Methodology and (sort of) Statistics

Classification of Data
Primary Data – first-hand information gathered by the person who needs it
Secondary Data – information gathered by other researchers
Methods of Collecting Data
1. Interview Method – data is obtained through an oral exchange of questions and
answers between the researchers and respondents.
a. Structured
b. Unstructured
c. Non-directive
2. Questionnaire Method – data is provided by the respondents in a set of
questions given by the researcher
3. Document Method – data which is already available and gathered by the
researchers to use in their studies
4. Observation Method – data is acquired through a direct observation by the
researchers
a. Participant Observer
b. Non-Participant Observer
5. Experiment Method – data is gathered through an experimentation
6. Transcribing – transcribed audio-visual recordings
Data Measurement
Data in a Quantitative Research should be measurable.
1. Nominal or Categorical scale – specific values are given into groups. But no
significant value.
Note: Used for labelling
2. Ordinal scale – it provides a rank or order of data.
3. Interval scale – it provides flexibility of responses but does not have a zero
value.
4. Ratio scale – almost same with interval scale but has a zero value.

Sample Size
An element of the sample set, sample size provides the precision of the results in
using the sample instead of the population.
 In determining this, we have to consider the confidence level and the margin of
error.
Confidence level is the level of precision that the true value of the parameter of the
population is included in the sample. It is presented in percentage, frequently used are
99%, 95%, 90%.
Margin of error is the maximum difference that can be expected between the
parameter of the true population and of the sample. Frequently used are: ±3%, ±5%
In determining the sample size, it should be remembered that confidence level is inversely
proportional to the margin of error.

Slovin’s Formula:

𝑁
𝑛=
1 + 𝑁𝑒 2
Sampling Techniques
After determining the number of samples, the next thing to do is to know how these
samples will be gathered and what factors are to be considered.
1. Probability sampling, a procedure where every element of the population is given an
equal chance of being selected as a member of the sample.
a. Random sampling – this procedure may be done through lottery, Table of
Random Numbers, Scientific Calculator or a computer program.
b. Systematic sampling – an alternative to random sampling technique when
the population is too big, Systematic sampling procedure can be
 considered. The samples are determined by choosing every nth element on
a list until desired samples are drawn.
c. Stratified Random sampling – this is done by creating different classes or
strata within the population. Example: grade level, income groupings,
gender
d. Cluster sampling – if the population is too big, a sampling method may be
employed to smaller areas. Population might be divided geographically into
regions, divisions, districts etc.
2. Nonprobability Sampling, a procedure where not every element of the population is
given an equal chance of being part of the sample size.
a. Convenience sampling – researchers’ convenience is the primary concern
of this method
b. Quota sampling – similar with stratified sampling but the drawing of
respondents is not random.
c. Purposive sampling – this is used when the specific object under study
requires a particular sample.
Validity and Reliability of Instrument
1. Validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what it needs to measure.
a. External validity – is the extent to which the results of a study can be
generalized from a sample to population.
b. Content validity – refers to appropriateness of the content of an
instrument. Does your instrument ask what you want to know?
2. Reliability is concern with the consistency of the instruments.
a. Inter-rater/ observer reliability – degree of differences of rates/ scores
given by different observers
b. Test-retest reliability – consistency of instrument over time
c. Parallel-forms reliability – reliability of two test constructed the same
way, from the same context
d. Internal consistency reliability – consistency of results across items,
often measured by Cronbach’s Alpha (there’s an Application). It
measures the average correlation of items in a survey.

Quantitative Data Analysis using Statistics

Parametric Test are test that require measurements which are expressed in an interval
or ratio.
Non-parametric Test are test require measurements which are nominal and ordinal in
nature.
 Quantitative data analysis refers to a numerical representation and manipulation
of data for the purpose of describing and explaining the phenomena that those data
reflect.
1. Descriptive Analyses – this analysis is called descriptive because it is able to
summarize large amounts of information.
Here involves:
Frequency, percentages, ranks
Mean, median, mode
Range and standard deviation
2. Inferential Analyses – these analyses are more complex and it measures significant
differences and relationships
Here are some of the most common treatments:
Differences:
 T-test (Parametric Test) concern between the differences between
means, number of samples is less than 30
o One Sample Mean Test – comparison between the population
mean and the sample given variance
o Independent Sample – comparison of two independent
variables
o Correlated Samples – comparison between the means of two
correlated samples
 Z-test (Parametric Test) concern between the differences of means
in a large number of samples (>30)
o One Sample Mean Test – comparison between the population
mean and the sample given variance
o Independent Samples – comparison between the means of
two independent samples
 Analysis of Variance or ANOVA (Parametric Test) – compare the
means of more than two groups of independent samples
o One way ANOVA – compare the means of more than two
groups of independent samples with only single variable
o Two way ANOVA – compare the means of more than two
groups of independent samples with two variables
Relationship:
 Pearson Product-moment Correlation Coefficient or Pearson R
(Parametric Test) – concern between two variables (independent
and dependent variable)
 Spearman Rank- Order Correlation Coefficient or Spearman Rho
(Non-Parametric Test) – concern between two variables
(independent and dependent variables)
Chapter 3: Methodology

Research Design:
 Describe the research method used in the present study
 Explain the “why” of using the design
Research Locale
 Describe the characteristics of the locale involve in the study
 Presents importance of the locale to the participants
Samples and Sampling Technique
 Describes the target population and the sample size
 Describe the sampling method
 Explain how the sample size was determined
Instrumentation
 Describe the instruments used to measure the variables in the study,
including the source, number of items and type of scale and explain validity
and reliability of instruments
 If instruments were translated into a different language, translation
procedures and validation should be presented
 For researcher-made instruments, include details of the steps or procedure
taken to develop the scale and ensure validity and reliability
Statistical Treatment of Data
 Explain the statistical treatment used in the data
 Present the formula, representations, equivalence and integral parts
Data Gathering Procedure
 Explain the steps how you gather the data (chronologically)
 If pre-test, test-retest or the like were conducted, report any relevant steps
and the resulting adjustments or modifications on measures, respondents,
or procedure
 Description how validity and reliability was ensured in the research.