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1.6. Exercises
P1.1 Using Cartesian bases, show that (u Ä v) ⋅ (w Ä x) = (v ⋅ w)u Ä x where u, v,
w, and x are rank 1 tensor.

Solution: Using the Cartesian basis, (u Ä v)(w Ä x) = (ui ei Ä v j e j ) ⋅ (wk ek Ä xl el ) .

Since the dot product occurs between adjacent bases, we have

(ui ei Ä v j e j ) ⋅ (wk ek Ä xl el )
= uiv j wk xl (e j ⋅ ek )(ei Ä el )
= uiv j wk xl djk (ei Ä el )
= uiv j w j xl (ei Ä el )
= v j w j (ui ei Ä xl el )
= (v ⋅ w)(u Ä x)

In the above equation, we used the following properties: e j ⋅ ek = d jk , wk djk = w j , and

v jw j = v ⋅ w .

P1.2 Any rank 2 tensor T can be decomposed by T = S + W, where S is the symmetric

part of T and W is the skew part of T. Let A be a symmetric rank 2 tensor. Show
A : W = 0 and A : T = A : S .

Solution: Since A is symmetric and W is skew, we have

A : W = AijWij = -AijW ji = -AjiW ji

Since in the above equation, the repeated indices i and j are dummy, the above equation
can be rewritten as

AijWij = -AijWij = 0

In addition, from the relation T = S + W,

A : T = A : (S + W) = A : S + A : W = A : S

P1.3 For a symmetric rank-two tensor E , using the index notation, show that
I : E = E , where I = 21 [dik djl + dil djk ] is a symmetric unit tensor of rank-4.

Solution: Using index notation, the contraction operator can be written as

(I : E)ij = 12 [dik djl + dil djk ]Ekl

Since the Kronecker-delta symbol replaces indices, the above equation can be written as
 (I : E)ij = 12 [Eij + E ji ] = Eij = (E)ij

The symmetric property of E is used.

P1.4 The deviator of a symmetric rank-2 tensor is defined as Adev = A - Am 1 where

Am = 13 (A11 + A22 + A33 ) . Find the rank-4 deviatoric identity tensor Idev that satisfies
Adev = Idev : A .

Solution: From Problem P1.3, it can be shown that I : A = A . In addition, Am can be

written in the tensor notation as Am = 13 1 : A . Therefore, Adev = A - Am 1 and it can be
written as

Adev = éêë I - 13 1 Ä 1ùúû : A = Idev : A

The last equality defined the rank-4 deviatoric identity tensor Idev .

P1.5 The norm of a rank-2 tensor is defined as A = A : A . Calculate the following

derivative ¶ A / ¶A . What is the rank of the derivative?

Solution: From the definition

¶ A ¶ é 1 A
= ê(A : A)1/2 ùú = (A : A)-1/2(2A : I) =
¶A ¶A ë û 2 A

The result is a rank-2 tensor. Note that the property that ¶A / ¶A = I is used.

P1.6 A unit rank-2 tensor in the direction of rank-2 tensor A can be defined as
N = A / A . Show that ¶N / ¶A = [I - N Ä N] / A .

Solution: Using chain-rule of differentiation, the unit normal tensor can be differentiated
as
æ ö æ ¶ A ö÷
¶N ¶ çç A ÷÷ 1 çç ¶A
= çç ÷÷ = ç
2 ç
A - A Ä ÷÷÷
¶A ¶A çè A ÷ø÷ A çè ¶A ¶A ÷÷ø

It is straightforward to show that ¶A / ¶A = I . From Problem 1.5, we have

¶ A ¶ é 1 A
= ê(A : A)1/2 ùú = (A : A)-1/2 (2A) =
¶A ¶A ë û 2 A

Therefore, we have
 ¶N 1
¶A
= ( I - N Ä N)
A

P1.7 Through direct calculation of a rank-2 tensor, show that the following identity
erst det[A] = eijk Air Ajs Akt is true

