• Sprinkler selection and spacing: The required discharge of an individual sprinkler is a function of the water application rate and

the two-way spacing of the

sprinklers. It may be determined by the following formula: q  Sl  S m  I ; in which, q = required discharge of individual sprinkler, litres/second; Sl = spacing of
360
sprinklers along the laterals, metres; Sm = spacing of laterals along the main, metres; I = optimum application rate, cm/hr.
Height of sprinkler riser pipes: The height of the risers depends upon the maximum height of the crop. To avoid excessive turbulence in the riser pipes, the
minimum height of riser is 30 cm when the riser pipe is of 2.5 cm diameter and 15 cm when it is of 1.8 to 2 cm diameter.
• Capacity of the Sprinkler System: depends on the size of the area to be irrigated (design area), the gross depth of water applied at each irrigation, and the net
operating time allowed to apply water to this depth. System capacity may be calculated as follow: Q  2780  A  d ; in which, Q = discharge capacity of the pump,
FH E
litres/sec; A = area to be irrigated, hectares; d = net depth of water application, cm; F = number of days allowed for the completion of one irrigation; H = number of
actual operating hours/day; E = water application efficiency, %. F and H are of major importance as they have a direct bearing on the capital investment per hectare
required for equipment. Greater the product of these two factors (operating time) the smaller is the system capacity (hence the cost) for a given area.
• Hydraulic Design of sprinkler systems: The hydraulic design of sprinklers is aimed at obtaining a uniform irrigation coverage, the desired rate of application, the
breakup of sprinkler drops necessary to minimize structural deterioration of the soil surface, and the efficiency desired to reduce the energy requirement in
operating the system and to maximise the area of coverage. The main hydraulic principles involved in a sprinkler system design are given below.
Discharge of sprinkler nozzle: The discharge of a sprinkler nozzle may be computed from the following orifice flow formula derived by Toricelli:
3 2
q  Cd  a  2 gH ; in which, q = nozzle discharge, m /sec, a = cross-sectional area of nozzle or orifice, m , H = pressure head at the nozzle, metres, g =
acceleration due to gravity, m/sec2, Cd = coefficient of discharge which is a function of friction and contraction losses (the coefficient Cd of good nozzles should be
0.95 to 0.96).
Water spread area of sprinkler: The area covered by a rotating head sprinkler may be estimated by the following formula suggested by Cavazza: R  1.35  dH ;
in which, R = radius of wetted area covered by the sprinkler, metres, d = diameter of nozzle, metres, H = pressure head at the nozzle, metres. Maximum coverage is
attained when the jet emerges from the sprinkler at an angle of 30° to 32° above the horizontal. Most rotating sprinklers are standardised at 30°.
Break-up of jet: Some break-up of the jet of water is necessary to attain uniformity of coverage and to minimize the presence of excessively large drops. The larger
drops lose less velocity and travel farther. They also strike the soil surface at a higher velocity, with more energy to cause structural deterioration of the soil surface.
There is need for some compromise among distance of throw, uniformity of coverage, and effect on the soil surface. There is a natural tendency of jets to break-up
because of air resistance, and the break-up increases with pressure. The break-up is usually increased by having slots in the nozzle or by a pin impinging on the jet.
Slow rotation sprinklers, which make about 0.67 to 1 rpm for small sprinklers and 0.25 to 0.5 rpm for large sprinklers, provide good coverage. The following
empirical formula suggested by Tanda (Pillsbury, 1968) provides an index of jet break-up: P  H  10q 0.4 ; in which Pd = index for jet break-up, H = pressure
d

head at nozzle, metres, q = sprinkler discharge, litres/sec. It has been noticed that if Pd is greater than 2, the condition of drop size is good; if 4, the condition of
drop size is best; and if greater than 4, pressure is being wasted.
Rate of application: The average rate of application, often called “precipitation intensity”, for a single sprinkler may be estimated by the following formula:
R 
q in which Ra = water application rate, cm/hour, q = rate of discharge of sprinkler, litres/sec, A = wetted area of sprinkler, m2
360  A
a

