Mechanical Behavior of Materials – Q&A

Exam Structure

6 short answer theory questions [5 marks each x 6 = 30]

(5mins*6 = 30mins)

1 design question [20 marks]

(50mins) - structure of materials

5 long answer questions [10 marks each x 5 = 50]

(20*5 = 1hr 40m) - Elasticity, Creep, Fatigue, Fracture -
macroscopic, Fracture - microscopic

1. Group the materials classes: metals, ceramics, glasses, elastomers, thermosets, thermoplastics
above 2/3 melting point according to the source of their elasticity.

Entropic effects: elastomers, thermoplastics above 2/3 Tm

Electrostatic effects: ceramics, metals, glasses, thermosets

2. Plastic deformation should occur with negligible force as dislocations exist in a metastable state,
however significant shear forces are necessary in practice. Explain briefly along with the name
given to the particular force.

Dislocation planes cause regions of compressive and tensile stress within the lattice. These give
rise to frictional drag during dislocation motion termed as Peierl’s force.

3. A tile manufacturer found the strengths of his floor-tiles to have coefficient of variation of 13%,
would you attribute this to normal statistical variation? Give reasons.

No. A co-efficient of variation up to 10% is allowed for random statistical variation of strength in
brittle materials. Exceeding this figure means that there is substantial inconsistency in the
production process (e.g. quality in raw materials, process parameters etc.).

4. A corrosion resistant alloy steel was found to fail during operation at 350o C, at a stress that is half
its yield strength, what is the possible mechanism of failure?
 This is below the yield strength so not static failure by yield.
350oC is much below half melting point temperatures for steels hence not creep
Most probable failure mechanism is fatigue.

5. During toughness testing, the energy absorbed during fracture is termed as toughness, what is
this energy used for in very brittle and tough materials respectively?

Very Brittle materials : Breaking of bonds

Tough materials : Plastic deformation at crack tip

6. Distinguish between high cycle and low cycle fatigue illustrated with suitable graphs.

High cycle fatigue: maximum stress below yield stress

Low cycle fatigue: maximum stress above yield stress
A cyclic curve on a stress vs time graph illustrating above two points are sufficient.

7. A load bearing steel component is subject to annealing for 3 hours at 700oC after manufacture to
relieve internal stresses. The average grain diameter is 45μm prior to annealing.

(i) If grain growth during annealing can be modelled by Kt = D2 – D02. Where K = 4.43x10-11 m2s-1
is a constant, t is time, Do and D are the initial and final grain diameters. Find the final average
grain size after annealing.

𝐷 = √𝐾𝑡 + 𝐷02 = √4.43 × 10−11 × (3 × 60) + (45 × 10−6 )2 = 100𝜇𝑚

(ii) The yield strength of the same steel corresponding to their grain sizes are given in the table
below. Determine the coefficients of the Hall-Petch equation.

Average grain diameter / μm Yield strength /MPa

60.5 160
136 130

𝜎𝑌 = 𝜎0 + 𝑘𝑌 𝑑−1/2

Simultaneously solving: 160 = 𝜎0 + 𝑘𝑌 × 60.5−1/2 and 130 = 𝜎0 + 𝑘𝑌 × 136−1/2

σ0 = 220 MPa , kY = 700

(iii) Find the loss of yield strength in the steel due to annealing process.

1 1 1 1
−
Loss of yield strength, ∆𝜎𝑌 = 𝑘𝑌 ( 𝑑−2 − 𝑑0 2 ) = 700 ( 100−2 − 45−2 ) = −34.3 𝑀𝑃𝑎
(iv) What is the effect of grain size reduction on the strength and toughness of a metal?

Increased grain boundaries will increase resistance to dislocation movement hence, increase
in strength of metal.

During plastic deformation, dislocation start to move and pile up at the grain boundaries as
adjacent grains have different crystallographic orientations and effectively form cracks that
are of comparable size to the grains.
𝐸𝐺
From the Griffith’s equation for ductile materials 𝜎𝑓 = √ 𝜋𝑎𝑐 , we replace a by the grain
𝐸𝐺𝑐
diameter d, therefore 𝜎𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 𝑑−1/2 where 𝑘𝑓 = √
𝜋

Comparing the variation of fracture stress and yield stress with change of diameter when
typical values for a metal are substituted in the constants. We see that as the diameter is
reduced, the yield stress will be lesser than the fracture stress hence the material toughness
will increase.

8. (i) Formulate an expression for the elasticity of a crystalline ionic solid material having a Madelung
constant C and under uniaxial tension. State all assumptions and define your symbols.

Total binding energy on one ion due to the presence of all others in an ionic lattice
Where fattr and frep represent attractive and repulsive forces and C and B are proportionality
constants, n is material dependent constant
𝐴𝐶𝑒 2 𝐵
𝑈 = 𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑟 + 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑝 = − 𝑟
+ 𝑟𝑛

The equilibrium separation between ions r0 is the minimum of the above energy function,
Thus by derivation
1
𝑑𝑈 𝑛𝐵 𝑛−1
( 𝑑𝑟 ) = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 = 𝑟0 ⇒ 𝑟0 = (𝐴𝐶𝑒 2 )
𝑟= 𝑟0
 If the interionic separation is r0, there will be 1/r02 ions on the unit area, each being pulled by a
force f. Since the total force F is just f times the number of ions, the stress can then be written as
1
𝜎=𝐹=𝑓
𝑟02

Strain is the change in interionic separation over its original separation

𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝜖 = 𝑟

By definition of Young’s modulus

𝑑𝜎 𝑑𝜎 𝑑𝑟 1 𝑑𝑓 1 𝑑 𝐴𝐶𝑒 2 𝑛𝐵
𝐸= 𝑑𝜖 𝜖→0
= 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜖 𝜖→0
= 𝑟0 𝑑𝑟 𝑟→𝑟
=𝑟 ( 𝑟2 − 𝑟𝑛+1 )
0 𝑑𝑟 𝑟→𝑟0
0

Substituting for B in terms of r0 from the previous derivation and simplifying:

(𝑛−1)𝐴𝐶𝑒 2
𝐸= 𝑟04

1
9. (i) Given that for an elastomer 𝜎 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇 (𝜆 − 𝜆2 ), where N is the number of chains per unit
volume, and λ is the extension ratio. Show that initial engineering modulus is given by E = 3NkT.

1
lim 𝜎 = lim 𝑁𝑘𝑇 [(1 + 𝜖) − ] = 𝑁𝑘𝑇 (3𝜖) ; taking ε2 and higher orders as zero and
𝜖→0 𝜖→0 (1+𝜖)2
simplifying

𝜎
𝐸= 𝜖
= 3𝑁𝑘𝑇

(ii) A bungee jumping firm wants to do check whether their bungee chord is safe for their clients
to use. Given the un-stretched diameter and length of the chord being A0 and L0 respectively and
the maximum jumper’s weight being w, formulate an equation for the extension ratio when the
jumper reaches the lowest point of the drop.

The jumper gains kinetic energy during free fall, which is equal to loss in gravitational potential
energy wL0 this is entirely converted to the entropic strain energy in the bungee chord when it is
completely stretched.

1
From conservation of volume for a cube, 𝜆2𝑦 = 𝜆2𝑧 =
𝜆

𝑁𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑘𝑇 2
𝑤𝐿0 = 𝑉 ∆𝑊𝑉 = (𝐴0 𝐿0 ) [ 2
(𝜆2𝑥 + 𝜆2𝑦 + 𝜆2𝑧 − 3)] = (𝐴0 𝐿0 ) [ 2
(𝜆2 + 𝜆
− 3)]
 Using E = 3NkT,

𝑤 1 2
𝐴0 𝐸
= 6
(𝜆2 + 𝜆 − 3)

(iii) Solve the formulated equation for the extension ratio given w=1000N and unstretched
diameter of chord being 3cm. Will the bungee jumper be safe if height of the cliff is 20 L0 ?

𝑤 1 2
𝐴0 𝐸
= 6
(𝜆2 + 𝜆 − 3) , substitute for w, A0 and E and simplify to

0 = (𝜆3 − 15.3𝜆 + 2), select correct solution, positive and largest λ =3.84

Extension ratio required for jumper to hit the bottom of cliff = 20 L0/L0 = 20

λ < 20, therefore the bungee jumper will be safe.

10. Suppose it is found that a 2mm long crack has developed in the surface of a steel spherical
pressure vessel for gas storage during inspection.
(i) If the pressure vessel has a diameter of 1m and a thickness of 5mm and develops a
maximum pressure of 15 MPa find the stress on the pressure vessel material.

𝜋𝐷 2
By balance of forces 𝜋𝐷𝑡𝜎 = 𝑃 4
𝑃𝐷 15𝑀𝑃𝑎 × 1𝑚
𝜎= = = 250 𝑀𝑃𝑎
4𝑡 4 × 15 × 10−3 𝑚

(ii) Assuming that the crack can be considered to be a center crack in an infinite plate find
the critical crack size. What is the significance of the critical crack size?

𝐾𝐼𝑐
𝜎𝑓 =
√𝜋𝑎
𝐾𝐼𝑐 2 (150 𝑀𝑁𝑚2 )2
Therefore 𝑎 = 𝜋𝜎𝑓 2
= 𝜋(250 𝑀𝑃𝑎)2
= 0.114𝑚 = 114mm
Crack length = 2 x 114mm = 228 mm

Critical crack size is the size beyond which there will be spontaneous/rapid crack
propagation.

(iii) During operation the pressure vessel is being subject to constant cyclic pressurization and
depressurization at a frequency of 20 times per hour. If the crack has grown to 20mm
after 24 hours. Find the probable number of operating hours to failure.

𝑑𝑎
Paris’ Law: 𝑑𝑁 = 𝐴(∆𝐾)𝑚 where K is the stress intensity factor
 Integrate to give
1−𝑚/2 1−𝑚/2 2−𝑚
|𝑎𝑓 − 𝑎0 |= 𝐴(∆𝜎)𝑚 𝜋 𝑚/2 𝑁
2𝑚

Substitute A=10-11 and m=3 for steel from the tables.

af = 0.114m and a0 = 0.01m
Solve for N,
Number of probable hours = N/20

(iv) Suggest a technique to increase fatigue life of metals, explain its mechanism of action.

Shot peening, develops compressive stresses on the outer surface of the object, as
fracture propagates under tension, it first needs to overcome the compressive force to
propagate, hence increases fatigue life.

11. Conductors for electrical cables are made by drawing a rod of the metal through a die to reduce
its diameter. During this type of processing it is common for a preferred crystallographic
orientation to develop, which is a specific microstructural term meaning alignment of the unit
cells’ orientation. The following question refers to an FCC type metal.

Assume that the two most common orientations to form are planes (111) and (100) aligned
normal to the direction of drawing.

(i) Given that the normal to a plane have the same indices as the plane for a cubic structured
metal, write the direction of the tension on the conductor for each of the two above
mentioned orientations.

[111] and [100]

(ii) The slip direction and slip planes for FCC type metals are <110> and [111] respectively.
Calculate the Schmidt factors for both orientations and hence explain which orientation is
preferred.

For (111) normal to drawing direction

cosø is the dot product of tension and slip plane vectors

1∙1+ 1∙1+1∙1
𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = =1
√12 +12 +12 √12 +12 +12

cos λ is the dot product of tension and slip direction vectors

1∙1+ 1∙1+1∙0 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠λ = = √3
√12 +12 +12 √12 +12 +02
 2
𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅𝑐𝑜𝑠λ = √3

Similarly for (100) normal to drawing direction

1
𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅𝑐𝑜𝑠λ =
√6

From Schmid’s relation, 𝜏 = 𝑚𝜎, we can see that the orientation where (100) plane normal
to drawing direction will give a lesser shear stress in the slip plane hence it is preferred.

(iii) If the critical shear stress for the metal is 4 MPa and the drawn wire has a diameter of 1.5mm
what is the tension at which the drawn conductor will break in the case of the preferred
orientation.

𝑇𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝜏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 𝑚𝜎 = 𝑚 𝐴

Substituting the given values, the conductor will break at a tension of 17.3 N

12. (i) At which temperatures does creep start to exhibit in ceramics and metals.

Around 0.3 to 0.4 times the melting point.

(ii) Explain the usage of the Larson-Miller relationship.

Creep is a diffusion based process, increase in temperature speeds up creep, therefore there must
exist some equivalence between the effect of temperature and time. The Larson-Miller
relationship is one such parametric relationship between the two, given that there are no changes
in the applied stress level and the phase in the material, it allows one to conduct experiments at
a higher temperature with significantly less rupture time and then to estimate the rupture time
for a lesser temperature.

(iii) A gas turbine component A was originally designed to operate at 700°C and exhibited a stress
rupture life 800h. Component B in the same section of the turbine was redesigned, thereby
allowing its operating temperature to be raised to 725°C.

Both components are replaced after 100 hrs according to maintenance schedule. Could
component A be also used at 725C without modification? (Assume that the Larson-Miller constant
for the material is equal to 20.)

Using the Larson-Miller relation, 𝑃 = 𝑇[𝐶 + log(𝑡)] and P being constant due to assuming that
there is no change of phase from 700C to 725C.

(273 + 700)(20 + log 800) = (273 + 725)(20 + log 𝑡)

t = 212 hours, which exceeds 100 hrs therefore component A could be used at the higher

temperature.