Solution: In the index notation, (r, s, t) are real indices, while (i, j, k) are dummy indices.
Since (r, s, t) only appears in the permutation symbol, it is enough to show the cases of
even and odd permutation. Consider the following case of even permutation: (r, s, t) = (1,
2, 3). In such a case, non-zero components of the right-hand side can be written as

eijk Ai 1Aj 2Ak 3 = e123A11A22A33 + e132A11A32A23

+e231A21A32A13 + e213A21A12A33
+e312A31A12A23 + e321A31A22A13

In the above equation, we have e123 = e231 = e312 = 1 and e132 = e213 = e 321 = -1 .
Therefore, the above equation becomes

eijk Ai 1Aj 2Ak 3 = A11(A22A33 - A32A23 ) + A21(A32A13 - A12A33 ) + A31(A12A23 - A22A13 )

which is the definition of det[A ] . By following a similar approach, it can be shown that
the odd permutation of (r, s, t) will yield - det[A] .

P1.8 For a vector r = x1e1 + x 2e2 + x 3 e3 and its norm r = r , prove  ⋅ (rr) = 4r .

Solution: From the product rule,

 ⋅ (rr) = r ⋅ r + r  ⋅ r

Now consider

¶ 1 ¶ 1 ¶x j ¶x j 1 x
(r )i = (x j x j )1/2 = (x j x j ) = ( xj + xj ) = dij x j = i
¶x i 2(x k x k ) ¶x i
1/2 2r ¶x i ¶x i r r

Therefore,

xi ¶x r2
 ⋅ (rr) = r ⋅ r + r  ⋅ r = xi + r i = + 3r = 4r
r ¶x i r

This completes the proof.

P1.9 A velocity gradient is decomposed into symmetric and skew parts, v = d + w ,
where

1 æ ¶v ¶v j ö÷ 1 æ ¶v ¶v j ö÷
dij = ççç i + ÷÷, wij = ççç i - ÷÷
2 çè ¶x j ¶x i ø÷ 2 èç ¶x j ¶x i ø÷

Show that
(a) For a symmetric stress tensor, s : v = s : d .

1 ¶v
(b) wij = eijkemnk m
2 ¶x n

Solution:
(a) From Prob. 1.2, Since stress tensor is symmetric, s : w = 0 . Therefore, it is obvious
that s : v = s : w + s : d = s : d .

(b) The direct substitution method can be used to show the identity. We will show the
case when i = 1, j = 2 . The other cases can also be shown in the same way. Knowing
that the permutation symbol becomes zero when indices are repeated, in this case the
only nonzero situation happens when k = 3 . For the second permutation symbol, the
only non-zero situations are m = 1, n = 2 and m = 2, n = 1 , where the former is even
permutation and the latter is odd permutation. Therefore,

1 ¶v 1 æ ¶v ¶v ö
w12 = e123emn 3 m = çç 1 - 2 ÷÷÷
2 ¶x n 2 çè ¶x 2 ¶x1 ÷ø

Other cases can also be shown in the same way.

P1.10 A symmetric rank four tensor is defined by D = l1 Ä 1 + 2mI where 1 = [dij ] is

a unit tensor of rank-two and I = 21 [dik djl + dil djk ] is a symmetric unit tensor of rank-four.
When E is an arbitrary symmetric rank-two tensor, calculate S = D : E in terms of E .

Solution: Using index notation, the contraction can be written as

Sij = Dijkl Ekl = éêldij dkl + m(dik djl + dil djk )ùú Ekl
ë û
Since the Kronecker-delta symbol replaces indices, the above equation can be simplified
as

Sij = Dijkl Ekl = lEkk dij + m(Eij + E ji ) = lEkk dij + 2mEij

In the tensor notation, the above relation can be written as

S = D : E = ltr (E)1 + 2mE
P1.11 Using integration by parts, calculate I = ò x cos(x )dx .
Solution: Let u = x and v ¢ = cos(x ) . Then

ò x cos(x )dx = ò uv ¢ dx
= uv - ò u ¢v dx
= x sin(x ) - ò sin(x )dx
= x sin(x ) + cos(x ) + C

P1.12 Using integration by parts, calculate I = ò ex cos(x )dx .

