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TEMPORALITY AND CLASS ANALYSIS:
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF
CLASS TRAJECTORY AND CLASS STRUCTURE ON CLASS
CONSCIOUSNESS IN SWEDEN AND THE UNITED STATES1
ERIK OLIN WRIGHT AND KWANG-YEONG SHIN
Universityof Wisconsin,Madison, Wisconsin
I
CLASS FORMATION >
CLASS LOCATION
J V
> SUBJECTIVE CLASS INTERESTS
Figure 1. Basic Causal Model
62 SOCIOLOGICALTHEORY
occupationsin any society, and thus the initial The basic class typology we will use has
task is one of aggregatingthese occupations four categories:Capitalists,petty bourgeoisie,
into some manageableand theoreticallymean- "middle class" wage earners and workers.
ingful set of researchable categories. Typi- Since a detailed defense of these categories is
cally this is done more or less througha logic available elsewhere (Wright, 1985; chapter
of the relative "status" of the occupations, 3), we will only provide a brief rationale
generatingthe traditionaloccupationalclassi- here.
fication scheme: lower manual, upper man- The most problematic category in this
ual, lower white collar, upper white collar. typology is the third, "middle class wage-
Needless to say, there are many variations earners."Indeed, as has often been noted, the
and nuances on this basic theme, some more problem of the middle class has always been
complex than others, but most empirical rather troublesome within Marxist theory.
studies of class operate along this kind of How can a conceptual framework built
logic. around a polarized concept of relationally
In this paper we will adopt a different defined classes accommodatecategories that
underlyinglogic for the structuralcategories, are in the "middle"?What does it mean to be
one rooted in Marxianconcepts of class rather in the middle of a relation?
than status. The basic distinctionbetween the Many solutions to this problem have been
two conceptual stances is this: status-based proposed in recent years. We will adopt a
concepts distinguish among positions on the solution based on the idea that certain kinds
basis of the culturalevaluationsof the relative of locations can be considered in the
desirabilityof positions, where "desirability" "middle"in so far as they share the relational
is usually an amalgam of a variety of valued properties of more than one class. They
attributes;class-based concepts, on the other occupy what Wrighthas called "contradictory
hand, attemptto distinguish among positions locations within class relations." More specif-
on the basis of the fundamental material ically, in capitalist societies it is possible to
interestsobjectively tied to positions. The two define a range of positions which are
approaches, of course, are not empirically simultaneously exploited by capitalists and
unrelated, since one of the values which yet are exploiters along some secondary
makes positions desirable is precisely the dimension of class relations.8Such positions,
income and power typically associated with for convenience, we shall call the "middle
them. There will therefore be a reasonable class".9
correlation between status typologies of There are two primary mechanisms for
positions and class typologies. Nevertheless, such secondary exploitation: control over
the underlying criteria and rationales are what Wright has called organizationalassets
distinct. and control over credentials (or "inalienable
Depending upon one's general theory of assets"). The first of these defines the
society and the empirical objectives of distinctive form of exploitation linked to
research, status-basedor class-based concepts managerial positions within the social rela-
of structural positions may be the more tions of production,the second to the form of
appropriate.If one is ultimately interestedin exploitationtied to professionaland technical
understanding social conflict and social
change, and one believes that both conflict 8
and change are fundamentallystructuredby The concept of "exploitation" is a complex and
contested concept in contemporaryMarxism. The basic
materialinterests, then some variantof a class idea is that occupying certain kinds of positions within
typology is probablythe most useful. If one is the social relationsof productionenables people to make
primarily interesting in understandingsuch claims on the social surplus though various kinds of
things as self-esteem, and one believes that mechanisms. Because there are multiple mechanisms of
esteem is fundamentally structured by the exploitation tied to different aspects of production
relations, it is possible for people to be exploited by one
normative evaluations of others, than status- mechanismand yet be exploiters by another. See Wright
based typologies of positions may be more (1985:64-92).
relevant. In any case, throughoutthis paper 9 Strictly speaking these positions should be referred
we will adopt a variantof the Marxistconcept by the more cumbersome expression "contradictory
of class for our structuralmap of positions. exploitationlocations within class relations".The use of
the common language term to designate such positions
The specific concept we will use is based should not be interpretedas suggesting a conceptualshift
on the recent work of Wright (1985). towards a gradationalperspectiveon class structure.
TEMPORALITYAND CLASS ANALYSIS 63
positions.10The "middle class" then, will be much of the theoreticalthrustof the analysis
defined as all wage earnerswho eitheroccupy revolves around comparing the effects of
managerial positions within the authority class trajectory and class location on class
structure of their place of work or have consciousness, we decided that the most
professional, technical or managerial oc- appropriate strategy was to measure both
cupations.1 All other wage earners will be variables at comparablelevels of conceptual
considered working class. The working class precision. It is for this reason that authority
thus includes nonsupervisory manual wage position is being measuredby formalposition
earners and routinized white collar and ratherthan substantivepowers.13
service workers. Second, the credential/skillasset dimension
of the class concept is being measured by
Class Structure:operationalization occupation, rather than directly by educa-
tional credential.The rationalefor this is that
The formaloperationalizationof these catego- a person's actual class position should be
ries is presentedin Table 2. The details of the defined by assets that are actively deployed in
operationalizationsused for this analysis are production, not latent assets. Capitalists do
given in Wright (1985: 226, Table 6.13).12 not simply own a pot of money; they own
Several comments on this operationalization capital deployed in capitalist production. A
are needed. First, the criterion we use to person with a PhD driving a taxicab,
define position within authorityhierarchiesis therefore,will not be consideredthe owner of
whether or not the respondent's job is an exploitative asset, even though potentially
formally included in the managerial/supervi- such a person could become an exploiter by
sory hierarchy. In other research by Wright obtaininga "middle class" job.14
on class structure, position within authority Finally, we are aggregating all of the
hierarchieswas measuredby personalinvolve- diverse "contradictorylocations" that would
ment in decisionmaking responsibilities and be formed by combinations of authority
direct control over the activities of others. position and credentialled occupation into a
These more subtle measures, however, were single, ratherheterogeneous "middle class".
not available for the class trajectoryvariable We do this for two reasons. First, because of
in this analysis. We therefore had to choose limitations of sample size it would be
between having parallel constructionsfor the impossible to explore the various types of
class location and class trajectory variables detailedtrajectoriesamongcontradictoryloca-
(but sacrificingsome measurementquality for tions. And second, our central theoretical
the class location variable), c. _,ving asym- interest is with the working class-with the
metricalmeasuresfor the two variables. Since effects of working class locations and work-
ing class trajectorieson class consciousness-
O1It should be noted that this formulationincorporates not with the various distinctions within the
into a Marxistclass concept one of the durableinsights of nonworking class locations in the class
the Weberian tradition of class analysis-that the structure.
ownership of skills can, under appropriateconditions,
constitutethe basis for a class division between workers
and the "middle class." For a discussion of the
13 None of the substantive
relationshipbetween the traditionalWeberianformulation conclusions we make are
of this issue and the one adopted here, see Wright affected by the use of this somewhatweakercriterionfor
(1985:106-108). authority.
11It is
important to note the distinction between 14 We are
opting, in effect, for what could be termeda
occupying a managerial position in the authority behavioral criterion for class membership-what a
hierarchy and having a managerial occupation. While person actually does-rather than a modal definition-
most people in managerial occupations also occupy what a person could do if they optimized their material
managerial positions (about 85% of occupationally interests. Jon Elster (1985:319ff) has argued in favor of
defined managers are also positionally defined as modal definitions, saying that it makes no sense to treata
managers in the United States), the reverse is not true: Rockefeller who freely chooses to work in a factory as
most people in managerialpositions are not in occupa- thereby in the working class. Class membership is
tions that are called "manager". In any case, in the defined by constraints,not acts of will (unless, of course,
present analysis since both of these categories are being a particular act of will is irreversible and therefore
fused into a general "middle class" category, the imposes appropriateconstraints). The operationalprob-
distinctionwill not matterfor our empiricalinvestigation. lems in modal definitionsof class, however, make it very
12 The variable we will use collapses categories 3, 4 difficult to use in empirical research. In any case, for
and 5 from table 6.13 in Wright (1985:226) into the practicalpurposes, the behavioralclass and modal class
middle class. of most people are probablythe same.
64 SOCIOLOGICALTHEORY
Table 2. OperationalCriteriafor Classes
bility" as such, understoodas the interactions Table 3. Possible Biographical Trajectories in Class
of origins and destinations, included in the Mobility Matrix
analysis.15 In the conventional wisdom, CLASS DESTINATION
origins and destinationsare treatedas having CLASS Petty Middle Working
a logical priority over mobility patterns(i.e. ORIGINS CapitalistsBourgeois Class Class
the patterns which link origins and destina-
Capitalists 1 2 3 4
tions) in the analysis. Indeed, mobility effects Petty Bourgeoisie 5 6 7 8
are treatedas a kind of residual-that part of Middle Class 9 10 11 12
the consequences of origins and destinations WorkingClass 13 14 15 16
that cannot be attributedeither to origins or
destinations as such. For the purposes of
defining class trajectories in our analysis, numbers has no inherent significance--they
however, origins and destinationsare simply designate qualitatively distinct types, not an
our best available way of distinguishing ordinal ranking. Where all the cells of the
different types of lives in class terms; the table are assigned only two numbers as in
additive model of origins and destinationsis models C and D, this implies that the original
not analytically privileged over an "inter- 16 value typological variable is being col-
active" model. lapsed into a single dichotomousvariable.
To illustratethis logic, consider the simple Models A and B in Table 4 representthe
mobility matrix in Table 3. Sixteen different simple class origins model and currentclass
kinds of biographicaltrajectoriesare defined location (or "destinations")model. By col-
in this matrix. Rather that treating these as lapsing the full typology along the rows in
interactions between two variables-origins Model A we say, in effect, that in class
and destinations-the cells in this table can be biographiesall that mattersis origins; for any
viewed as values in a single 16-category given origin, all destinations are equivalent.
typological variableof class trajectories. Model B, on the other hand, collapses the
If we had sufficient data we could, of table along the columns, implyingthat all that
course, deploy this entire 16-categorytypol- mattersis where you end up.
ogy in the form of 15 dummy variablesin an Models C through G represent different
analysis of trajectoryeffects. This would not, kinds of class trajectorymodels. C and D are
however, in general be the most interesting the simplest, each distinguishing only two
strategy theoretically, since not all of the kinds of lives. In Model C all people who
distinctions among these cells are of equal have lived their entire lives in what could be
theoreticalinterest. An alternative,therefore, termed the "privileged classes"-capitalists
is to collapse the cells of this typology in a among owning classes and the "middleclass"
variety of different ways depending upon among wage-earning classes-are distin-
one's theoretical and empirical objectives. guished from everyone else; in Model D,
Some of the possibilities are illustrated in people who have lived theirentire lives in the
Table 4. "popularclasses"-the petty bourgeoisie and
These models should be read as follows. the working class-are distinguished from
Cells which are assigned the same numberare people whose lives have touched privilege at
treated as equivalent. The ordering of the some time. Models E and F, then, combine
Models C and D in different ways: Model E
15 Good distinguishes a life of privilege (1), a life
examples of this kind of logic would include
Duncan (1966), Knocke (1973), Jackman(1972). Much entirelyin popularclasses (3) and a mixed life
researchon the effects of mobility, particularlyresearch (2); Model F differentiatesthis mixed cate-
before the late 1960s, did not consistently distinguish gory into an "upward"(popularto privileged)
between the additive effects of origins and destinations and "downward" (privileged to popular)
on an outcome of interestand interactiveeffects as such.
Thus, for example, the observationthat mobile individu- component. Finally, Model G collapses the
als have ideologies intermediarybetween the ideologies various "immobile"categories-the diagonal
of immobile individualsof lower and higher statuses has of the original mobility matrix-into a single
been taken to indicate that mobility matters (e.g., category. The result is a conventional up-
Thompson, 1971), whereas in fact this is the result one ward, downward, stable classification of
would expect if origins and destinations simply affect
ideology in an additive manner.See Knocke (1973) for a mobility experiences. Each of these models,
clear exposition of the differentlogics of the additiveand therefore, can be viewed as a theoretical
interactivemodels. hypothesis about what kinds of biographies
66 SOCIOLOGICALTHEORY
Table 4. Examples Aggregationsof Full BiographicalTrajectoryTypology
ing both variables, but their individual about working class consciousness is to make
explanatorypowers in separateequations. the claim that many of the ideas, beliefs,
values and perceptions that comprise con-
sciousness may have a distinctively working
Class Trajectory:operationalization class characterto them.18
The class origins variable in the models in We will examine two aspects of the class
Table 4 are operationalizedthrougha series of content of consciousness: subjective class
questions about the work of the person "who identity, and attitudestowardsthe interestsof
provided most of the financial support for workers and capitalists. As we have argued,
your family while you were growing up". these two dimensions of consciousness have
These questions were not pegged to a specific very differenttemporalstructuresto them and
age of the respondent,but to the typical work thus are likely to be relatedto the problemof
of the head of householdwhile the respondent biographicaltrajectoriesand class locations in
was growing up. The actual criteria are the quite differentways.
same as for the respondent's own class Class identity refers to the ways in which
location in Table 2. people consider themselves "members" of
differentclasses.19As such, it constitutesone
of many ways in which people define what is
Class Consciousness salient about their lives and what differenti-
Class consciousness is at least as contested a ates them from others. "Identity"has both a
concept as class structure.Some Marxists, in cognitive and affective component. Cogniti-
fact, have argued that the concept does not vely, identity simply defines the ways people
even refer to the empirical attitudesof actual place themselves into different systems of
workers,but ratherto the latentconsciousness formal classification. Affectively, identity
implicit in patterns of collective action.17If refers to the kinds of classifications that are
one adopts this stance towards the concept, subjectively salient in a person's system of
then it is hardly appropriateto describe the meanings. This affective aspect of "identity"
empirical objectives of this paper as the is formed throughthe individual's biography
investigation of the effects of class structure of experiences in communities and social
and class trajectoryon class consciousness. interactionswithin which particularidentities
We will adoptwhat can be termeda "thin" are culturally salient. It is because meanings
concept of class consciousness. We will not are not formed and reformedinstantaneously
make assumptions about what is "true" or as a person moves into new class locations
"false" consciousness, but ratheruse the term that class identity can be viewed as a
to refer to those aspects of a person's "backward-looking"concept: it is rooted in
consciousness which have an identifiable one's personalhistory.
class content. By "consciousness" we mean Consciousness structuredaround interests,
those aspects of the mental life of people on the other hand, can be thought of as
which are discursively accessible to the "forward-looking".When Marxists say that
individual'sown awareness. Consciousnessis workers have particular class interest, the
thus counterposed to "unconsciousness"-- presumptionis that the individuals involved
discursively inaccessible aspects of mental are likely to remain workers sufficiently long
life. The elements of consciousness-ideas, so that their individual interests can be
perceptions, beliefs, values-may not, of identified with their positions as workers. If a
course, be continually present in one's particular worker knows that he or she is
awareness, but they must be accessible to that likely to exit the working class in the near
awarenessto count as elements of conscious- future-for example, if they are the children
ness. of wealthy parents and know that they will
In these terms, then, we can talk about the
class characterof consciousness by examining
the class content of the various elements of
18
consciousness, and perhaps even the class See Wright(1985:242-250) for a furtherelaboration
character of gestalts of elements. To talk of this conceptualizationof class consciousness.
'9 Subjective class identity is perhaps the aspect of
class consciousness most studied by sociologists. For a
17
For a classic statementof this position, see Lukacs recent comprehensivediscussion of the problemof class
(1971 [1922]). For a more recent argumentalong similar identity, see Jackmanand Jackman(1983). The classic
lines, see Bertell Ollman (1986). early study on class identity is by Centers (1949).
68 SOCIOLOGICALTHEORY
inherit substantial funds, or if they are 2 = spontaneous workingclass identification
a
attending university and are confident that 1 = forcedchoiceworkingclassidentification
they will get "middle class" jobs upon 0 = no class identityeven when asked to
choose
graduation-then their individual interests -1 = forced choice nonworkingclass identifi-
will be only weakly tied to their currentclass
cation
position. Consciousness of class interests, -2 = spontaneous nonworking classidentifica-
therefore, is oriented towards the future tion
reflectingthe time horizons in terms of which
individuals understand their relationship to We will also analyze workingclass identityas
the class structure. a dichotomousvariable, referredto as simple
workingclass identity, in which 1 = working
class identification (values 1 and 2 in the
Subjectiveclass identity:operationalization working class identity index) and 0 = all
In principle, one would want to know two others.
things about an individual's identity with re-
spect to class: first, how importantor salient Class interest consciousness:
class identitywas to the personrelativeto other
operationalization.
possible identities-ethnic, national, reli-
gious, sexual, etc.; and second, with which A number of Likert-type attitude items on
class the individualidentifies. People may say the survey deal directly or indirectlywith the
that they are in the working class, but class problemof class interests:
identity may have no salience at all to them; 1. Corporations benefitownersat the expense
their identity as Catholics, Irish, football fans
of workersandconsumers(do you strongly
or men may matter more to them than their
agree,somewhatagree,somewhatdisagree,
identityas workers.A full analysisof identity- stronglydisagree).
