clean.
b. Spain is a beautiful country: the beaches are warm, sandy and spotlessly clean.
c. Spain is a beautiful country, the beaches are warm, sandy and spotlessly clean.
d. Spain is a beautiful country; the beaches are warm, sandy and spotlessly [√]
31
CHAPTER SEVEN: ERRORS IN SENTENCES
7.1 Sentence fragment
Occurs when a sentence is missing a subject, verb, or main clause. Examples:
i. that was yellow in color and parked outside.

ii. full of bacteria and virus that were invisible to the eye.
Make sure that each sentence contains an independent clause--a group of words that
includes a subject and a verb and that can stand alone.
7.2 Misplaced Period
Avoid creating a sentence fragment by inserting a period into what would otherwise be a
complete sentence (e.g., "Inflation is a difficult problem. Although it is not impossible to
solve." "Capital punishment should be abolished. The reason being that it is ineffective.")
To correct such fragments, link the ideas, using appropriate punctuation, e.g., a comma, a
colon (:), or a dash.
7.3 Incomplete Sentence.
Some incomplete sentences cannot be combined with adjoining sentences. Such

sentences must be completely rethought and rewritten, as is the case with in the following
example: "An underdeveloped country, in which many are uneducated. We must help
such countries as much as we can."
7.4 Comma splice (Comma Fault or Run-on).
Do not use a comma to join two ideas that could each stand alone as a sentence (e.g.,
"We could make better use of our land, parks and recreation areas could be set aside.")
To correct comma splices, change the comma to a period or semicolon (;) (or, in some
cases, a colon). Another option is to add a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or for)
after the comma. If a conjunctive adverb such as however, therefore, or likewise is used
to join the ideas, a comma is still insufficient punctuation; a semicolon or period is
required.
7.5 Fused sentences.
Do not run two sentences together with no punctuation (e.g., "He had forgotten how
empty the prairies are after two years in Toronto he had grown used to skyscrapers.")
Correct fused sentences by adding a period, colon, semicolon, or a comma with a
coordinating conjunction.
32
7.6 Overloaded sentence.
7.6.1 Overloaded Grammatical Structure.
If well-constructed, a sentence may be long without being overloaded. However, a long,

clumsily-constructed sentence can be almost unreadable: e.g., "Meanwhile the poor
student, who couldn't keep up the grades (possibly because of the way courses are taught)
drops out because of this and the money, or lack of, for tuition, and gets a job in a trade
he learns through the knowledge passed to him on the job, or goes on welfare."
7.6.2 Too Many Ideas.
A fairly short sentence may be overloaded if it contains more ideas than can be clearly
expressed in the space of a few words. Often, the ideas need expanding. A sentence such
as the following example should probably be made into two or three sentences: "Students
should realize that they are unique, each starting from a different point, and that they may
end up with a career that wasn't pre-planned."
7.7 Mixed construction.
7.7.1 General Mixed Constructions
Avoid shifting from one sentence pattern to another in mid-sentence; for example, the
sentence "By exercising makes you fit" needs to be rewritten as "By exercising, you can
become fit" or "Exercising makes you fit."
7.7.2 "This-is-when" Construction.
When used as a linking verb, "is" must join two nouns (e.g., "A good day is one on which
..."), not a noun and a "when" clause (e.g., "A good day is when...)
7.7.3 "Reason-is-because" Construction.
Though common in speech, the "reason is because" is both ungrammatical and redundant.
Correct the problem by deleting "the reason is" or by changing the word "because" to
"that". For example, the sentence "The reason I am living at home is because I want to
save money" should be rewritten as "I am living at home because I want to save money,"
or as "The reason I am living at home is that I want to save money."
7.7.4 Doubled Preposition.
Don't use a construction such as in which or to whom and then repeat the preposition at
the end of the sentence, as in the following examples: "To whom do I talk to?" "In which
country was he born in?"
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7.7.5 Faulty parallelism.
Use the same grammatical form for words, phrases or clauses that form a pair or a series
and are alike in function. For example, rewrite "She likes swimming, cooking, and to
play squash" as 'She likes swimming, cooking and playing squash" or as "She likes to
swim, to cook, and to play squash." Often, clarity is added by repeating words like
"because" or "that" to signal parallel structure, as in the following example: "Britain is in
economic trouble because it is no longer a major power and the changed values of its
youth." Correction: ". . . because it is no longer a major power and because the values of
its youth have changed."
7.8 Revision Questions for Chapter Seven

1. Mention any five types of sentence errors.
2. Re-write the following sentences correctly:
i. The students does not study hard.

ii. The cat did not catch the rat tomorrow.
iii. You was not playing well.
iv. She likes cooking, jogging and to play basketball
v. Since she was late. She must be punished
vi. The reason I am living at home is because I want to save money.
vii. To whom do I talk to?
viii. She likes jogging, walking around and to play basketball.
ix. Students were rioting because we are fed up with poor leadership
x. In which country was he born in?
3. Write T if the statement is true or F if the statement is false about sentence
i) When a sentence is missing a subject, verb, or main clause, this error is called ‘
a sentence fragment’
ii) When a comma is used to join two ideas that could each stand alone as a
sentence, this error is called ‘misplaced period’
iii) When two sentences are run together with no punctuations, this error is called
‘faulty parallelism’
34
CHAPTER EIGHT: WRITING SKILLS
8.1 Strategies to Succeed in Writing
Writing is the key to communicating knowledge and expressing ideas. It is a primary

medium for creation and the storage of thought.
Being able to effectively organize and write down your thoughts is important in
succeeding in school, your job and even your personal life. Also, if you are very good at
writing or really enjoy written communications, you may even choose writing as a
profession.
8.2 Paragraph Development
8.2.1 What is a paragraph?
One of the central components of a paper is the paragraph. When most students think of a
paragraph, they hold onto the old myths about length: a paragraph is at least 5 sentences,
a paragraph is half a page, etc. A paragraph, however, is "a group of sentences or a single
sentence that forms a unit”. Length or appearance is not a factor in determining whether a
section in a paper is a paragraph. In fact, it is not the number of sentences that construct a
paragraph, but it is the unity and coherence of ideas among those sentences that makes a
paragraph a paragraph. For instance, in some styles of writing, particularly journalistic
styles, a paragraph can be one sentence. As long as that sentence expresses the paper's
central idea, that sentence can serve the function of a paragraph. Ultimately, strong
paragraphs contain a sentence or sentences unified around one central, controlling idea.
When the paragraph reaches completion it should serve to bring the reader into your
paper and guide his/her understanding of what has been read. Whether that completion
happens with one sentence or with twenty, the end result is still a paragraph.
8.2.2 How to Write a Paragraph
8.2.2.1 Prewriting a Paragraph
The prewriting stage is when you think carefully and organize your ideas for your
paragraph before you begin writing. There are six steps involved in this process. They are
the following:
Think carefully about what you are going to write. Ask yourself: "What question am I
going to answer in this paragraph or essay? How can I make this paragraph interesting?
What facts can be stated to support this topic?
Write your answers to the above questions and do not need to spend a lot of time doing
this. Just write enough to help you remember why and how you are writing.
Collect facts related to your topic. Write down facts that will help you answer your
questions.
35
Write down your own ideas. Ask yourself: What other things can I include about this
topic? Why should people be interested in this topic? Why is this topic important?
Find the main idea of your paragraph: Chose the most important point. If you cannot
decide which is the most important one, just chose one and stick to it throughout your
paragraph.
Organize your facts and ideas to develop your topic, find the best way to tell the reader
about it. Decide which facts will support the main idea.
8.2.2.2 Writing a Paragraph
The writing stage is when you turn your ideas into sentences and you communicate them.
Some important steps are the following:
Write a TOPIC sentence, some supporting sentences, and one closing sentence
Make sure that the sentences are clear, simple, and they express what you really mean
Focus on the main idea of your paragraph
Re-read what you wrote and see if the idea is clear and you can read it with ease
8.2.2.3 Editing a Paragraph
The editing stage is when you check your paragraph for mistakes and correct them. Do
not forget to do the following:
Check your grammar and spelling
Read your text again and make sure each sentence makes sense
See if your paragraph is interesting to read
8.3 Transitional Signals
Transition signals can be compared to traffic signs. They are words that tell you to go
forward, to turn, to slow down and to stop. Better said, they help the reader when to you
are giving a similar idea, an opposite idea, an example, a result, or a conclusion. As a
writer it is important to use these types of words to help you follow your ideas
coherently. There are 8 types of Transitional Signals:
Transition words can be classified taking into account they type of help they might offer
a writer. They can be classified in the following types:
8.3.1 Words that Show Addition
They aid the writer when he or she wants to present two or more ideas that continue
along the same line of thought. Some common addition words are: and, also, another, in
addition, moreover, first of all, second, third, furthermore, finally.
36
8.3.2 Words that Show Time
They indicate a time relationship. They tell us when an specific event took place in
relation to another. Some of these words are: First, then, often, since, next, before, after,
as soon as, now, until, previously, while, during, immediately, frequently.
8.3.3 Words that Show Contrast
They signal a change in the direction of the writer's thought. They tell us a new idea will
be different in a significant way from the previous one. Some contrast words are: but,
however, yet, although, in contrast, instead, still, in spite of, despite, on the other hand, on
the contrary.
8.3.4 Word that Show Comparison
These words are used when a writer wants to point out a similarity between two subjects.
They tell us that the previous idea is similar to the next one in some way. Some words
that show comparison are: like, as, just like, just as, in like manner, equally, similarly, in
a similar fashion, in the same way.
8.3.5 Words that Show Illustration
These words are used if you as a writer want to provide one of more examples to develop
and clarify a given idea. They tell us that the second idea is an example of the first. Some
illustration words are: for example, for instance, as an illustration, to illustrate, such as, to
be specific, including.
8.3.6 Words that Show Location
Location transitions show a relationship in space. They tell us where something is in

relation to something else. Some of these words can be: next to, in front of, in back of,
below, between, inside, outside, opposite, on top of, across, beneath, in the middle of, on
the other side, at the end of, ahead of, over, under, behind, near, far.
8.3.7 Words that Show Cause and Effect
These types of words are useful if an author wants to describe a result of something. They
tell us what happened or will happen because something else happened. These type of
words are: because, if... then, as a result, consequently, accordingly, therefore, since, so.
8.3.8 Words that Summarize or Conclude

These types of words are used when the idea that follows will sum up the entire writing
or a final statement will be written as a conclusion. These words are: in summary, in
conclusion, in short, all in all, in brief, in other words, on the whole, to conclude, to sum
up.
37
8.4 Revision Questions for Chapter Eight
1. What is a paragraph?
2. Mention three major stages in writing a paragraph.
3. What is meant by ‘paragraph unity’?
4. What do you understand by the guideline ‘make the paragraph move forward’?
5. Define the term, ‘transitional signals’ as used in writing.
6. Mention any seven types of transitional signals. Give an example in each case
7. With examples, outline eight types of transitional signals.
8. Outline four steps in the pre-writing stage during the writing process.
9. Write T if the statement is true or F if the statement is false.
i) A paragraph should have two or more sentences [ ]

ii) A standard paragraph should focus on more than one idea [ ]
iii) A standard paragraph should have a topic sentence, some supporting sentences
and closing sentences [ ]
iv) Length is a factor in determining whether a section in a paper is a paragraph [ ]
v) Clear writing encourages the use of jargons [ ]
vi) Shorter sentences are better than long ambiguous sentences [ ]
38
CHAPTER NINE: REPORT WRITING
9.1 What is a report?
A report is a very formal document that is written for a variety of purposes, generally in
the sciences, social sciences, engineering and business disciplines. Generally, findings
pertaining to a given or specific task are written up into a report. It should be noted that
reports are considered to be legal documents in the workplace and, thus, they need to be
precise, accurate and difficult to misinterpret.
9.2 Types of reports

There are numerous types of reports depending on goals and purposes of a particular
report. These are:
i) Laboratory reports
ii) Health and safety reports
iii) Research reports
iv) Case study reports
v) Field study reports
vi) Cost-benefit analysis reports
vii) Proposals
viii) Comparative advantage reports
ix) Progress reports
x) Feasibility studies
xi) Technical reports
xii) Instruction manuals
xiii) Financial reports, etc
9.3 Characteristics of a good report
Reports must be clear, concise, complete and correct. Good reports follow the four C’s
rule.
9.3.1 Clear
Information has to be understood at the first reading. The report has to be easy to read
with legible writing and a clear message.
9.3.2 Concise
Your report is only to be as long as you need to include the necessary information. Use
short, simple sentences. Do not use jargon or words that aren’t required.
9.3 3 Complete
Ensure all required information is in the report.
39
9.3.4 Correct
Every piece of information must be accurate and verifiable.
It is important that you know the objective of the report before you write it. Be clear on
what information you need to communicate and who will be reading it. For example, the
object of the shift report in accommodation services is to let the other team members
know what occurred on the shift. Report writing is a means of passing on information to
each other.
9.4: Report writing stages
Before you start to write, you need to be clear about what you want to achieve and what
you want to say. This will involve some planning. If you plan a report well, it will save
time - and will save much drafting and redrafting. To plan well, you will need to follow
several steps:
i) Define your aim
ii) Collect your ideas
iii) Select the material and decide how to show the significance of your facts
iv) Structure your ideas
9.4.1 Defining Your Aim
Start by asking yourself some questions:

Why am I writing this?
What do I want to achieve?
Who will read this?
What does my reader want to know?
How will this be used?
When is this needed?
Once you have answered these questions, you should be clear about the kind of document
needed.
9.4.2 Collecting & Selecting Your Ideas
9.4.2.1 Collecting Your Ideas
Start by jotting down ideas in note form. Do not write sentences at this stage. Remember
your aim and concentrate on the questions in the readers' minds. This will help you to
include only those ideas which are relevant, rather than writing everything you know
about the subject.
Not all of your ideas will come at once, so plan to meet your deadline. Be prepared to
spend some time on noting initial ideas and then set the document aside. When you come
back to it later, you will find that your ideas have gelled and that you can see the way
ahead more clearly.
40
9.4.2.2 Selecting Your Ideas
Review the content of the document. Are all the ideas relevant? Is there anything which
you need to cut out? Think about using appendices or attachments to cover detail which
the reader may need at a later stage, but does not need in order to understand the main
message.
Decide how to show the significance of your facts. Would some graphs or diagrams help
the readers understand your message? What visual material will you use? How will you
produce it?
9.4.3 Select the material and decide how to show the significance of your facts
9.4.4 Structuring the Document
You will need to structure the content in a logical and clear way if you are going to help
the readers take in your message.
Make sure you have a sequence of headings and sub-headings which will act as signposts
to help the readers find the information they need.
Also, if you structure a piece of writing well, you will find it easier to choose the words
to express your ideas.
A report should be divided into sections and sub-sections, each of which should have a
clear heading. If you structure a report well, it will not only help your readers find the
information they need but it will also help you when you start writing.
9.5 Format of a field/research report
A report should be written in the third person - this means not using "I" or "we". Often
more formal, lengthy reports are written in sections which have sub-headings and are
numbered. Reports are broken into the following elements, but it should be noted that not
all these elements are needed in all reports. For example, an index is only needed for long
reports where readers need to locate items; a glossary of terms may help if the readers are
unfamiliar with terms used, but not otherwise.
As previously mentioned, the way in which you present your report will vary according
to what you are writing and for whom. This section gives general guidance but you
should follow advice given by tutors and others.
1 Title Page
This will include the title of the report, who has written it and the date it was
written/submitted.
2 Acknowledgements
Thanks to the people or organizations who have helped.
41
3 Content Page
As in a book, this lists the headings in the report, together with the page numbers
showing where the particular section, illustration etc. can be located.
4 Executive Summary
This is a most important part of many reports and may well be the only section that some
readers read in detail. It should be carefully written and should contain a complete
overview of the message in the report, with a clear summary of your recommendations.
5 Terms of Reference /scope

This section sets the scene for your report. It should define the scope and limitations of
the investigation and the purpose of the report. It should say who the report is for, any
constraints (for example your deadline, permitted length) - in other words, your aims and
objectives - the overall purpose of your report and more specifically what you want to
achieve.
6. Introduction /Background
This will help to tune your readers in to the background of your report. It is not another
name for a summary and should not be confused with this. They can be two separate
sections or combined: background detail could include details of the topic you are writing
about. You could take the opportunity to expand on your Terms of Reference within the
introduction, give more detail as to the background of the report - but remember to keep
it relevant, factual and brief.
7 Methodology/Procedures
This section outlines how you investigated the area. How you gathered information,
where from and how much (e.g. if you used a survey, how the survey was carried out,
how did you decide on the target group, how many were surveyed, how were they
surveyed - by interviews or questionnaire?)
8. Findings /Analysis
This is the main body of the report, where you develop your ideas. Make sure that it is
well structured, with clear headings, and that your readers can find information easily.
Use paragraphs within each section to cover one aspect of the subject at a time. Include
any graphs or other visual material in this section if this will help your readers. The
nature of this section will depend on the brief and scope of the report. The sections
should deal with the main topic being discussed - there should be a logical sequence,
moving from the descriptive to the analytical. It should contain sufficient information to
justify the conclusions and recommendations which follow. Selection of appropriate
information is crucial here: if information is important to help understanding, then it
should be included; irrelevant information should be omitted.
42
9 Conclusions
These are drawn from the analysis in the previous section and should be clear and
concise. They should also link back to the Terms of Reference. At this stage in the report,
no new information can be included. The conclusions should cover what you have
deduced about the situation - bullet points will be satisfactory.
10 Recommendations
Make sure that you highlight any actions that need to follow on from your work. Your
readers will want to know what they should do as a result of reading your report and will
not want to dig for the information. Make them specific - recommendations such as "It is
recommended that some changes should be made" are not helpful, merely irritating. As
with the Conclusion, recommendations should be clearly derived from the main body of
the report and again, no new information should be included.
11 References / Bibliography
References are items referred to in the report. The Bibliography contains additional
material not specifically referred to, but which readers may want to follow up.
12 Appendices
Use these to provide any more detailed information which your readers may need for
reference - but do not include key data which your readers really need in the main body
of the report. Appendices must be relevant and should be numbered so they can be
referred to in the main body.
13 Glossary of terms and abbreviations
Provide a glossary if you think it will help your readers but do not use one as an excuse to
include jargon in the report that your readers may not understand.
9.6 Revision Questions for Chapter Nine

1. What is a report?
2. Mention any six types of reports you know
3. List four characteristics of a good report.
4. Outline the format of a field /research report.
43
CHAPTER TEN: ENTREPRENEURSHIP CONCEPT
10.1 Historical background
During the past few decades, a considerable amount of research has been carried out on
entrepreneurship. One reason for a heightened interest in the subject has been the
appreciation of the role of entrepreneurship in fostering economic growth. Much of the
research has attempted to establish patterns for predicting incidence of entrepreneurship
and/or identifying success factors. Evidence from studies on entrepreneurship shows that
entrepreneurs are not randomly drawn from the population; they tend to share certain
backgrounds and orientations.
The term 'entrepreneur' was used for the first time in economic theory by Richard
Cantillon, a Frenchman, in the late 18th century. He saw the entrepreneur as somebody
who innovates, invests and takes risks.
However, it is John Baptiste Say who, in the early 19th century, first made a clear
distinction between the capitalist and the entrepreneur. The usage of the term became
increasingly regular in the second half of the 19th century. This was because while many
capitalists had liquidity surpluses which they tried to invest, entrepreneurs provided
interesting opportunities.
In the early 20th century, Joseph Schumpeter presented what has been credited as the
most significant meaning of the term 'entrepreneur'. He saw the essence of
entrepreneurship as innovative behavior. According to Schumpeter, the essence of
entrepreneurship lies in the perception and exploitation of new opportunities...it always
has to do with bringing about a different use of national resources in that they withdraw
from their traditional employ and subject them to new combinations (Schumpeter, 1934).
44
10.2 Definition of Entrepreneur today
 An Entrepreneur is defined broadly as a person who thinks, reasons, and acts in a

way that result in the creation, enhancement, realization, and renewal of value for
an individual, group, organization and the society at large.
 An entrepreneur is different from a business man who buys and sells good and
services for profit. Not all business men are necessarily entrepreneurs.
 Entrepreneurs are found in all professions-education, medicine, research, law,

architecture, engineering, social work, distribution and the government.
 Entrepreneurship is defined broadly as a way of thinking, reasoning, and acting

that results in the creation, enhancement, realization, and renewal of value for an
individual, group, organization, society.
 Entrepreneurship is a dynamic process of creating incremental wealth. The

wealth is created by individuals who assume the major risks in terms of equity,
time and career commitment or provide value for some product or service.
10.3 Intrapreneurship
Entrapreneurship is practicing entrepreneurship within an existing/established

organization. E.g. Religious institution, Corporate Organization, Government agencies,
NGO, Home/family/relationship etc.
Intrapreneurs are highly valued in today’s world, because it calls for constant
improvement, aggressiveness, vision, ability to assess risks and quickly take action, etc
Existing businesses have the financial resources, business skills and the marketing and
distribution system to commercialize innovation successfully.
45
10.4 Is an entrepreneur born or made?
Entrepreneurship researchers point to two major contentions. There are those who argue
that entrepreneurship is a function of individual personality traits. That there exist a
number of recognizable behaviors, and attributes that are commonly associated with the
“enterprising” person, and which may further distinguish between entrepreneurs and non-
entrepreneurs or between successful entrepreneurs and unsuccessful enterpreneurs.
These are innovativeness, creativeness, proactive ness, need for achievement, risk taking
independence. Etc.
On the other hand, those in the second strand, argue that entrepreneurship is an
environmentally determined phenomenon. That the display of enterprising behaviors and
attitudes will be stimulated or otherwise, by different environments.
There is now an overwhelming literature, (including proponents of the trait approach)

that point to the common conclusion, and to which we also subscribe to, that
entrepreneurship is not a biological trait. More specifically, entrepreneurs can be
developed and that even the much advocated entrepreneurial traits and behaviors such as
need for achievement and risk-taking can be learnt. That the mix and degree of
enterprising attributes will vary between persons, but more importantly the enterprising
behavior can be developed by exposure to stimuli and therefore can be learned.
10.5 General Entreprising Tendencies/Traits [GETs]
Generally, an entrepreneur possess the following Traits/behaviors

i. Creativity
ii. Initiative taking
iii. Innovation
iv. Strong sense of independence and autonomy
v. Belief in self/ believe can make things happen
vi. Strong sense of ownership
vii. Aggressive
viii. Determined/Persevering
ix. Hard working
46
x. Pro-active
xi. Belief that rewards come with own effort and hard work brings its rewards
xii. Strong action orientation
xiii. Networking
xiv. Readiness to take reasonable risks
xv. Achievement orientation/urge to succeed/conquer
10.6 How can ‘GETs’ be developed?
(i) Always ask the question – is there a better way?

(ii) Challenge custom, routine and tradition
(iii) Realize that there may be more than one answer
(iv) See mistakes and failures as mere pit stops on the way to success
(v) Identify yourself with successful people
(vi) Expose yourself to difficult and challenging situations
(vii) Share information with others
(viii) Add value to everything you do
(ix) Be an achiever – finish what you start
(x) Set long-term goals
(xi) Try to make things happen for yourself
(xii) Solve your own problems before seeking help
(xiii) Be proud/feel good about yourself and your work
(xiv) Build up stamina
(xv) Observe others and copy – but don’t be a copycat
(xvi) Experiment
47
10.7 Types of skills required in Entrepreneruship
The skills required by entrepreneurs can be classified into three main areas namely
Technical skills, Business management skills and Personal entrepreneurial skills
Technical skills Business mangnt skills Personal entrepreneurial skills
i. Writing i. Planning and goal setting i. Inner control
ii. Oral communication ii. Decision making ii. Risk taker
iii. Monitoring environment iii. Human relations iii. Innovative
iv. Technical business mgmnt iv. Marketing iv. Change oriented
v. Technology v. Finance v. Persistent
vi. Interpersonal vi. Accounting vi. Visionary leader
vii. Listening vii. Management vii. Ability to manage change
viii. Ability to organize viii. Control
ix. Network building ix. Negotiation
x. Management style x. Venture launch
xi. Coaching xi. Management growth
xii. Being a team player
10.8: Comparison of Traditional Managers And Entrepreneurs

BASIS TRADITIONAL MANAGERS ENTREPRENEURS
1. Primary motives Promotion of traditional rewards e.g. Independence, opportunity to
Office, staff and power create and money.
2. Activity Delegates and supervises more than Direct involvement
direct involvement
3. Risk Careful Moderate risk taker
4. Status Concerned about status symbols Not concerned about status
symbols
5. Decision Usually agrees with those in upper Follow dreams with
management positions decisions
6. Failure and Tries to avoid mistakes and surprises Deals with mistakes and
mistakes failures
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10.9 Revision Questions for Chapter Ten
1. Define the term, ‘entrepreneur’
2. Differentiate the term, entrapreneuship’ from ‘entrepreneuship’
3. What do you understand by the term, ‘copreneurs’?
4. Mention any seven requirements for a copreneur to be successful.
5. Differentiate a business man from an entrepreneur.
6. Mention any eight General Entrepreneurship Tendencies (GETs) of an entrepreneur.
7. Outline any seven ways of developing/acquiring General Entrepreneurship
Tendencies
8. Mention the three classes of skills required in entrepreneurship
9. Mention Requirements for a successful copreneurship
10. Compare a traditional manager and an entrepreneur.
11. What will you see to know that a student is enterprising?
12. Write T if the statement is TRUE or F if the statement is FALSE
i. An entrepreneur is a person who takes very serious business risks to maximize
profit [ ]
ii. Entrepreneurship is a biological trait [ ]
iii. An entrepreneur is a small business trader [ ]
iv. Expose yourself to difficult situations can develop your General Enterprising
Tendencies[ ]
v. An entrepreneur is always more concerned about status symbols as compared
to a traditional manager [ ]
vi. Poor entrepreneurs see mistakes and failures as mere pit stops on the way to
success [ ]
msomibora.com
49
CHAPTER ELEVEN: FAMILY BUSINESS AND
SUCCESSION
11.1: What is a Family Business?
Two or more members of the family with financial control/interest in the business
11.2 Advantages of Family Business

If you start or join a family business you're likely to benefit from a range of advantages
which you often don't find in other enterprises.
i. Common values - you and your family are likely to share the same ethos and
beliefs on how things should be done. This will give you an extra
sense of purpose and pride - and your business a competitive edge.
ii. Strong commitment - building a lasting family enterprise means you're more
likely to put in the extra hours and effort needed to make it a success.
Your family is more likely to understand that you need to take a more
flexible approach to your working hours.
iii. Loyalty - strong personal bonds mean you and family members are likely to stick
together in hard times and show the determination needed for business
success.
iv. iv. Stability - knowing that you're building for future generations encourages the
long-term thinking needed for growth and success - though it can also
produce a potentially damaging inability to react to change.
v. Decreased costs - family members may be more willing to make financial

sacrifices for the sake of the business. For example, accepting lower
pay than they would get elsewhere to help the business in the longer
term, or deferring wages during a cashflow crisis. You may also find
you don't need employers' liability insurance if you only employ close
family members.
50
11.3 Dangers/Disadvantages of Family Business
i. A business can be a breeding ground for family problems: jealousy, anger,
resentment. There is less reservation about letting feelings out among
family members and family problems can easily spill over into the
workplace.
ii. The manager of a family business may be hard put turning down relatives as
employees regardless of lack of qualifications. Relatives who are
allowed into the company may abuse family ties and feel that they can
under-perform simply because they are relation.
iii. Some family members, especially the elderly, may find it difficult to retire and let
the younger members take over.
iv. Other disadvantages include possible managerial incompetence, lack of exposure
to other business, nepotism, and inability to separate family and work.
11.4: Copreneurs:
Are Entrepreneurial couples who work together as co-owners. Division of labour based
on expertise rather than gender
11.5 Requirements for a successful Copreneurship
i. Assessment of whether personalities will mesh/conflict in a business setting

ii. Mutual respect for each other
iii. Compatible business and life goals
iv. Ability to keep lines of communication open, talking and listening to each
other about personal as well as business issues
v. A clear division of roles and authority
vi. Ability to encourage each other and to lift up a disillusioned partner
vii. Separate work space to allow them to escape when the need arises
viii. Boundaries between business and personal life so that one does not consume
the other
ix. A sense of humour
51
11.6 Succession Planning in Family Businesses
 The entrepreneur is an integral part of the business and his/her loss represents the
loss of a key resource
 Replacement decision is critical to continued success
 Bringing a new leader might be good (opportunity for change) or bad
(discontinuity of important things)
 Families must be pragmatic when considering succession
 Developing and adopting a Management Succession plan
 Developing and adopting an Ownership Succession plan
 Looking outside the family unit for the right people to take them forward (if
necessary)
11.6.1 Choosing the successor:

When choosing a successor, bear in mind the following issues:
Get someone who is right for the business, not your copy
i) Get someone who is right for the business, not your copy
ii) Choose successor in advance and train/mentor him/her
iii) Gradually transfer power
iv) Avoid the temptation of picking a non-performing/unproven relative – you have
responsibility to all stakeholders
v) Get advise from other managers and stakeholders in the sector
vi) Choosing a successor should be done when the entrepreneur is in charge,
whenever possible
vii) Replacement decision should take into account the interests of different
stakeholders of the business – the owner, his family, employees, customers,
suppliers, government, community
viii) Involve the family in succession planning
52
11.6.2 Necessary qualities of a good successor
i) Has the necessary technical knowledge of the business sector

ii) Has the right business skills
iii) Is able to manage and develop relationships already established
iv) Is able to lead the business.
v) Good leadership style.
vi) Able to take over the vision.
vii) Able to offer a new perspective.
viii) Acceptable to all stakeholders.
11.7 Why many businesses die with founders?

a. Lack of proper succession: owners do not choose successors in advance, wait until
death
b. There are no qualified/capable/skilled/experienced successors
c. Lack of policies/procedures on succession
d. Cultural obstacles: family conflicts over property – business dismantled
e. In case of personal services – family has no skilled person to take over
f. Reputation of the business is attached to the specific person
g. Dubious activities
h. Limited exposure of family members of the business: spouses/children not involved
i. One man show – governance structures
j. Business activities/records not documented
k. Offspring of many successful people are spoilt
11.8 Revision Questions for Chapter Eleven

1. What is family business?
2. Mention any seven issues to bear in mind when choosing a family business successor.
3. Mention any seven necessary qualities of a good business successor
53
4. Outline any five reasons as to why many businesses die with founders.
5. Mention five advantages of running a family business venture.
6. Write T if the statement is TRUE or F if the statement is FALSE about Family
Business
i. Power must be transferred gradually from the outgoing family business
manager to the new manager [ ]
ii. ‘knowledge of the entrepreneur’ is an important motivator for a family
member or a friend to invest into the entrepreneur’s new business venture [ ]
iii. Enterprising behaviors can be developed by exposure to stimuli and therefore
can be learned [ ]
iv. A business run by a group of friends is also known as family business [ ]
54
APPENDIX A: Instructors Teaching Plan for Communication and
Entrepreneurship skills Course-[CIT 04102]
COURSE OBJECTIVES
i. To impart to students basic communication and writing skills
ii. To impart to students basic entrepreneurship concepts and background knowledge
COURSE OUTCOMES
i. At the end of the course students will be able to write and speak simple English
correctly
ii. At the end of the course students will have acquired basic entrepreneurship skills
and knowledge.
WEEK CHAPTER CHAPTER DETAILS Instructional materials

1 and 2 ONE: PARTS OF - Noun: types of nouns - PowerPoint presentation
SPEECH - Adjective: kinds of adjectives - Projector
- Verb - Handout
- Adverb: kinds of adverbs - Homework /Assignment
- Pronoun: kinds of pronouns
- Preposition: kinds of prepositions,
Selected prepositions
- Conjunction
- Interjection
- Article
- Homework/Assignment 1
3 TWO: SENTENCE - Definition a sentence - PowerPoint presentation
REVIEW - Kinds of sentences (according to use) - Projector
- Types of sentences (based on structure) - Handout
- Homework /Assignment
4&5 THREE: TENSES - PRESENT TENSE - PowerPoint presentation
- Simple Present Tense - Projector
- Present Continuous Tense - Handout
- Present Perfect Tense - Homework /Assignment
- Present Perfect Continuous
Tense
- PAST TENSE
- Simple Past Tense
- Past Continuous Tense
- Past Perfect Tense
- Past Perfect Continuous
Tense
- FUTURE TENSE
- Simple Future Tense
- Future Continuous Tense
- Future Perfect Tense
- Future Perfect Continuous
Tense
- Each Student to prepare a tense table
of at least 50 verbs (v1, v2, v3)
55
- Sufficient examples will be provided
on how to change sentences from one
tense to the other
- Assignment 2
6 FOUR: ACTIVE AND - Changing active to passive voice - PowerPoint presentation
PASSIVE VOICE - Changing passive to active voice - Projector
- Sufficient examples and exercises will - Handout
be provided Homework /Assignment
7 FIVE: QUESTION - Examples in positive form - PowerPoint presentation
TAGS AND SHORT - Examples in negative form - Projector
ANSWERS - Short answers - Handout
SIX: PUNCTUATION - Punctuation marks
RULES - Capitalization rules
8 Test 1
9 SEVEN: ERRORS IN - Sentence fragment - PowerPoint presentation
SENTENCES - Misplaced Period - Projector
- Incomplete Sentence. etc - Handout
EIGHT: WRITING - Paragraph development
SKILLS - Stages in writing a paragraph
- Transitional signals
10 CHAPTER NINE: - Definition of a report - PowerPoint presentation
REPORT WRITING - Types of reports - Projector
- Characteristics of a good report - Handout
- Report writing stages - Homework /Assignment
- Format of a field/ research report
11-12 TEN:ENTREPRENEU - Historical background - PowerPoint presentation
RSHIP–HISTORICAL - Definition of entrepreneur today - Projector
BACKGROUND - Intrapreneurship - Handout
- Is an entrepreneur made or born? - Homework /Assignment
- General Enterprising Tendencies/Traits
[GETS]
- How can GETS Be Developed?
- Types of skills required in
entrepreneurship
- Comparison of traditional managers and
entrepreneurs
13 TEST TWO
14 TEN: FAMILY - Definition of a family business - PowerPoint presentation
BUSINESS AND - Advantages and limitations of family - Projector
SUCCESSION business - Handout
- Definition of copreneurs - Homework /Assignment
- Requirements of a successive
copreneurship
- Successful planning in family business
- Why do many businesses die with
founders?
15&16 - Winding up, discuss questions and prepare for final exam
56

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ENGLISH BOOK

FOR SECONDARY STUDENTS

COMMUNICATION AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP SKILLS

Tel: +255 (22) 2410645

All trademarks acknowledged. E&OE.

© University Computing Centre Ltd. No part of this document may be

All reasonable precautions have been taken in the preparation of this

TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................... i

Communication and Entrepreneurship course allows students in an almost unlimited way

Chapter Seven discusses Common Sentence in sentences.

Chapter One Objectives

Chapter Two Objectives

Chapter Four Objectives

Chapter Seven Objectives

Chapter Eight Objectives

Chapter Nine Objectives

Chapter Ten Objectives

1.1.1: Types of nouns:

i. Proper nouns: Is the name of a particular person, place, thing, etc.

ii. Common noun: is a name given in common to every person or thing of

iii. Collective noun: Is a name of a number (or collection) of persons or things

vii. Countable Nouns

viii. Mass /Uncountable Nouns

1.3.1 Kinds of Adjectives

- Many people in Tanzania like football

1.3.1.6 Possessive adjectives: show possession. examples;

There are 8 kinds of adverbs.

1.4.1 Kinds of adverbs:

- I know where she lives

1.4.1.8 Adverb of affirmation and negation: EXAMPLES;

1.7.1 Some selected prepositions (use)

1.10 Revision Questions for Chapter One

5. Fill in the blanks with suitable prepositions:

2.1 Kinds of sentences (according to use)

-There are five KINDS of sentences based on use:

2.1.1 Assertive sentence: Is a sentence that makes a statement or assertion. Example:

2.1.5 Optative sentence: Is a sentence which expresses a wish or a prayer. EG,

2.2.1 Simple sentence:

He understood my meaning and departed from the house.

2.2.2 Compound sentence:

2.2.3 Complex sentence:

2.2.4 Compound-complex sentence?

i. We wish you the best in your exams.

Simple Present Tense

Simple Past Tense

Simple Future Tense

3.1 Simple Present Tense or Present Indefinite

Simple present tense is used to express repeated, customary or habitual action.

3.1.1 Affirmative sentence:

3.1.2 Negative sentence:

3.1.3 Interrogative sentence:

3.1.4 Interrogative negative sentence:

3.2 Present Continuous or Present Progressive Tense

3.2.1 Affirmative sentence:

3.2.2 Negative sentence:

3.2.3 Interrogative sentence:

What/When/how + is/am/are + Sub + Verb1 + ing +?

3.2.4 Interrogative negative sentence:

What/When/how + is/am/are + Sub + not Verb1 + ing +?

3.3 Present Perfect Tense:

3.3.1 Affirmative sentence:

3.3.2 Negative sentence:

3.3.3 Interrogative sentence: