Hydraulics and stereotomy: the experimental

construction site at the Pontòn de la Oliva

(Spain, 1851-1858).
Stone techniques for the nineteenth-century territory’s
infrastructures

Eliana de Nichilo, Giuseppina Uva

The use of stone techniques for the realisation of territory’s infrastructures
was an almost diffuse practice in the past.
Since the Roman period, it is possible to classify several examples of
impressive bridges, aqueducts and cisterns for covering reservoirs of large or
medium capability all over the Mediterranean region.
The formal and constructive solution of the different architectural systems
was based on the employ of domed/vaulted structural systems in different
materials. Romans, for example, used vaults in brick on massive walls
and/or on columns/pillars for their aqueducts and cisterns (such as those
employed in the Basilica cistern of Constantine, at Constantinopolis, Fig. 1: The context of the dam at the
Turkey), while stone was preferred since the Medieval Age. Pontòn de la Oliva.
From sixteenth to nineteenth century the historical treatises on stereotomy
(both French and Spanish ones) provided numerous complex examples of Photo by the authors (May 2002).
stone and brick vaulted systems with an organic character, that in many
cases served as models even for the solution of constructive and hydraulic
problems (especially those of cisterns and bridges).
Whereas the earth dams built until the first half of the nineteenth century
were considered unsafe (and in fact a number of severe collapses and
diseases happened), different examples of cut stone masonry dams were
realized in the second half of nineteenth century, following scientific design
rules. Many of these dams still exist and are in use, and their long-lasting
operation demonstrates the soundness of the design and the quality of the
masonry construction. Soon after, the urge for new damming structures
serving for water supply, irrigation and, above all, energy production,
significantly contributed to the development of building technology and
materials’ sciences. Fig. 2: View of the bridge on the
The construction site at the Pontòn de la Oliva (Spain, 1851-58) could Lozoya river, which existed before the
be regarded as a remarkable example of a stereotomical application in construction of the dam.
hydraulics. Photo by the authors (May 2002).
The project of the dam at the Pontòn de la Oliva at the beginning of the
Canal Isabel II (the channel which still provides water to the city of
Madrid), reflects also the social and productive situation of the country
during the last century. In Spain the long tradition of stone techniques,
achieved in the previous centuries and formalised in the Spanish historical
treatises, was utilised for solving the problem of resisting the water pressure
force by means of a cut-stone masonry structure.
This well-established and long tradition is an important element in the
analysis and comprehension of this unique example of hydraulic plant, in
which out-of-plane loaded masonry is masterly used, experimenting daring
technical solutions for dry-assembled stone masonry. The great problem
before the “modern era of concrete” was the use of no-tension materials
(such as clay and mud or masonry) to face flexural out of plane actions, to
which these materials are not able to react appropriately. In fact, the Fig. 3: View of the dam and its
resistance to the out of plane overturning mechanism relies on the presence
of strong enough vertical loads. So, in order to avoid the risk of collapse, surrounding services buildings (Casa
that is particularly dangerous and tricky because of its brittleness and de la Mina de limpia, and Casa del
abruptness, earth dams have a massive configuration. guarda). Photo by the authors.

1 The Council was instituted by the
Government headed by Juan Bravo
Murillo on 18th June 1851 with a
Real Decreto signed by the King
Francisco de Asis, and the Queen
Isabel II. The structure of the
Council included three
representatives of the Government :
Juan Fernandez de Cordoba, XIV
conde de Sàstago, who was also the
president of the Council; Josè
Solano Mata-Linares, marques de
Socorro and deputy-president of the
Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas,
Fìsicas y Naturales; and Manuel
Cantero, member of the
Government in the Banco Español
de San Fernando.
2 The population of the city
extremely increased during the
second half of the nineteenth
century. In 1853 the inhabitants
were 236.649, while in 1900 the
number was of 539.835. Moreover
the need of pure water was
determined not only by the
demographic rise but also by the
industrial development that slowly
started to interest the country. (Cfr.
J. M. Sànchez Ron, « Ciencia e
ingenierìa en el siglo XIX », in
Espinosa Romero, J. – Gonzales
Reglero, J.J., 1851. La creaciòn del
Canal de Isabel II. El Marco Historico,
Tomo I, pp. 481, Madrid, Fundaciòn
del Canal de Isabel II 2001).
3 The Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Caminos,
Canales y Puertos included technicians
(soldiers and engineers) trained to
the Real Casa de Caballeros Pajes and
later on to the Esquela de Caminos
Canales y Puertos (reopened for the
third time in Madrid in 1834). The
Institution had a hierarchical
structure: at the top there was a very
limited number of inspectores generales ,
followed by ingenieros jefes de primera
clase, ingenieros jefes de segunda clase,
ingenieros primeros and segundos.
Therefore the paper intends to analyse the formal and constructive
characters of some interesting technical solutions realised in the different
systems of the site (the dam, but also the original “flat-vaulted” system at
the “Casa de Limpia”, which is also one of the few examples realised).
After the advent and diffusion of a new material, the reinforced concrete,
the era of modern dams started, making it possible to soak up the
enormous horizontal thrusts generated by water pressure.
Part I (by Eliana de Nichilo)
Application of stereotomy to problems related to territory’s infrastructures.
On 16th July 1851 the Administrative Council1 of Canal Isabel
II appointed four engineers of the Cuerpo de caminos, canales y
puertos for the redaction of the executive project of the canal
derived by the Lozoya river, that, in the following years, had to
almost duplicate the water supply of the city of Madrid.
The project of Canal Isabel II was a political and technological
event. On the one hand the President of the Government,
Juan Bravo Murillo, strongly promoted the realisation of a
modern service for the expanding city of Madrid 2 as a reply to
the crescent needs of pure water for both domestic and
industrial purposes. On the other hand the scientific and
technological situation was quite backward in nineteenth-
century. Spain did not lead the scientific and technological
knowledge, developed in industrialised countries in the same
period.
The Government, then, decided to politically support a
project, which reflected and demonstrated the technical
competence in public works already achieved by Spanish
technicians.
The redaction of such an important project was entrusted to
engineers of the Cuerpo de caminos, that was the most prestigious
technical institution of the country3.
The engineers responsible of the project had a proved
experience in previous public works, and in particular in the
construction of canals, streets and ports in masonry: José
Garcìa Otero, economic and optional director of the work, but
also architect and inspector general of the the Cuerpo de caminos;
Lucio del Valle Arana, Segundo director of the Canal Isabel II,
architect and ingeniero jefe de segunda clase (general director of
Obras Pùblicas from 1851); Juan de Ribera y Piferrer, ingeniero jefe
de segunda clase; Eugenio Barròn Avignòn, and Constrantino
Ardanaz ingenieros primeros. Some of them had also a solid career
as professors of the Esquela de Caminos Canales y Puertos: Garcìa
Otero taught Principios de Arquitectura civil y Dibujo (tercero
curso); Lucio del Valle was firstly professor of Geometria
Descriptiva (primer curso) and later on of Geodesia; finally Juan
de Ribera taught Arquitectura y Estereotomia (segundo curso) at
the same school.
All of them directed or participated to the redaction of many 4 An important aspect to be
project for territory’s infrastructures (retaining walls, dams and considered is the role that
bridges, ports, etc.) all over Spain (Valencia, Sevilla, Madrid). stereotomy had in the nineteenth-
The technology adopted was mainly masonry, because of their century engineers’ training.
Different aspects and application of
perfect knowledge of stereotomy and of its application to civil stereotomy were taught in many
architecture and public works4. courses at the universities, and the
preliminary condition to follow
1. The experimental construction site at the Pontòn de la them was the perfect knowledge of
French. The French and Spanish
Oliva (1851-1858). treatises of stereotomy and military
On 11th August 1851 the Ceremony for the laying of the art, in fact, were used as textbooks.
foundation stone of the masonry dam took place at the Ponton The engineers of the Canal had a
de la Oliva, the first section of the Canal Isabel II, that will be great knowledge of these treatises
inaugurated on 24th June 1858 (Fig. 4-6). and contained constructive models,
proved by the adoption of many
The dam is 65 km away from Madrid, and is comprised in the solution in the canal construction.
administrative municipality of Patones (province of Madrid)
and Uceda (province of Guadalajara) on the North of the
capital.
This terrific natural site was chosen in August 1851 as starting
point of the Canal Isabel II, that in a few years would conduct
the water of the Lozoya river to Madrid. Lucio del Valle and
Juan de Ribera were the engineers responsible of this section
of the project. The labour was composed of 2000 prisoners,
and 1500 workers (stone-cutters) for the different operation of
the construction site. Fig. 4: View of the Pontòn de la
The building yard of the dam includes some outlying service Oliva, before the construction of the
buildings: the prison barracks, the house of compuertas, the masonry dam. Drawing from
house of mina de limpia, covered with a flat-vault, the casa del Memoria by Rafo y Ribera (1848).
guarda, the auxiliary buildings dedicated to iron-work, wood- Archive of the Fundacion Canal
work, stone work, mortar fabrication, and a brick furnace. Isabel II. (supplied by J.J. Gonzales
Reglero).

Fig. 5: Plano general del Canal

Idabel II (1851). Archivo Central del
Ministerio de Fomento. (supplied by
J.J. Gonzales Reglero).

Fig. 6: Comparative profiles (1851).

Archivo Central del Ministerio de
Fomento. (supplied by J.J. Gonzales
Reglero).
 The stone employed for the construction of the dam and the
annexed buildings was excavated in different quarries: the
white stone of the dam derives from Redueña y Patones; the
yellow limestone of the surrounding buildings, canals, and
inspection points, was obtained from quarries on the two
margins of the river.
The construction site at the Pontòn de la Oliva could be
regarded as an experimental and scientific “laboratory” of
construction. Firstly expert stone-cutters had to train prisoners
to the art of stone-work: soon after they became a qualified
labour that had to be employed in the following public works
all around Spain. Secondly it could be possible that the
construction site had been visited by scholars during the
summer, in order to study practical applications of
stereothomy: this is probably the reason why the project
presents some stereotomical “games”, and peculiar vaulted
masonry systems, such as that of the boveda plana (flat vault).

2. The massive masonry dam: analysis of the geometrical

and constructive model
The masonry dam at the Pontòn de la Oliva was an impressive
work for the period: it could contain 3.000.000 m3 of water,
and has a coroner 70m long, and 27 m high; the cross section
has a trapezium shape with the lower base of 51m width and
the top of 6.5m.
The engineers Valle, Ribera, Barròn and Ardanaz elaborated
different solutions for the dam’s profile (Fig. 7), in order to
turn down the elevated costs of the project (for the dam’s
construction the Administrative Council destined 4.174.659
reales).

Fig. 7: Comparative profiles (1851).

Archivo Central del Ministerio de
Fomento. (supplied by J.J. Gonzales
Reglero).
The analysis of the cross section shows that the dam is
composed of different vertical layers to which a different
quality of stone materials employed corresponds: the first layer
is a hangings made of white stone ashlars with a dovetail
shape, and characterised by a great mechanical resistance; there
is a second layer made of parallelepiped blocks; and then a
conventional gravity wall, with a sloping earth bank. These
blocks (around 120.000 piez cubicos) were obtained from rough
stone pieces (in caliza homogenea) that we could classify into
three types5:
-Type A: 1800 ashlars with dimensions 83,59 (tres piez) x 139,31
(cinco piez) x 46,44cm (20 pulgadas);
-Type B: 1800 ashlars with dimensions 83,59 (tres piez) x 111,45
-139,31 (variable between cuatro- cinco piez) x 46,44cm (20
pulgadas);
-Type C: 1800 ashlars with dimensions 83,59 (tres piez) x 97,52
– 125,38 (variable between tres piez y seis pulgadas and cuatro piez y
seis pulgadas) x 76,61cm (dos piez y nueve pulgadas).
The realised dam presents a simplified design in comparison
with the original project (Fig. 7-8-9-10).

Fig. 7-8-9-10: View of the last hangings of

the masonry dam and its tectonic knots. Photo
by the authors (May 2002).
5 Cfr. Gonzales Reglero, J.J.,
1851. La creaciòn del Canal de
Isabel II. El Marco Historico,
Tomo II, pp. 225-226, Madrid,
Fundaciòn del Canal de Isabel II
2001.

3. The flat-vaults at the Casa de Limpia: aesthetic quality of

cisterns and inspection points’ coverings
There great ability of the stone-cutters who worked at the
Fig. 11: View of the boveda plana. Photo
construction site is proved not only by the terrific results
by the authors (May 2002).
obtained in the masonry dam, but also in some minor
examples and architectural details that could be found in the
surrounding buildings. It is the case of the small boveda plana
that covers the Casa de Limpia, and could be regarded as one of
6 The small flat-vault at the Pontòn
de la Oliva is the study-case of the
PhD thesis the author is carrying
out, and titled Vaulted and domed
architectural systems in dry-cut stone in
Spain. Sixteenth-Nineteenth centuries.
Sequences, tectonic knots and stereotomical
techniques in comparison, Thesis
supervisors: Prof. C. D’Amato,
Politecnico di Bari Dipartimento
ICAR - Prof. E. Rabasa Dìaz, E.T.S.
de Arquitectura de Madrid,
Departamento de Ideacion grafica
arquitectonica. The solution realised
belongs to this second family: its
survey, conducted by E. de Nichilo,
G. Uva and G. Fallacara in May
2002, has highlighted the presence
of many interesting stereotomical
typical details, and the differences
with the abstract model described in
the treatises.
7 The Abeille’s original solution was
presented at the Academie des Sciences
in 1699. The serial elements had a
polyhedric shape: the lower base is a
square, the top base is a rectangle,
and the sloped sides are trapeziums.
It is possible to assembly the ashlars,
alternating the directions of the
placed pieces and obtaining the
covering of a square space. The
texture of the intrados has a square
plot while the extrados presents
pyramidal holes that have to be filled
in order to obtain a trampling layer.
J. M. Perouse de Montclos, in
L’architecture a la francaise, does not
mention any realised examples of
the Abeille’s solution or its variants
in France. E. Rabasa, in Forma y
construcciòn en piedra., has documented
one more small example of a flat-
vault in Spain: the boveda plana of the
Northern tower of Lugo Cathedral,
designed by Julian Sanchez Bort
(1727-1785). Here the Abeille’s
system is poured and adapted to a
rectangular plan. The central part
was reconstructed in 1879.
the few examples composed of serial elements. The flat-vaults
represent a formal and stylistic research field, developed in a
limited number of treatises as evolution of the traditional
vaulted systems from the seventeenth century. We can divide
the different flat-vault systems (voute plate/bòveda plana) in two
great families: the flat-vaults with convergent cuneiform
ashlars (such as the one realised by Juan de Herrera at the
Monastery of S. Lorenzo at the Escorial, 1575); and flat-vaults
composed of serial elements with a polyhedric shape6.
This is also a direct citation made by Lucio del Valle or Juan de
Ribeira to the great master of stereotomy A.F. Frezier.
The author of one of the most important treatise of
stereotomy (Traité de Stéréotomie 1737-39), in fact, describes in a
few pages the different solutions and the correct process for
realising a flat-vault system.
The solutions designed by Frezier starter from the analysis of
the original model elaborated by Abeille 7 (Det. 37b), and
quoted the existence of two later solution by Sebastien Truchet
(Det. 38b). He then describes his original new variants that
could be considered as simplifications of the fine, and also
complicated Truchet’s solution8, in order to reduce and clarify
the process of execution.
This model was executed, probably for the first and last time at
the Pontòn da la Oliva (Fig. 11).
The small boveda plana covers a rectangular space (dimensions
3,10x3,80m) which accommodates an inspection point. The
overall dimensions of the flat system at the extrados are
3,97x3,28m, and its thickness is 21cm.
The form, geometry, proportions and dimensions of the
elementary ashlars inform the entire composition:
-the square at the lower base is very small (35cm side), and its
composition designs an intrados’ texture made of 9 per 11
squares (Fig. 12);
-the top base is a polyline figure, and the circumscribed
rectangle has overall dimensions of 34x51cm (Fig. 13).
Frezier’s rules for a correct execution of the identical ashlars
are respected. The process for their realisation is quite simple:
too acute angles are avoided, because they constitute points of
frailty and rupture; the projection of the bases and of the sides
in order to obtain the patrones/panneaux that guide the
execution are direct and do not require complicated
geometrical constructions; the stone-cutting proceeds
according to planar cuts.
The inclination of the sloped sides follows an angle of 67°
(comprised between 45° - 75° and 34’), and there is a very
small utilisation of mortar so that the flat vault could be
considered dry-assembled.
There are also interesting constructive solutions adopted for
contrasting the horizontal trust of the system that can hardly
be recognised from the intrados: the L shaped massive blocks
in correspondence of each corner (Fig. 14-15), that are
replicated with few variations in the elements that compose the
parastas of the closing walls, creates a chain mechanism that
avoid the collapse.

PART II (by Giuseppina Uva)

Development of structural technical solutions for the out-of-plane
strength of cut-stone masonry
The project at the Pontòn de la Oliva presents many
interesting technical and structural solutions of out of plane
loaded structures in dry cut-stone masonry.
The technical solution adopted for the construction of the dam
was that of a gravity structure built in cut-stone masonry, with
a sloping earth-filling, in the external face a special shape was
adopted for the blocks, whose role will be later specified.
In fact, while for other examples of masonry dams of the same
period (the Meer Allum Dam in India, Jones Falls Dam in
Canada, Zola Dam in France and Parramatta Dam in
Australia) the structural principle is that of an arch using the
abutment reaction forces to support the water pressure, in this
Spanish structure the sophisticated texture of blocks, designed
according to severe stereothomical rules of cutting that can be
recognized in the historical treaties, introduce an important
improvement in the mere gravity/frictional mechanism.
In order to convey the thrusts to the abutments (that in arch
dams is obtained by the pressure curve within the arch’s
thickness) the interlocking among the ashlars is forced by the
particular dovetail joint, and the structural performance is
strategically committed to the texture of the wall.

5. The dam at the “Canal Isabel II” Canal and the boveda plana.
From the theoretical standpoint, there is a strong analogy
between the dam and the boveda plana, in terms of structural
performances and behaviour.
The boveda plana is a particular solution for covering a
quadrangular area, and in spite of its planar configuration, it is
more similar to a spatial vault in which the curvature tends to
zero. The static behaviour is then significantly based on the
three-dimensional interlocking of the blocks, that establishes a
three-dimensional lattice distributing the load on the supports.
In this system, the horizontal thrusts over the supporting
elements is very strong, and the stiffness and solidity of the
whole masonry is guaranteed only if every horizontal
displacement is prevented. If the masonry panels are rigid enough Fig. 12-15: Details of the boveda plana. Photo by
and well scarfed to form the masonry box, the floor is very stiff. the authors (May 2002).

Fig. 16: Stone Masonry Arch Dam at guaranteed only if displacements on the boundary are
Zola, France (1847-1854)
Fig. 17: Stone Masonry Gravity Dam at are usually well robust and rigid.
Pontòn de la Oliva, Spain (1851 –
1858)
Fig. 18: Comparison of Sections and
basin plans in the case of the stone
masonry dams at Zola and at the Pontòn
de la Oliva.
Otherwise, the collapse of the structure is sudden and
unexpected, showing all the features of brittle ruptures: no
warning signs nor large deformations arise, and a snapping
collapse takes place. Once the sliding over the contact surfaces
of the blocks are activated and the hooping action of the walls
is no more able to contrast them, the structure cannot find an
equilibrated configuration. It is evident that in these cases very
high safety factors are required.
The principle governing the structural behaviour of the dam
wall is quite similar. The structure is composed by different
layers: the inner part is a conventional gravity wall, with a
sloping earth bank on the water side (Fig. 16-17-18). The outer
layer is made up by blocks cut in a dovetail shape guaranteeing
the inner connection both in the vertical and in the horizontal
direction. The conveyance of the water pressure to the
abutments is so achieved through the combination of two
mechanisms: the classical gravity reaction and the frictional
interlocking among the blocks establishing a spatial platband-
behaviour similar to that of the boveda plana.
Indeed, the structural problem to solve is the same: the loads
act in the direction perpendicular to the “plate” (out of plane
actions), and have to be absorbed - and then conveyed to the
restraints - by means of a plane structure made up by no-
tension materials and relying only, if conventional solutions are
adopted, on the development of the friction reactions.
Now, instead, the static behaviour is essentially based upon the
connection among the different ashlars in the space, that form
a three-dimensional lattice distributing the load in both the
directions.
In both cases, the stiffness and strength of the apparatus is
prevented, that in the dam is quite natural, since the abutments
6. The role of stone blocks’ shape in the structural performance
The closeness of the two structures seems to be validated by
the presence of the little space, intended for containing the
technical equipment, located nearby the dam wall and covered
with a boveda plana .
Maybe, it was a divertissement of the designers who wanted to
apply the theoretical solutions described in the treatise, and the
presence of a yard specialized in stone cutting made it possible
the implementation of extremely complex geometric
configurations. Certainly, they had to solve a tricky problem
for the dam construction, and used all the tools and knowledge
available at that time.
The little and fascinating boveda plana witnesses the high level
reached in the building techniques, and the care for details in Fig. 18: Structural mechanism of the
order to guarantee a well-done construction. boveda plana.

For the boveda plana, the mechanism of the work can be 8 A comparative analysis of the
schematised throughout the simple system shown in Figure 19, different flat-vault solutions, and on
in which each of the four beams has one perfect constraint on their respective structural behaviour
in the light of their updating was
one side and is elastically constrained on the other by the developed by the authors within the
following one, and is then loaded by the previous. Research Unit of the Politecnico di
Bari of the MIUR ex-40% funded
It is so possible to span a fixed length using shorter elements, research The typological and constructive
reform of the Mediterranean house 1999-
but uniformly distributing the weights on the restraints as well. 2001, (national and local
A sort of circular diffusion of the load is generated, where each coordinator: Prof. C. D’Amato
element is loaded and loads the other to the same extent. This Guerrieri, Dipartimento ICAR,
distribution, involves both vertical and horizontal actions, Politecnico di Bari). The 3D
determining the overturning thrusts on the supports8. elaboration of the original model
ideated by Abeille (1669?-1752?,
The solution adopted at the Pontòn de la Oliva does not solution edited in Machines et
present the pyramidal holes at the extrados of the Abeille’s inventions approuvées par l’Academie
solution indicated in Figure 19. Here the engineer restored the Royale des Sciences, Tom. 1 pp. 159,
continuity of the extrados, and improved the engagement 1735), and of its successive variants
could be regarded not only as a
among ashlars in both directions, offering a better resistance to geometrical game but mainly as an
the collapse. attempt to improve the static
In the Dam of Pontòn de la Oliva the use of the dovetail joint performances of the system.
improves the interlocking of the blocks, enhancing the
strength to the mutual sliding and to the rotation induced

Acknowledgements
This paper summarises, in some
aspects, the contents of an on-
going research project titled
“Typological and constructive
updating of vaulted systems for
the contemporary project in
stone” (G. Uva; E. de Nichilo, A.
Di Roma, G. Fallacara). The
project has gained in 2002 MIUR
Young Researcher funds and is
being carried out at the
Politecnico di Bari. The authors
are very much debited to
Professors Claudio D’Amato
Guerrieri and Mauro Mezzina,
Politecnico di Bari, for their
precious comments and
suggestions. Prof. Enrique Rabasa
Diaz, offered his extremely
important comments, and enabled
the authors to connect this study
with current work on the history
and theory of stereotomy. Finally
the authors would like to express
their gratitude to Juan Josè
Gonzales Reglero, Fundaciòn
Canal Isabel II, who was a true
support during the survey at the
Pontòn de la Oliva (May 2002).
He not only offered his technical
suggestions, but also was very
generous in putting his facilities
and the material of the archive of
the Fundacion at our disposal.
by the overturning pressure. In the boveda plana the presence of
monolithic L – shaped blocks at each corner of the system
provides the necessary contrast to the horizontal actions.
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