formation, therefore, has to contend with the 2. During a strike, managementshould be
issue of salience as well as class content. prohibitedby lawfromhiringworkersto take
The data we will be using does not allow the placeof strikers.
for a nuanced treatment of the problem of 3. If given the chance, the nonmanagement
salience. No questions are asked which get at employeesat theplacewereyou workcould
the relative importanceof class compared to runthingseffectivelywithoutbosses.
other possible sources of identity. There is, 4. Big corporations havefartoo muchpowerin
American/Swedish Societytoday.
however, a weaker indicatorof salience in the 5. It is possiblefor a modemsociety to run
survey. Before asking respondents in which effectivelywithoutthe profitmotive.
social class they would place themselves,
they were asked whether or not they thought In addition there was one item which dealt
of themselves as belonging to a social class. with attitudestowardsoutcomes of strikes:
If they responded "yes," they were asked to 6. Imaginethatworkersin a majorindustryare
name the class. If they answered "no", they out on strikeover workingconditionsand
were asked the following: "Many people say wages. Which of the following outcomes
they belong to the working class, the middle wouldyou like to see occur:
class or the uppermiddle class. If you had to 1. The workerswin their most important
make a choice, which class would you say demands.
you belonged to?" We are thus able to 2. the workerswin some of theirdemands
distinguish between people who spontane- andmakesomeconcessions.
that are in the working class 3. the workerswin only a few of their
ously say they demands andmakemajorconcessions.
from people who only say that they are in the
into 4. the workersgo back to work without
working class after being prodded winninganyof theirdemands.
making a choice. If we assume that the
spontaneous response indicates greater sa- These questions were then used to construct
lience of class identitythan the forced choice, two working class interest scales based on
then this enables us to create a working class alternativestrategiesof aggregation:
identityvariablewhich taps both the cognitive 1. Additive scale: Of these six items,
and affective aspects of identity. We will numbers1, 2 and 6 are the most explicitly and
refer to this variable as working class salient narrowlyconcernedwith perceptionsof class
identity. It has the following values: interests. We therefore constructeda simple
TEMPORALITYAND CLASS ANALYSIS 69
additive scale restrictedto these items. Each reformulatedas specific hypotheses about the
item was coded 1 for a proworking class relationshipsamong the operationalizedvari-
interestresponse (strongly agree or somewhat ables we have just defined. These hypotheses
agree on the Likert items and response will guide the statisticalanalysis of this paper:
category 1 on the strike outcome question),
- 1 for a nonworkingclass interest response Hypothesis 1. Class location will explain more
of the variance in the values of
(somewhat or strongly disagree on the Likert the working class interest scales
items and response categories 3 and 4 on the than will class trajectory.
strike outcome question), and 0 for a Hypothesis 2. Class trajectory will explain
class-neutral response (don't know on the more of the variance in working
Likert items and response category 2 on the class identity than will class
strike outcome question). These items were location.
then summedto form a scale in which + 3 = Hypothesis 3. Controllingfor the direct effects
pure proworkingclass interest consciousness of class location, WorkingClass
and -3 = pure antiworking class interest Identity will still be significantly
related to the working class
consciousness.
interest scales.
2. Factor Scale: In addition to the simple
Hypothesis 4. All of the effects in Hypotheses
additive scale, we aggregated all six items 1-3 should be stronger in Swe-
into a scale on the basis of factor loadings on den than in the United States.
a principle components factor analysis. Each
Likert item was code 1-5, with 3 = don't
know. A factor analysis was then conducted DATA AND METHODS
on the six items, and they were aggregated
according to the factor weights on the Data
principle component. The factor loadings are The data we will use come from the Swedish
given in Table 5. and United States surveys of the Comparative
FORMALIZATIONOF HYPOTHESES Project on Class Structure and Class Con-
sciousness (see Wright, 1982). These are both
The four proposition laid out earlier can be nationaland randomsamples of adults in the
Table 5. PrincipalComponentsFactorAnalysis of Class labor force conducted in 1980. The total US
InterestItems
employed labor force sample is 1498 and the
Factor Swedish sample 1145. Details of the samples
Loadings are given in Wright (1985:159-161). The
(Varimax analysis in this paper will exclude all
QuestionnaireItems Rotation)a
nonemployed respondents (i.e. unemployed
1. Corporatebenefit owners at the people in the labor force and housewives).
expense of workers and consumers. .65124
2. Big corporationshas far too much
power in a society today. .56999 Statistical Procedures
3. It is possible for a modem society
to run effectively without the
The class trajectoriesin the various models in
profit motive. .47851
4. I given the chance, the nonmanagement Table 4 are operationalized as a series of
employees at the place where you work dummy variables, one for each of the groups
could run things effectively of cells distinguishedin the models. In those
without bosses. .46712
5. Workersin a major industryare out
analyses in which the consciousness variable
on strike over working conditions and
is continuous-the analysis of salient working
wages. Preferencesfor outcome. .45089 class identity and the working class interest
6. During a strike, managementshould be scales-standard OLS multiple regression
prohibitedby law from hiring workers will be used. For the analysis of simple
to take the place of strikers. .36873
working class identity, where the dependent
(N= 2181)b variableis a dichotomy, formal model testing
Eigen-Value 1.53572
Percent of VarianceExplained 25.6 will rely on logistic regressions.
a There are two principle differences be-
The class interest scale is constructed from the
loadings on this factor. tween logistic regressions and normal regres-
b
This factor analysis was done on the merged US and sions that should be noted for readers
Swedish sample. unfamiliarwith the technique. First, while as
70 SOCIOLOGICALTHEORY
in ordinarylinear regressions the coefficients however, is somewhat easier to run and thus
in logistic regressionscan be used to indicate in the data analyses which follow all of the
the strength of the relationship between results will be from this kind of logistic
independent and dependent variables, the regression.
technical interpretationof the coefficients in
logistic regressionsis different. Insteadof the Formatfor Presentationof Results
value of such coefficients indicting the
number of units change in the dependent Most of the independent variables in the
variable expected for a single unit change in equations we are calculating are structural
the independent variable, they indicate the typologies, generally with four categories
change in the log of the odds of scoring a 1 on (four class locations, four class origins, four
the dependentvariablefor a unit change in the class trajectories). The coefficients of the
independent variable. In more technical dummy variables representingthese typolo-
terms, the functional form of logistic regres- gies in these equations will be presented in
sion is: L = log(p/l-p) = a + biXi, where the form of a triangularmatrixin which each
the X, are the independentvariables,the bi are dummy variable is contrastedwith all of the
the regression coefficients of these variables, others. With four dummy variables, there are
p is the probabilityof identifying oneself in therefore six possible contrasts. These six
the working class and the expression p/(l-p) contrasts are estimated from three different
in the dependentvariable is the odds ratio of regressionequationswith different "left out"
identifying with the working class. The bi categories. The R2s for these three equations,
coefficients of the independent variables, of course, are identical. Presenting the
then, tell you how much log(p/l-p) increases dummy variable coefficients in this way
for each unit increase in the independent allows the reader to evaluate all of the
variables. possible differences among the structural
The second difference between logits and categories in the typology.
standardregressions is that in logits there is
no statisticexactly comparableto R2 to use as
a measure of goodness of fit for alternative Weights
models. Instead, the relative goodness of fit For reasons which are not entirely clear, the
of differentmodels is tested by examiningthe overall U.S. survey contains a disproportion-
improvementsin what is called the "scaled ate numberof respondentswith high levels of
deviance" of the model. Since the scaled education and high occupational status. To
deviance has an asymptotic chi-squaredistri- correct for this overrepresentationwe have
bution, it is straightforwardto test whether a applied a set of post hoc weights to the US
model is improved when additionalindepen- sample which have the effect of reproducing
dent variables are added by seeing if the the 1980 Census occupation-by-education
difference in the scaled deviances in the two distributionsin the sample. The weights are
models is significant given the differences in designed in such a way that they do not alter
the degrees of freedom of the two models. the number of cases in the analyses. These
One final technical note: when all of the weights will be used throughoutthis analysis.
independentvariables in a logistic regression In no instance do they change the results in
are categorical, then the regressions can be ways which would substantively alter the
run either as conventional individual-level interpretationof the findings. No weights
regressions or as what is called "grouped" were needed for the Swedish sample.
logit regressions. In a grouped logit, the
statistical analysis is performeddirectly on a RESULTS
frequency table rather than on individual
observations. The degrees of freedom in a Throughoutthe presentationof resultswe will
groupedlogit, therefore,reflect the numberof discuss the variouspropositionsseparatelyfor
cells in the table rather than the number of men and for women. We do this for two
cases in the sample. The substantiveresultsof reasons. First, there has been considerable
the two analyses are identical: in both cases discussion in recent years about whether the
there will be the same best fitting model and class location of marriedwomen in the labor
the patterns of coefficients in these models force should be defined by their own job class
will be the same. The grouped logit, location, the class location of their husband's
TEMPORALITYAND CLASS ANALYSIS 71
Table 6. Comparisonof R2 andF-testof the TrajectoryModelsPredictingClass InterestsConsciousness(OLSRegression)
the location model (Model B)? In Table 8, the again reflecting the somewhat greaterexplan-
currentlocation model and model F both use atory power of the trajectoryvariable com-
three degrees of freedom, but for Swedish paredto the currentlocation variable. For US
men and women the scaled deviance is nearly men the improvementof explainedvarianceis
15 less in the trajectorymodel. For American much smaller, from 3.7% to 4.3% for model
men, model E (using only two degrees of F, but in any case is in the predicted
freedom) has the same scaled deviance as the direction. Overall, then, the evidence sup-
current location model and thus can be ports Hypothesis 2: class trajectorieshave a
considered a better model on grounds of stronger effect on class identity than does
efficiency. When the continuous variable currentclass location.
"salient class identity" is the dependent
variable, the adjusted R2 for the current Class Identityeffects on Class Interests
locations model is 12.3% for Swedish men
and 7.8% for Swedish women. This increases Table 9 presents the results for the multivari-
to 14.3% for model F for Swedish men and ate regressions of Class location and class
10.1% for model E for Swedish women, identity on class interest consciousness. In
Table 9. The Effects of Class Locationand Class Identityon Class InterestConsciousness (unstandardizedregressioncoefficients
US
Modelsa Male Female Mal
1. SIMPLECLASS IDENTITY
(groupedlogistic regression)
MODELA (ORIGINMODEL)b
CAP PB M CAP PB M CAP PB
PM Origin .99** .40 1.13**
M Origin .38 -.61** -.04 -.44 .31 -.82**
W Origin .59* -.40 .21 .17 -.23 .21 1.21*** .08
MODELB (CURRENT
LOCATIONMODEL) CAP PB M CAP PB M CAP PB
PB Location .86* .48 1.02*
M Location -.26 - 1.12** .18 -.31 .22 -.81*
W Location .65* -.21 .90*** .64 .15 -.46** 1.71** .69*
MODELA + B (ORIGIN +
CURRENTLOCATIONMODEL) CAP PB M CAP PB M CAP PB
PB Origin .93** .34 .77*
M Origin .39 -.55* -.05 -.39 .12 -.65**
W Origin .51* -.42 .13 .12 -.23 .26 .85** .09
PB Location .85* .49 .93
M Location -.21 - 1.06** .19 -.29 .21 -.72*
WLocation .66* -.18 .88*** .62 .13 .43** 1.59*** .65
MODELF (BIOGRAPHIC
TRAJECTORYMODEL)C (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (1) (2)
(2) .49* .35 1.16***
(3) .98*** .48* .54* .19 1.87*** .71*
(4) 1.23*** .74** .25 .71** .35 .16 2.21*** 1.05*
[See end of Table 10 on next page for table footnotes]
Table 10. (Continued)
US
Models" Male Female Ma
2. SALIENTCLASS IDENTITY
(OLS regression)
MODELA (ORIGIN'MODEL)b
CAP PB M CAP PB M CAP PB
PB Origin .51** .30 .70**
M Origin .10 -.40** .08 -.22 .15 -.55*
W Origin .27 -.24 .17 .18 -.12 .10 .81*** .10
MODEL B. CURRENT
LOCATIONMODEL CAP PB M CAP PB M CAP PB
PB Location .48 .31 .70*
M Location -.08 -.56* .03 -.28 .16 -.54*
W Location .44** - .04 .52*** .34 .03 .31 1.18*** .49
MODELA + B (ORIGIN +
CURRENTLOCATIONMODEL) CAP PB M CAP PB M CAP PB
PB Origin .45* .26 .40
M Origin .08 -.37* .09 -.18 .01 -.39*
W Origin .20 -.26 .12 .16 -.10 .08 .50* .10
PB Location .45 .33 .62*
M Location -.04 -.49* .04 -.29 .16 -.47
W Location .46** .01 .50*** .33 -.00 .29* 1.08*** .46
MODELF (BIOGRAPHIC
TRAJECTORYMODEL)C (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (1) (2)
(2) .20 .16 .69***
(3) .47*** .27 .31 .15 1.21** .51
(4) .70*** .50*** .23 .45** .29 .13 1.41*** .72
* p<.05 ** p<.01 *** p<.001
a
See Table 4 for full definitionof models:
CAP= Capitalistclass; PB = Petty Bourgeoisie; M = Middle Class Wage Earners;W = WorkingClass Wage Earners.
b
The coefficients in the triangularmatrixrepresentthe differencebetween the column and the row category. The coefficients wer
column categoriesare successively the "left out categories".
c The numbersin this column refer to the levels in model F in Table 2:
Level (l)=a life entirely in the privileged classes.
Level (2)= upwardmobility from popularclasses to privileged classes.
Level (3)= downwardmobility from privileged classes to popularclasses.
Level (4)= a life entirely in the popularclasses.
78 SOCIOLOGICALTHEORY
Table 11. Estimatesof OLS Regression Coefficients for Models PredictingClass InterestConsciousness
US Sweden
Male Female Male Female
1. DEPENDENTVARIABLE= ADDITIVEWORKINGCLASS INTERESTSCALE
MODELA (ORIGINMODEL)b
CAP PB M CAP PB M CAP PB M CAP PB M
PB .23 .02 .45 1.03**
M .32 .09 .04 .03 .27 -.18 .93** -.10
W .52* .29 .20 .15 .14 .11 .90*** .45* .63** 1.34*** .31 .41*
MODELB (CURRENTLOCATIONMODEL)
CAP PB M CAP PB M CAP PB M CAP PB M
PB .39 -.48 1.14** -.79
M .50* .11 -.15 .33 1.28*** .14** .46 1.25**
W 1.35*** .96** .85*** .08 .56* .23 2.49*** 1.34*** 1.20*** .92 1.71*** .47**
MODELA + B (ORIGIN+ CURRENTLOCATIONMODEL)
CAP PB M CAP PB M CAP PB M CAP PB M
PB Origin .18 -.04 -.05 1.07***
M Origin .16 -.03 .00 .05 -.11 -.06 1.00** -.07
W Origin .26 .08 .11 .06 .10 .06 .32 .37* .43* 1.32*** .25 .32
PB Now .37 -.47 1.09** -.94
M Now .46* .09 -.16 .31 1.25*** .16 .44 1.39**
W Now 1.29*** .92** .83*** .07 .54* .23 2.41*** 1.32*** 1.16*** .83 1.77*** .39*
MODELF (BIOGRAPHIC TRAJECTORYMODEL)
(1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3)
(2) .21 .10 .08 .48
(3) .90*** .69*** .15 .05 .93*** .85*** .33 -.15
(4) .94*** .73*** .04 .19 .10 .05 1.40*** 1.32*** .47* .77*** .29 .44*
2. DEPENDENTVARIABLE = WORKINGCLASS INTERESTFACTORSCALE
MODELA (ORIGINMODEL)b
CAP PB M CAP PB M CAP PB M CAP PB M
PB .26 .30 .81 1.62**
M .61* .35 .29 -.01 .22 -.59 1.32* -.31
W .86** .60* .25 .35 .05 .06 1.50*** .69* 1.28*** 2.05 .43 .74*
MODELB (CURRENTLOCATIONMODEL)
CAP PB M CAP PB M CAP PB M CAP PB M
PB .71 .08 1.54* .21
M .72* .01 .08 .00 1.74*** .21 1.15 .95
W 1.79*** 1.09* 1.08*** .39 .31 .31 3.83*** 2.30*** 2.09*** 2.23* 2.03** 1.08***
MODELA + B (ORIGIN + CURRENTLOCATIONMODEL)
CAP PB M CAP PB M CAP PB M CAP PB M
PB Origin .19 .25 -.00 1.59**
M Origin .42 .23 .27 .02 -.36 -.36 1.46** -.13
W Origin .55 .36 .13 .30 .04 .02 .57 .58* .94** 1.95*** .36 .49
PB Now .68 .12 1.44* -.02
M Now .58 -.10 .08 -.04 1.73*** .29 1.14 1.16
WNow 1.63*** .95* 1.05*** .37 .25 .29 3.71*** 2.27*** 1.98*** 2.10* 2.12** .96***
MODELF (BIOGRAPHICTRAJECTORYMODEL)C
(1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3)
(2) .29 .41 .55 .30
(3) 1.22*** .93** .51* .10 1.83*** 1.28** .49 .19
(4) 1.22*** .93*** .00 .45 .04 -.06 2.57*** 2.01*** .73* 1.45*** 1.15** .96**
<. p<.05* **
p<.01*** p<.001
a See Table 4 for full definition of models.
CAP= Capitalistclass; PB = PettyBourgeoisie;M = MiddleClass Wage Earners;W = WorkingClass Wage Earners.
b The coefficients in the triangularmatrix represent the difference between the column category and the row
category. The coefficients were calculated from three separate regressions in which the column categories are
successively the "left out categories".
c The numbersin this column refer to the levels in model F in Table 2:
Level (l)=a life entirely in the privileged classes.
Level (2)= upwardmobility from popularclasses to privileged classes.
Level (3)= downwardmobility from privileged classes to popularclasses.
Level (4)= a life entirely in the popularclasses.
TEMPORALITYAND CLASS ANALYSIS 79
Table 12. Comparisonof Coefficients of Models PredictingClass Identificationand Class Interests
Entriesin the table are differencesin coefficients between groups in equationsin Tables 10 and 1.a
the contrast between capitalists and workers Class and Gender in National
in the Swedish male equationpredictingclass Differences in Consciousness
interestconsciousness (additive scale) is 2.49
whereas it is only 1.35 for Americanmen. In It is beyond the scope of this paperto system-
the more general working class interest scale, aticallyexplorethe role of genderin the models
the contrasts between workers and all other we have been exploring.Nevertheless,the ef-
classes and between capitalists and all other fects of genderare sufficientlystrikingin these
classes are all around twice as large among resultsto warrantsome comment.In particular,
Swedish men as among Americanmen. What thereis a sharpcontrastbetweengenderdiffer-
these figures indicate is that not only does ences and nation differencesin these models:
class location more systematically predict nationaldifferencesare particularlymarkedin
class interestconsciousness in Sweden than in theoverallexplanatory powerof themodels;gen-
the United States, but the class structureis der differencesare markedin both the explana-
more ideologically polarized in Sweden.23 tory power of the equationsand the patternsof
Finally, the relationship between class coefficients associatedwith the models. These
identityand class interestsis much strongerin contrastsare summarizedin Table 13. We have
Sweden than in the United States. In the alreadyexaminedthe nationaldifferencesin ex-
zero-order relationship between identity and planatorypower of these models. Let us now
interestconsciousness (equation2 in table 9), look more closely at the gendercontrasts.
the R2 in the Swedish equations is about 8% Within both Sweden and the United States,
for women and 16%for men, but a negligible the explanatorypower of all the equations is
1%for both men and women in the US. In the much higher for men than for women. The R2
multivariate equation, the coefficient for in the basic models we have investigated are
identity net of class location in the Swedish typically in the 5-8% range for US men but
sample is roughly three times greaterthan in generally less than 1%for US women, and in
the US sample. the 15-20% range for Swedish men but only
Taking these various results together, it is 6-10% for Swedish women. At least as
reasonable to conclude that both class loca- measured with the variables and models in
tion and class trajectory are more powerful this study, both class location and class
determinantsof class consciousness in Swe- trajectory are more systematically linked to
den than in the United States. The results are dimensions of class consciousness among
thus strongly supportiveof Hypothesis 4. men than among women.
The gender contrasts in the pattern of
23 The textureof this
coefficients is equally striking.24 If we
greaterideological polarizationin
Sweden than in the United States is explored systemati-
cally in Wright (1985: chapter 6). See also Carolyn 24
Howe, (1987: chapter9). Since none of these models has more than a trivial
TEMPORALITYAND CLASS ANALYSIS 81
Table 13. Summaryof GenderContrastsAcross Countries
examine men separately,the basic patternof ables have consistently large and significant
coefficients in the models tends to be quite coefficients, whereas the coefficients for
similar in the United States and Sweden, in origins are nearly all statisticallyinsignificant
spite of the fact that the coefficients are and much smaller in absolute magnitude.
generally much larger in Sweden than in the The pattern of coefficients for Swedish
United States and the explanatorypower of women, in contrast, is very different from
the Swedish models considerably greater. men in both countries. In the class identity
Thus, for example, in the trajectorymodels models for Swedish women (Table 10), the
predictingclass identity (Table 10), for men two mixed trajectories (from exploiting to
in both countries, category 4 in model F (a popular classes and from popularto exploit-
life entirely within the popular classes) does ing classes), are virtually indistinguishable,
not differ significantly from category 3 and both have a significantly lower probabil-
(people mobile into the popularclasses) in the ity of working class identification than a
probabilityof having a workingclass identifi- trajectoryentirely within the popularclasses,
cation, whereas at least in the simple class whereas as already noted, for men in both
identity equation, category 3 does differ countries there is no difference between
significantlyfrom category 2 (mobility out of trajectories 3 and 4, while "downward"
the popularclasses). Similarly, in the current mobility generally differs from "upward"
locations model predicting class interest mobility.25Similarly, whereas among men in
consciousness (Table 11), for men in both both Sweden and the United States there is
countries the working class has the highest relatively little difference between the petty
level of working class interestconsciousness, bourgeoisie and middle class in the class
the capitalist class has an antiworkingclass location model predicting class interest con-
interests consciousness, and the petty bour- sciousness(Table 11), amongSwedishwomen
geoisie and middle class wage earners have the petty bourgeois location is much less
rather similar intermediate coefficients. Fi- proworking class than middle .class wage
nally, in the additive model of origins and earnersfor the additiveinterestscale. What is
locations (model A + B in Table 11), for men
in both countries the current locations vari-
25
American women have similar patternsto men in
both countries, but because the coefficients are so much
effect on class consciousness for Americanwomen, all of weakerand the standarderrorslarger, we have much less
the discussion which follows will focus on Swedish confidence in the descriptive accuracy of these coeffi-
women comparedwith Americanmen and Swedish men. cients.
82 SOCIOLOGICALTHEORY
particularly striking for the class interest extent that this is true, then the class interests
results is the patterns for the origins + of marriedwomen will be determinedless by
location model (Model A+B in Table 11). the class of their own job and more by the
For Swedish women the coefficients for the class of their husbands. Furthermore,over
origins dummy variables are all large and time this will also mean that their class
highly significant in the contrastwith capital- identity will depend more on their family-
ist class origins, while, in contrast,for men in class trajectorythan simply on their individ-
both countries, none of the coefficients for the ual trajectory (as defined in this study).
class origins contrastswith the capitalistclass Individual class location and trajectory will
are statistically significant. therefore tend to have lower explanatory
We do not have a definitive interpretation power among women than among men. And,
of these rather complex interactions of depending upon how the individual's class
gender, country and class. We can, however, variables are causally tied to the correspond-
offer some preliminarysuggestions both for ing family class variables, the patterns of
why individual class location and trajectory coefficients for individual class variables
variablesseem to have less explanatorypower would also be expected to be different for
for women than for men in general, and women than for men.
second, for why the patterning of effects Research by Wright (1988) on the effects
seems so different for men and (at least) of family class composition on class identity
Swedish women. supports this interpretation.In that study he
There are two possible lines reasoning for found that in the United States the class
explaining these gender differences. First, the identity of marriedwomen in the labor force
lower causal efficiency of class trajectoryand is almost entirely determined by the class
class location could primarilybe a measure- location of their husband'sjobs ratherthan by
ment problem. Perhaps the same formal their own jobs, whereas in Sweden the two
criteria for class divisions have a different jobs have roughly equal impact on the class
class content among men than among women. identity of married women. In contrast, the
It could be, for example, that because of class locations of wives' job had either no
gender discriminationthe productiveassets of effect on husband'sclass identity (in the US)
"middle class" women (skills/credentials)are or a much smaller effect than the husband's
devalued and are thus unable to be converted own job (in Sweden). Wright interpretsthe
into exploitation. This would imply that the contrast between Swedish and American
distinctionbetween working class and middle married women as reflecting the greater
class among women is a weakerclass division dependency of American women than Swed-
than among men. This, in turn, would both ish women on the economic fate of their
reduce the explanatory power of class- husbands, both because wage inequalities
centered variables (both location and trajec- between men and women are greater in the
tory) and potentially change the patterningof United States than in Sweden and because the
their coefficients. redistributive polices of the state make
An alternativeapproachto explainingthese women in general less dependent upon their
patternsof results is to search for some other husbands in Sweden. This greater economic
mechanismthat acts to block the effectivity of dependency of women on men in the United
these variables among women (or enhance States undermines the causal effects of
their effectivity among men). One likely women's individual class variables on their
candidatefor this is the relationshipbetween consciousness. But even in Sweden, married
gender, family structureand class. As many women remain more economically dependent
people have argued, because of deeply upon their husbands than married men are
entrenchedpatternsof gender inequality, the upon their wives, and thus individual class
material interests of married women are variables have less explanatory power for
generally more tied to the economic fate of Swedish women than for Swedish men.
their husbands than are the materialinterests
of marriedmen tied to the economic fate of CONCLUSION
their wives. This is obvious in the case of
full-time housewives, but as Goldthorpe This paperhas attemptedto join structuraland
(1983) has argued, it is also true for most processual approacheswithin class analysis.
women in the paid labor force as well. To the Much of the analysis is certainly open to
TEMPORALITYAND CLASS ANALYSIS 83
criticism. Processualapproachesare generally impossible to define the class content of
built around a fairly rich inventory of class biographicaltrajectories,communities, work-
constitutiveexperiencesin communities,work- place experiences, etc. withouthaving a prior
places, schools, etc. Our use of processual elaborationof a structuralclass concept. But
approaches, in contrast, is based on a fairly this conceptual primacy does not imply
impoverishedoperationalizationof class tra- explanatoryprimacy in the lives of individu-
jectory, relying entirely on the linkage als.
between class origins and class location. Third, all of these micro-mechanismsof
Similarly, contemporary structural ap- consciousness formationare heavily mediated
proaches to class generally move beyond by the macro-institutionalcontext in which
simple working class vs. middle class divi- they operate. Where political and economic
sions among wage earners,but because of the conflicts are heavily organized along class
limitations in our data and sample size, we lines, these micro-mechanismsare likely to
had to rely on this fairly crude class model. be reinforced;where class has been margina-
What is more, as our results for gender lized in institutional forms of collective
reveal, even within this simple class structural organization,then the micro-mechanismswill
model, our results may be significantly be weaker. Again, this reflects a fundamental
affected by ignoring the problem of the insight of processual theorists of class: the
location of families within the class structure. effectivity of the individual experiences that
In spite of these limitations, we believe that are constitutive of class depends upon the
the data we have presented broadly support historical context within which those experi-
the general orienting propositions of this ences occur.
paper. In particular, the following general Finally, and not as part of the original
conclusions should be stressed: agenda of this paper, all of the results we
First, class trajectories seem to be more have observed of both a processual and
importantthan class locations in shaping the structural nature vary sharply by gender.
more culturaldimensions of class conscious- While this does not mean that class mecha-
ness, whereas class locations are relatively nisms are inherentlygendered in the sense of
more important for shaping the more nar- having no independenteffectivity in theirown
rowly interest-centereddimensions. This is in right, it does mean that the empirical
keeping with the view that class interest investigation of the effects of both class
consciousness dependsmore upon the percep- location and class trajectorymust include an
tions of one's future class situation than on analysis of interactionswith gender.
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