• Design of Sprinkler Laterals: A sprinkler lateral has equally spaced sprinklers along its length. In the beginning the flow will equal the combined discharge of all
the sprinklers. This will decrease along the line until, at the farthest end, there will be only the flow of the last sprinkler. Therefore, the friction loss in a lateral will
be much less than if the total flow were carried through the entire length of the line. However, many authorities advise against „tapering‟ of pipe diameters in
laterals, as it then becomes necessary to keep the various pipe size in the same relative position. The system may also be less adaptable to other fields and
situations. It is recommended that the total pressure variation in the laterals, when practicable, should not be more than 20 % of the higher pressure. If the lateral
runs uphill or downhill, allowance for this difference in elevation should be made if determining the variation in head. If the water runs uphill, less pressure will be
available at the nozzle; if it runs downhill, there will be a tendency to balance the loss of head due to friction. It is necessary to compute the friction loss in the
lateral line where flow decreases along its length. A simple approximate procedure, devised by Christiansen (1942), has become standard. First, ascertain the
friction loss with full flow to the end of the line, using appropriate formulae or the values given in Appendix H, Table H1 to H5 (based on Scobey‟s formula). Next,
refer to Table given below for “F” factors by which the friction loss with full flow to the end of the line are multiplied to obtain the approximate friction loss in the
lateral. By this method and through trial and error, it will be possible to select a lateral of the proper size, so that the friction loss will not exceed that which is
allowable.
Table: Correction factor „F‟ for friction losses in aluminium pipes with multiple outlets
Correction factor F when Correction factor F when
Number of Number of
1st sprinkler is 1 1st sprinkler is ½ 1st sprinkler is 1 1st sprinkler is ½
sprinklers sprinklers on
sprinkler interval sprinkler interval sprinkler interval sprinkler interval
on lateral lateral
from main from main from main from main
1 1.000 1.000 16 0.365 0.345
2 0.625 0.500 17 0363 0.344
3 0.518 0.422 18 0.361 0.343
4 0.469 0393 19 0.360 0.343
5 0.440 0.378 20 0.359 0.342
6 0.421 0.369 22 0.357 0.341
7 0.408 0.363 24 0.355 0341
8 0398 0.358 26 0.353 0.340
9 0.391 0.355 28 0.351 0.340
10 0.385 0.353 30 0.350 0.339
11 0.380 0.351 35 0.347 0.338
12 0.376 0.349 40 0.345 0.338
13 0.373 0.348 50 0.343 0.337
14 0.370 0.347 100 0.338 0.337
15 0.367 0.346 > 100 0.335 0.335
The design capacity for sprinklers on a lateral is based on the average operating pressure. Where the friction loss, Hf, in the laterals is within 20 % of the
average pressure, the average head, Ha, for design in a sprinkler line can be expressed approximately by Ha = Ho + ¼ Hf; in which Ho is the pressure at the sprinkler
on the farthest end. Thus, the average pressure is equal to the pressure at the farthest end plus one-fourth the friction loss. Where the lateral is on nearly level land
or on the contour, the head (pressure) Hn at the main is Hn = Ho + Hf.
By Solving for Ho in equation Ha = Ho + ¼ Hf, by substituting in equation Hn = Ho + Hf and by making an allowance for differences in elevation along the
lateral. Hn = Ha + ¾ Hf ± ¾ He + Hr; in which, He = maximum difference in elevation between the first and last sprinklers on the lateral, metres, and Hr = the riser
height, metres. The term ¾ He is positive if the lateral runs up the slope and negative if it runs down the slope. This term is an approximation since the allowance
for the difference in elevation varies with the number of sprinklers on the lateral.

Pressure profile in sprinkler irrigation lateral laid uphill Pressure profile in sprinkler irrigation line laid downhill
• Main Line Pipe Size: The function of the main lines and sub-mains is to convey the required quantity of water at the desired pressure to all lateral lines under
maximum pressure conditions. The selection should be based on economic considerations. Main line friction loss of about 3 m for small systems and 12 m for large
systems may be allowed. The friction losses in main lines of the portable aluminium pipe can be determined Appendix H, Tables H1 and H3. Semi-rigid plastic
irrigation pipelines manufactured of PVC or asbestos compound are also used in sprinkler irrigation. In designing sprinkler irrigation, water may be pumped
through low pressure reinforced cement concrete (RCC) pipes to a booster pump employed to pump water directly in the laterals. Appendix H Tables H4 and H5
provide, respectively, the friction loss in PVC or asbestos compounds and asbestos cement pressure pipes.
• Pumps and power Units: In selecting a suitable pump, it is necessary to determine the total head against which the pump is working. This may be determined by:
Ht = Hn + Hm + Hj + Hs in which Ht = total design head against which the pump is working, m, Hn = maximum head required at the main to operate the sprinklers
on the lateral at the required average pressure, including the riser height, m, Hm = maximum friction loss in the main and in the suction line, m, Hj = elevation
difference between the pump and the junction of the lateral and the main, m, and Hs = elevation difference between the pump and the source of water after
drawdown, m. The amount of water that will be required is determined by multiplying the number of sprinklers by the capacity of each. When the total head and
rate of pumping are known, the pump may be selected from rating curves or tables furnished by the manufacturer.