Solution: Let u = cos(x ) and v ¢ = e x . Then

ò e x cos(x )dx = ex cos(x ) + ò ex sin(x )dx

Now, to evaluate the second terms on the right-hand side using additional integration by
parts with u = sin(x ) and v ¢ = e x , as

ò e x sin(x )dx = e x sin(x ) - ò ex cos(x )dx

Therefore, putting these together, we have

ò e x cos(x )dx = e x cos(x ) + ex sin(x ) - ò ex cos(x )dx

After rearranging, the original integral can be obtained as

1
ò e x cos(x )dx = 2 (ex cos(x ) + ex sin(x )) + C

P1.13 Calculate the surface integral of the vector function F = xe1 + ye2 over the
portion of the surface of the unit sphere, S : x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 , above the xy plane; i.e.,
z ³ 0.

òS F ⋅ n dS
Solution: If we close the surface of integration by adding the portion of the xy plane
which spans the hemisphere, we notice that the surface integral of F over the added
surface is zero, since

F ⋅ n = F ⋅ (-e3 ) = 0
over this area. Thus, the divergence theorem states that we may calculate the required
surface integral of F by evaluating

òS F ⋅ n dS = òòV  ⋅ F dV
where V is the volume interior of the hemisphere. Since  ⋅ F = 2 , the result is merely
twice the volume of the unit hemisphere, or 4p/3.

P1.14 Evaluate the surface integral of a vector, F = xe1 + ye2 + ze3 , over the closed
surface of the cube bounded by the planes, x = 1, y = 1, z = 1 , using the
divergence theorem.

òS F ⋅ n dS
Solution: Using the divergence theorem and  ⋅ F = 3 ,

òS F ⋅ n dS = òòV  ⋅ F dV = òòV 3 dV = 24

P1.15 Consider a unit-depth (in z-axis) infinitesimal element as shown in the figure.
Using force equilibrium, derive the governing differential equation in two-dimension
(equilibrium in x- and y-directions). Assume that a uniform body force, f B = [ f1B , f2B ] , is
applied to the infinitesimal element.
 22 y
dy
2

 21 y  dy
2
y  12 x
dx
2
 11 x  dx  11 x  dx
2 x 2
 12 x
dx
2

 21 y  dy
2

 22 y
dy
2

Solution: Equilibrium in the x–direction yields the following equation:

æ ö÷ æ ÷÷ödy + æçç t ö÷ æ ö÷
çç s dx ÷÷dy - çç s11 dx dy ÷÷dx - çç t21 dy ÷dx + f1Bdxdy = 0
èç 11 x+ ø èç x- ÷ø èç 21 y+ ø èç y- ø÷
2 2 2 2

If the first-order Taylor series expansion is used to represent stresses on the surfaces of
the rectangle in terms of stresses at the center, the first two terms in the above equation
can be approximated by
 æ ö÷ æ ö
çç s dx÷dy - çç s11 x -dx ÷÷dy
çè 11 x+
2
÷ø èç 2 ø
÷
æ ¶s dx ö æ ¶s11 dx ÷ö ¶s
= çç s11 x + 11 ÷÷÷dy - çç s11 - ÷÷dy = 11 dxdy
çè ¶x 2 ø÷ çè x ¶x 2 ÷ø ¶x

Similarly, the next two terms can be approximated by

æ ö÷ æ ö
çç t dy÷÷dx - çç t21 y -dy ÷÷÷dx
çè 21 y+
2 ø èç 2 ø
æ ¶ t dy ö æ ¶t21 dy ö÷ ¶t
= çç t21 y + 21 ÷÷÷dx - çç t21 - ÷÷dx = 21 dxdy
çè ¶y 2 ÷ø çè y ¶y 2 ÷ø ¶y

By substituting these two equations into the original equation, we obtain an equilibrium
equation in the x–direction as

¶s11 ¶t21
+ + f1B = 0
¶x ¶y

Similarly, equilibrium in the y-direction yields the following equation:

¶t12 ¶s22
+ + f2B = 0
¶x ¶y

P1.16 In the above unit-depth (in z-axis) infinitesimal element, show that the stress
tensor is symmetric using moment equilibrium.

