COMPOSITES

for AUTOMOTIVE,
TRUCK and
MA55 TRANSIT
Materials, Design, Manufacturing

UDAY VAIDYA, Ph.D.

University of Alabama at Binninghatii

O
DEStech Publications, Inc.
 Table of Contents

Foreword IX

Preface xi

Acknowledgments xiii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 History andLegislative Actions 2
1.3 The Case for Lightweighting 5
1.4 Technological Barriers 8
1.5 Advantages and Opportunities 9
1.6 Integral Factors 14

1.7 Summary 15
1.8 References 15

CHAPTER 2: POLYMER RESINS, ADDITIVES AND

SANDWICH CORES FOR AUTOMOTIVE, MASS TRANSIT
AND HEAVY TRUCKS 17

2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Polymer Resins: Thermoset and Thermoplastic 17
2.3 Thermoset Polymer Composites 19
2.4 Thermoplastic Resins 25
2.5 Additives 43
2.6 Structural Foams and Core Materials 50
2.7 Summary 55
2.8 References 58

CHAPTER 3: REINFORCEMENTS FOR AUTOMOTIVE AND

TRANSPORTATION APPLICATIONS 61

3.1 Reinforcing Fibers 61

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3.2 Reinforcement Length Scales and Forms 61

3.3 Glass Fibers 67
3.4 Carbon Graphite Fibers
or 69
3.5 Aramid (Kevlar®) Fibers 71
3.6 High-Strength Polyolefin Fibers 72
3.7 Basalt Fibers 73
3.8 Summary 75
3.9 References 75

CHAPTER 4: MATERIAL FORMS FOR AUTOMOTIVE,

HEAVY TRUCKS AND MASS TRANSIT 77
4.1 Need for Intermediate Material Forms 77
4.2 Preforming 78
4.3 Intermediate Material Form for Thermoplastic
Composites 80
4.4 Summary 86
4.5 References 86

CHAPTER 5: DISCONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT-BASED

PROCESSES FOR AUTOMOTIVE AND TRANSPORTATION
APPLICATIONS 87

5.1 Discontinuous Forms 87

5.2 Glass Mat Thermoplastic Composites (GMT) 88
5.3 Long Fiber Thermoplastics (LFT) 99
5.4 Sheet Molding Compound (SMC) 127
5.5 Compression Molding 131

5.6 Programmable Powdered Preform Process (P4) 134

5.7 Structural Foam Molding 137

5.8 Other Application Case Studies with Discontinuous
Fiber Composites 138
5.9 Exterior 155
5.10 Interior 160
5.11 Lightweighting Fuel Cells 160
5.12 Summary 165
5.13 References 165

CHAPTER 6: CONTINUOUS FIBER REINFORCEMENT

BASED PROCESSES FOR AUTOMOTIVE, HEAVY TRUCKS
AND MASS TRANSIT 173

6.1 Continuous Fiber Composites 173

6.2 Preforming 173

6.3 Continuous Fiber Processes for Automotive and
Transportation Applications 180
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6.4 Application Case Studies with Continuous Fiber

Reinforcements 200
6.5 Summary 212
6.6 References 212

CHAPTER 7: MECHANICS AND DESIGN TIPS 219

7.1 Test Methods and Specific Properties 219

7.2 Conversion Between Volume and Weight
Fractions 221

7.3 Stiffness and Strength Prediction of Discontinuous and

Continuous Fiber Composites 224

7.4 Stiffness Equivalency 232

7.5 Sandwich Composites 234

7.6 Ribbed LFT and Tape Reinforced LFT 239

7.7 Summary 243
7.8 References 243

CHAPTER 8: COMPOSITE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

ANALYSIS FOR AUTOMOTIVE PARTS 245

8.1 Background 245

8.2 Production Requirements 246
8.3 Representative Part 246

8.4 Cost Analysis 247

8.5 Economic Benefit for the Material Supplier 249
8.6 Summary 251
8.7 References 252

CHAPTER 9: CARBON FIBER 253

9.1 Background 253

9.2 Challenges 254
9.3 Typical Properties of Automotive Carbon
Fiber Composites 256
9.4 Carbon Fibers in Cars 257
9.5 Summary 264
9.6 References 264

CHAPTER 10: PERFORMANCE CARS 267

10.1 Background 267

10.2 Performance Cars 267
10.3 Hypercar® 286
10.4 Futuristic Concept Cars 286
10.5 Race Motorbikes 287
10.6 Summary 288
10.7 References 288
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CHAPTER 11: HEAVY TRUCKS AND MASS TRANSIT 291

11.1 Commercial Motor Vehicles (CMVs) 291

11.2 Role ofComposites in Mass Transit 307
11.3 Composite Subelements for Mass Transit 312
11.4 Summary 343
11.5 References 344

CHAPTER 12: JOINING AND ADHESIVES 347

12.1 Joining and Bonding Strategies 347

12.2 Adhesive Bonding 347
12.3 Fusion Bonding/Welding 359
12.4 Joining in Automotive and Transportation
Components 365

12.5 Summary 370

12.6 References 370

CHAPTER 13: BIOCOMPOSITES, RECYCLING AND

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS 373
13.1 Need for Environmentally Friendly Materials 373
13.2 History 373
13.3 Regulations 373
13.4 Green Materials/Natural Fibers 374
13.5 Bio-Resins andNanoclay Modified Resins 382
13.6 Nanocomposites 384
13.7 Intermediate Forms 385
13.8 Examples of Natural Fiber and Biocomposite
Automotive Parts 390
13.9 Recycled Composite Scrap for Transportation 397
13.10 Summary 400
13.11 References 401

CHAPTER 14: OVERALL SUMMARY 405

14.1 Overall Trends 405

14.2 Opportunities and Challenges 406

Index 411