Solution: Moment equilibrium with respect to the center of the element becomes
æ ö÷ dxdy æ ö÷ dxdy æ ö÷ dxdy æ ö÷ dxdy
çç t dx ÷ + çç t12 dx ÷ - çç t21 dy ÷ - çç t21 dy ÷ =0
çè 12 x+
2 ø÷ 2 èç x-
2 ø÷ 2 èç y+
2 ø÷ 2 èç y-
2 ø÷ 2

If the first-order Taylor series expansion is used to represent stresses on the surfaces of
the rectangle in terms of stresses at the center,

t12dxdy - t21dxdy = 0

Thus, the stress tensor is symmetric. The same relation can be shown for 3-D stress
tensor.

P1.17 The principal stresses at a point in a body are given by s1 = 4, s2 = 2, s3 = 1 ,

and the principal directions of the first two principal stresses are given by
n(1) = 1 (0,1, -1) and n(2) = 1 (0,1,1) . Determine the state of stress at the point; i.e., 6
2 2
components of stress tensor.
Solution:
Since the three principal directions are mutually orthogonal, the third principal direction
can be calculated by using the cross-product of the two principal directions, as

n(3) = n(1) ´ n(2) = (1, 0, 0)

Since these three principal directions are mutually orthogonal, they can be considered as
a basis of coordinate system. In this new coordinate system, the stress tensor will only
have diagonal components, which is the same as the three principal stresses. Then, the
transformation between the two coordinate systems for a rank-2 tensor can be written as

[ s]123 = [Q]T[ s]xyz [Q]

where [Q] = [ n(1) n(2) n(3) ] is the orthogonal transformation matrix between the two
coordinate systems. Using the property that the inverse of an orthogonal matrix is the
same as the transpose, the reverse relationship can be obtained as

[ s]xyz = [Q][ s]123[Q]T

Or,

é 0 0 1 ùú éê 4 0 0 ùú éê 0 1 - 1 ù
é1 0 0 ùú
ê 2 2ú
ê
ê ú
[ s]xyz =ê 1 1 0 ú êê 0 2 0 úú êê 0 1 1 ú = ê0 3 -1 úú
ê 2 2 úê 2 2 ú ê
úê ú ê 0 -1 3 ú
ê- 1 1 0 ú ëê 0 0 1 ûú êë 1 0 0 ú
û ëê ûú
ë 2 2 û
The last matrix defines all 6 components of stress tensor.

P1.18 Find the principal stresses and the corresponding principal stress directions for the
following cases of plane stress:
(a) s11 = 40 MPa, s22 = 0 MPa, s12 = 80 MPa
(b) s11 = 140 MPa, s22 = 20 MPa, s12 = −60 MPa
(c) s11 = −120 MPa, s22 = 50 MPa, s12 = 100 MPa

Solution:
(a) The stress matrix becomes
é sxx txy ù é 40 80 ù
ê ú=ê ú
êt syy úú ê 80 0 ú MPa
êë xy û ê
ë úû

To find the principal stresses, the standard eigen value problem can be written as
é s - sI ù { n } = 0
ë û

The above problem will have non-trivial solution when the determinant of the coefficient
matrix becomes zero:
 sxx - s txy 40 - s 80
= =0
txy syy - s 80 0-s

The equation of the determinant becomes:

( ( 40 - s ) ⋅ -s ) - ( 80 ⋅ 80 ) = s 2 - 40s - 6400 = 0
The above quadratic equation yields two principal stresses, as

s1 = 102.46 MPa and s2 = -62.46 MPa .

To determine the orientation of the first principal stresses, substitute 1 in the original
eigen value problem to obtain
é 40 - 102.46 80 ù ïì nx üï ìï 0 üï
ê ú ïí ïý = ïí ïý
ê 80 0 - 102.46 úú ïï ny ïï ïï 0 ïï
êë ûî þ î þ

Since the determinant is zero, two equations are not independent

62.46 ⋅ nx = 80 ⋅ ny 80 ⋅ nx = -102.46 ⋅ ny
and .
Thus, we can only get the relation between nx and ny. Then using the condition |n| = 1 we
obtain

ìï nx üï(1) ì ü
ïí ïý = ïïí 0.788 ïïý
ïï ny ïï ïï 0.615 ïï
î þ î þ

To determine the orientation of the second principal stress, substitute 2 in the original
eigen value problem to obtain
é 40 + 62.46 80 ù ìï nx üï ìï 0 üï
ê ú ïí ïý = ïí ïý
ê 80 0 + 62.46 ú ïn ï ï 0 ï
ëê ûú îï y þï îï þï

102.46 ⋅ nx = -80 ⋅ ny 80 ⋅ nx = -62.46 ⋅ ny

and .
Using similar procedures as above, the eigen vector of 2 can be obtained as

ï ü(2)
ì nx ï ì 0.615 ï
ï ü
ï
í ï ý =ï í ï
ý
ï
ï n ï ï - 0.788 ï
î yï þ ï
î ï
þ

Note that if n is a principal direction, −n is also a principal direction

(b) Repeat the procedure in (a) to obtain

s1 = 164.85 MPa s2 = -4.85 MPa

and .

ì nx ï
ï ü(1) ïì -0.924 ï
ü ì nx ï
ï ü(2) ï
ì 0.383 ï
ü
ï
í ï ý = ïí ï
ý ï
í ï ý =ï í ï
ý
ï n
ï þ ï
ï ï 0.383 ï ï n ï ï 0.924 ï
î y îï ï
þ and ï þ
î y ï ï
î ï
þ
(c) Repeat the procedure in (a) to obtain

s1 = 96.24 MPa s2 = -166.24 MPa

and .

ï ü(1)
ì nx ï ì 0.420 ïü
ï ïìï nx ïüï
(2)
ïì -0.908 ïüï
ï
í ï ý =ï í ïý í ý = ïí ý
ï
ï n ï ï 0.908 ïï ïï ny ïï ïï 0.420 ïï
î yï þ ï
î þ and î þ î þ

Note that for the case of plane stress 3=0 is also a principal stress and the corresponding
principal stress direction is given by n(3) =(0,0,1)

P1.19 Determine the principal stresses and their associated directions, when the stress
matrix at a point is given by
é1 1 1 ù
ê ú
[ s ] = êê 1 1 2 úú MPa
ê1 2 1 ú
ëê úû

Solution:
Use Eq. (1.50) with the coefficients of I1=3, I2= −3, and I3 = −1,

l 3 - 3l 2 - 3l + 1 = 0

By solving the above cubic equation,

s1 = 3.73 MPa, s2 = 0.268 MPa, s3 = -1.00 MPa

(a) Principal direction corresponding to 1:

(1 - 3.7321)nx1 + ny1 + nz1 = 0

nx1 + (1 - 3.7321)ny1 + 2nz1 = 0
nx1 + 2ny1 + (1 - 3.7321)nz1 = 0

Solving the above equations with |n1| = 1 yields

n1 = {0.4597, 0.6280, 0.6280}

(b) Principal direction corresponding to 2:

(1 - 0.2679)nx1 + ny1 + nz1 = 0

nx2 + (1 - 0.2679)ny2 + 2nz2 = 0
nx2 + 2ny2 + (1 - 0.2679)nz2 = 0

Solving the above equations with |n2| = 1 yields

n2 = {0.8881, 0.3251, 0.3251}

(c) Principal direction corresponding to 3: