sensors

Article
An Electromagnetic/Capacitive Composite Sensor for
Testing of Thermal Barrier Coatings
Yuan Ren *, Mengchun Pan, Dixiang Chen and Wugang Tian *
College of Intelligence Science and Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073,
China; pmc_nudt@vip.163.com (M.P.); chendixiang@163.com (D.C.)
* Correspondence: renyuan14@nudt.edu.cn (Y.R.); twg_1978@163.com (W.T.)




Received: 10 April 2018; Accepted: 17 May 2018; Published: 19 May 2018


Abstract: Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) can significantly reduce the operating temperature of
the aeroengine turbine blade substrate, and their testing technology is very urgently demanded.
Due to their complex multi-layer structure, it is hard to evaluate TBCs with a single function sensor.
In this paper, an electromagnetic/capacitive composite sensor is proposed for the testing of thermal
barrier coatings. The dielectric material is tested with planar capacitor, and the metallic material is
tested with electromagnetic coils. Then, the comprehensive test and evaluation of thermal barrier
coating system can be realized. The sensor is optimized by means of theoretical and simulation
analysis, and the interaction between the planar capacitor and the electromagnetic coil is studied.
The experimental system is built based on an impedance analyser and multiplex unit to evaluate
the performance of the composite sensor. The transimpedances and capacitances are measured under
different coating parameters, such as thickness and permittivity of top coating as well as bond layer
conductivity. The experimental results agree with the simulation analysis, and the feasibility of
the sensor is proved.

Keywords: thermal barrier coatings; eddy current; planar capacitor; composite sensor

1. Introduction
In order to elevate the thermal efficiency of the engine, it is necessary to improve the temperature
of the combustion chamber. The thermal barrier coating (TBC) technology is a surface protection
technology developed to meet the high temperature operating state of the engine hot end parts [1].
The conventional TBC structure includes a ceramic layer with low thermal conductivity and a
cushioning metal bonding layer. It can not only be used in the aviation field, but also in ship gas
turbines, as well as energy and other fields.
With the extensive application of TBCs, its life span is concerned as well. Once the peeling
and break occurs in the TBCs, the hot end parts of the engine will expose directly to high
temperature environments, and the results are very serious. Therefore, it is very important to evaluate
the performance of the TBCs during service.
Several non-destructive evaluation (NDE) techniques for the assessment of TBCs have been
developed, mainly including infrared thermograph, acoustic emission, ultrasonic, impedance
spectroscopy, microwave and eddy current testing. An infrared thermograph is widely used to
assess TBCs [2–6], which can be employed to test not only the thickness of the ceramic top coating
but also the porosity content and thermal conductivity of the TBCs. Palumbo and Tamborrino [7]
used an empirical thermographic method to evaluate the thickness of the thermal coating and to
discriminate between an unevenness of the thickness and a defect zone. Park [8], Renusch [9] and
Yang [10] used the acoustic emission technique to test the thermal fatigue damage of the TBCs during
the thermal cycle. The results show that the acoustic emission technique can test the thermal growth

Sensors 2018, 18, 1630 ; doi:10.3390/s18051630 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2018, 18, 1630 2 of 14

oxide and micro cracks of the TBCs. The initiation and propagation of the crack in the TBCs can be
detected with AC impedance spectroscopy [11,12], which is sensitive to defects such as cracks within
yttria-stabilized zirconia coatings and growth of thermally grown oxide (TGO) film between the top
coating and the bond coating. Ultrasonic technology was used to investigate the TGO layer, the voids,
delamination and porosity in TBCs [13–16]. Microwave was used to investigate the feasibility of
TBC durability monitoring and non-destructive evaluation of surface crack on the substrate beneath
the TBCs [17,18]. Khan [19] and Sabbagh [20] used the eddy current testing method to evaluate the life
of TBCs and measure its thickness. Fahr [21] and Roge [22] used an eddy current combined with
ultrasound methods to evaluate the performance of TBCs.
It can be seen from the above introduction that almost all of the existing methods can only test
and evaluate a part of the TBC system. In order to achieve comprehensive evaluation of TBCs, JENTEK
Corporation (Waltham, MA, USA) proposed a method combining Meandering Winding Magnetometer
(MWM) sensor with Interdigitated Electrode Dielectrometer (IDED) sensor [23]. However, due to
the two sensors not having been integrated, the test effect needs to be improved. This paper proposes a
composite sensor to test the TBCs, which is based on the principle of eddy current and planar capacitor.
In the composite sensor, eddy current testing is used to detect the conductive layer in the TBC
system, and planar capacitive testing is used to detect the nonconductive layer in the TBC system.
Compared with traditional MWM and IDED sensors, this composite sensor can be utilized to obtain
abundant transimpedance and capacitance information from exactly the same test region because of
its integrated structure. Information fusion under the two operating modes and different frequencies
can be implemented to evaluate the thermal barrier coating accurately and comprehensively.

2. Principle of Electromagnetic/Capacitive Composite Sensor

Typically, the TBC is composed of dielectric top coating (TC) and metallic bond coating (BC).
The TC is a thin ceramic layer with low thermal conductivity. It is located on the metallic substrate using
either plasma spraying or electron beam physical vapor deposition processes. The BC is fabricated to
minimize the thermal expansion mismatch between the metallic substrate and the ceramic coating,
which is a layer of modified aluminide alloy such as MCrAlY (where M is Co, Fe, Ni, or a mixed
combination) [24,25]. It serves to improve the bonding of the ceramic to metallic substrate and to
protect the substrate from oxidation. The thickness of the BC is typically 75–150 µm, and the TC is in
the range of 80–500 µm. It can be understood that the TBC is a complex coating system that contains
both a nonconductive ceramic layer and conductive metal layer, which is hardly to be evaluated with
a single method. The combination of electromagnetic and planar capacitive testing can provide a
feasible approach for comprehensive assessment of the TBCs.
Electromagnetic testing is a non-destructive testing method for conductive materials, which is
based on the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. The damnification in material under test
(MUT) can be judged with the impedance change of the induction coil. Within the service cycle of
the TBCs, the thickness of the ceramic layer or metal bonding layer may change, and cracks may appear
in the metal bonding layer or the superalloy substrate. These phenomena will lead to impedance
change of the electromagnetic coils.
Planar capacitive testing is based on the edge effect of electric field, which is used to test
the property of dielectric material beneath the planar capacitor. Within the service cycle of the TBCs,
the degradation or shedding of the ceramic layer will result in permittivity change, which can be tested
with a planar capacitor.
Based on the above principles, this paper presents a composite sensor to test either conductive or
dielectric materials in the TBCs, which has two different operating modes: electromagnetic testing
mode and capacitive testing mode. A representative scenario showing the unknown properties to
be estimated by such a hybrid method is shown in Figure 1. In the electromagnetic testing mode,
the output signals of the sensor are affected by the thickness of the top coating (Ht ) and the bond
coating (Hb ) as well as the conductivities of the bond coating and the substrate (σb and σs , respectively).
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Sensors 2018, 18, xFOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14

In the capacitive testing mode, the output signals of the sensor are determined by the thickness and
the permittivity
permittivity of the
of the toptop coating
coating (H(H t and
t and t , respectively).
εt,εrespectively). Informationfusion
Information fusionunder
underthe
thetwo
two operating
modesSensors
can be implemented
2018, to evaluate the thermal barrier coating accurately
18, xFOR PEER REVIEW accurately and comprehensively.
comprehensively.
3 of 14

permittivity of the top coating (Ht and εt, respectively). Information fusion under the two operating
modes can be implemented
Electromagnetic to evaluate
Testing Mode the thermal barrier
Composite Sensorcoating accurately
Capacitive and
Testing comprehensively.
Mode

HtElectromagnetic
(Eddy Current Lift-off)
Testing Mode
Top coating
Composite Sensor Ht
Capacitive Testing Mode
t

Hb  b Current Lift-off)
Ht (Eddy
Bond coating
Top coating Ht t
s
Hb b Bond coating
Substrate
s
Substrate

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram of
of thermal
thermal barrier
barrier coating
coating (TBC)
(TBC) system
system testing
testing with
with composite
composite sensor.
sensor.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of thermal barrier coating (TBC) system testing with composite sensor.
3.
3. Design
Design of
of the
the Composite
Composite Sensor
Sensor
3. Design of
As the Composite Sensor
As shown
shown in in Figure
Figure2,2,ininthe thecomposite
composite sensor,
sensor,a spatially
a spatiallyperiodic
periodicwinding
winding serves as both
serves the
as both
excitation coil
As of
shown the
in electromagnetic
Figure 2, in the unit and
composite the
sensor, driving
a electrode
spatially periodic of the
winding
the excitation coil of the electromagnetic unit and the driving electrode of the planar capacitor. planar
serves capacitor.
as both the The
excitation
The coil iscoil
excitation
excitation a meandering
coil of athe
is meandering structure,
electromagnetic which
unit and
structure, can produce
the
which driving aelectrode
can producemoreauniform electromagnetic
of theuniform
more planar capacitor. field in
The
electromagnetic
the excitation
material coil istest
under a meandering
(MUT). structure,
The which can
multi-turn producecoils
induction a more uniform
locate electromagnetic
close to the field incoil,
excitation
field in the material under test (MUT). The multi-turn induction coils locate close to the excitation
which the material under
is designed test (MUT).
to detect the the The multi-turn
change of of
eddy induction
current coils locate
field. close to the excitation coil,
coil, which is designed to detect change eddy current field.The
Thesensing
sensingelectrode
electrodeof ofthe
the planar
planar
which
capacitor is is designed
designed to
as adetect
U-shapedthe change of eddy
structure, current
which canfield. The
increase sensing
the electrode
equivalent of the planar
capacitance and
capacitor is designed
capacitor is designedas aasU-shaped
a U-shaped structure,
structure,which
which cancan increase
increase thetheequivalent
equivalent capacitance
capacitance and and
testing sensitivity of the planar capacitor.
testing sensitivity of the planar capacitor.
testing sensitivity of the planar capacitor.

Excitation
Excitation coil/coil/
Driving electrode Induction coilcoil
Induction
Driving electrode
...
... ...
...
Sensing electrode
Sensing electrode

Figure
Figure 2. Schematic
2. Schematic diagramofofthe
diagram theplanar
planar composite
compositesensor.
sensor.
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the planar composite sensor.
3.1. Finite Element Modeling and Analysis
3.1. Finite Element Modeling and Analysis
3.1. Finite Element
In order Modeling
to evaluateandtheAnalysis
performance of the composite sensor, a three-dimensional simulation
Inmodel
orderhas to been
evaluate the performance
established using COMSOL of the composite5.2a
Multiphysics sensor, a three-dimensional
software (COMSOL Inc., Stockholm, simulation
In order
modelSweden). to evaluate
has beenInestablished the performance
using COMSOL
the electromagnetic of the composite
Multiphysics
testing mode, the physical sensor,
5.2afield a
software three-dimensional
(COMSOL
was selected simulation
Inc., Stockholm,
as magnetic field
model
Sweden). has
under been
InAC/DC established
the electromagnetic using
module and solved COMSOL
testing mode,
with Multiphysics
the physical
frequency 5.2a software
field was
domain solver. (COMSOL
selected
In the Inc.,
as magnetic
capacitive testing mode,Stockholm,
fieldthe
under
Sweden).
AC/DC In the
physical
module electromagnetic
field
and was selected
solved testing mode,
withasfrequency
electrostatic fieldthe
domain underphysical
solver. In thefield
AC/DC modulewasand
capacitive selected as magnetic
solved mode,
testing with stationary field
the physical
under AC/DC
solver. module
The and
geometric solved
dimension with
of frequency
the whole domain
simulation solver.
area is In
20 the
mm
field was selected as electrostatic field under AC/DC module and solved with stationary solver. capacitive
(length) × 12testing
mm mode,
(width) × the
physical7.516 mm
field (height),
was in
selectedwhich
as the material
electrostatic under
field test
under is the TBC,
AC/DC as shown
module
The geometric dimension of the whole simulation area is 20 mm (length) × 12 mm (width) × 7.516 mm in
and Figure
solved 3. The
with area over
stationary
solver.the
(height), The composite
geometric
in which
sensor
the material
is set toofbethe
dimension air with the
under test whole
thickness,area
simulation
is the TBC,
conductivity,
as shown inisFigure20 mm relative
(length)
3. The
permeability
area ×over
12 mm and ×
(width)
the composite
7.516 relative permittivity of 5 mm, 0 MS/m, 1 and 1, respectively. The parameters of each layer in the TBC
sensormm is set(height),
to be airinwith
whichthethe material
thickness, under test is
conductivity, the TBC,
relative as shown and
permeability in Figure
relative 3. permittivity
The area over of
system are listed in Table 1.
the composite sensor is set to be air with the thickness, conductivity, relative permeability and
relative permittivity of 5 mm, 0 MS/m, 1 and 1, respectively. The parameters of each layer in the TBC
system are listed in Table 1.
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5 mm, 0 MS/m, 1 and 1, respectively. The parameters of each layer in the TBC system are listed in
Table 1.
Sensors 2018, 18, xFOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 14

(a) (b)
A B

Hair Induction coil Air

10 turns
w2 w1
h1
h4 h2 Composite sensor
Hsensor
h5 h3 w3 w4 w5
Htop Sensing electrode Top coating
Hbond Excitation coil / Driving electrode Bond coating

Hsubstrate Substrate

(c)

Figure 3. Simulation geometry model. (a) overall structure; (b) vertical view of overall structure; (c)
Figure 3. Simulation geometry model. (a) overall structure; (b) vertical view of overall structure;
cross-section of composite sensor for a half wavelength, where Hair = 5 mm; Hsensor = 0.116 mm; Htop = 0.3
(c) cross-section of composite sensor for a half wavelength, where Hair = 5 mm; Hsensor = 0.116 mm;
mm; Hbond = 0.1 mm; Hsubstrate = 2 mm; h1 = h3 = 0.0275 mm; h2 = 0.025 mm; h4 = h5 = 0.018 mm; w1 = w2 = 0.1
Htop = mm; w3 = wH
0.3 mm; 4=bond
= w0.1
1 mm; mm; H
5 = 2.5 mm. substrate
= 2 mm; h1 = h3 = 0.0275 mm; h2 = 0.025 mm;
h4 = h5 = 0.018 mm; w1 = w2 = 0.1 mm; w3 = w4 = 1 mm; w5 = 2.5 mm.
Table 1. Parameters of the thermal barrier coating (TBC) under simulation.
Table 1. Parameters of the thermal barrier coating (TBC) under simulation.
Thickness Conductivity Relative Relative
(mm) (MS/m) Permeability Permittivity
Thickness
Top coating (mm) Conductivity
0.3 (MS/m)0 Relative Permeability
1 Relative
12.5 Permittivity
Top coating Bond coating
0.3 0.1 0 0.2 1 1 1 12.5
Bond Substrate 2 1.6 1 1
0.1 0.2 1 1
coating
SubstrateThe composite
2 sensor consists of a1.6 1
two-layer structure, as shown in Figure 3b. The1 vertical
distance is 25 μm between the induction coil plane and the excitation coil plane. The material of the
coil and electrode is set to be copper, whose electrical conductivity, relative permeability and
The composite sensor consists of a two-layer structure, as shown in Figure 3b. The vertical
relative permittivity is 59.98 MS/m, 1 and 1, respectively. Apart from the coil and electrode, the
distance is 25 µm between the induction coil plane and the excitation coil plane. The material of the coil
material of other part of the sensor is to set to be polyimide, whose electrical conductivity, relative
and electrode
permeabilityis set
andtorelative
be copper, whoseiselectrical
permittivity 0.004 S/m,conductivity, relative
1 and 4 respectively. permeability
In the and relative
simulated model, the
permittivity is 59.98the
liftoff between MS/m, 1 andand
top coating 1, respectively.
the compositeApart
sensorfrom theconsidered.
was not coil and electrode,
Since the the material
thickness of of
other part of the
the wire andsensor is to set
the electrode in to
thebe polyimide,
sensor whoseit electrical
is very small, is set to beconductivity, relative
a surface without permeability
thickness in the
and relative
physicalpermittivity is 0.004 S/m,which
field of electromagnetic, 1 andcan
4 respectively. In the simulated
reduce the difficulty model, and
of grid dividing the shorten
liftoff between
the
computation time.
the top coating and the composite sensor was not considered. Since the thickness of the wire and
the electrode in the sensor is very small, it is set to be a surface without thickness in the physical field
of electromagnetic, which can reduce the difficulty of grid dividing and shorten the computation time.
Sensors 2018, 18, 1630 5 of 14
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3.2. Structure Optimization of the Composite Sensor

Sensors 2018, 18, xFOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 14
In order to to improve
improvethe thetesting
testingperformance,
performance,ititisis necessary
necessary to to optimize
optimize thethe composite
composite sensor.
sensor. In
In
thethe 3.2.capacitive
Structure
capacitive Optimization
testing
testing mode, of the
mode, theComposite
the width
width Sensor
and and spacing
spacing of electrodes
of electrodes havehave greatgreat influence
influence on theon
sensitivity
the Inof
sensitivity the sensor.
of the
order to One
sensor.
improve One
the oftesting
the units
of the in the
units arrayed
in the
performance, itarrayed sensor
sensor
is necessary isoptimize
to shown
is shownin
theFigure
incomposite
Figure 4, in which
4,sensor.
in InW1
which W1 is
thethe
is width
width
the ofof
the driving
the
capacitive testingelectrode,
driving electrode,
mode, theW2
W2 the
thewidth
width width
and ofofthe
spacing thesensing
ofsensing electrode,
electrode,
electrodes G1
G1 is
have great the
the spacing
is influence
spacingon between
the
the driving
driving electrode
electrode
sensitivity and
and
of the sensor. thethe
Onesensing
of theelectrode,
sensing electrode,
units in theG2 isG2theisdistance
arrayed between
the distance
sensor is shown the two
between
in Figure 4,ends
theintwo ofends
which the
W1sensing
of the
is
the
electrode, width of the
and L is the
sensing electrode, driving
andlength electrode,
L is theof length W2
the linear the
of the width of
linearof
segment the
segment sensing electrode,
of the electrode.
electrode. G1 is
In order toIn the spacing
order to the
maximize between
maximize the
sensitivity,
the the driving
parameters
sensitivity, the ofelectrode
each part
parameters and the
of the
each sensing
planar electrode,
capacitor
part of the planar G2 capacitor
need istothe
be distance
needbetween
optimized, to and theinitial
the
be optimized, two ends
and of
thetheinitial
parameters are
sensing
parameters
selected electrode,
are
as: W1 selected
= W2 = and
as:L=is
G1 W1G2the==length
W2 of Lthe
= G1
1 mm, ==G2linear
= 1 segment
5 mm. mm, L =of5 the mm. electrode. In order to maximize the
sensitivity, the parameters of each part of the planar capacitor need to be optimized, and the initial
parameters are selected as: W1 = W2 = G1 = G2 = 1 mm, L = 5 mm.

G1

L G1 L
L G2 L
G2

W2
W2
W1 W1
W1 W1

Figure 4.
Figure Structure of
of planar
planar capacitor.
Figure4.4.Structure
Structure of planar capacitor.
capacitor.

The sensitivity
The sensitivity of the
of the planar
planar isisdefined
capacitoris
capacitor defined as:
defined as:

C∆C
Ssensitivity_C  C
sensitivity _ C =
SSsensitivity , (1) (1)
(1)
_C ∆ε
,
,
∆C represents
wherewhere ΔC represents the change
the change of capacitance,
of capacitance, and ∆εand Δε represents
represents the of
the change change of permittivity.
relative relative
where ΔC represents the change of capacitance, and Δε represents the change of relative
permittivity. It can be seen from Figure 5 that the capacitive testing sensitivity
It can be seen from Figure 5 that the capacitive testing sensitivity will decrease with the spacing between will decrease with the
permittivity.
spacing It can bethe
between seen from Figure
driving electrode5 that
and the
the capacitive
sensing testing(G1)
electrode sensitivity
while will decrease
increase with with the
other
the driving
spacing electrode
between theand the sensing
driving electrode
electrode (G1) while electrode
increase with other parameters, especially
parameters, especially the width of the and
driving the sensing
electrode and the sensing (G1)electrode.
while increase
However,withsmallother
the width of the driving electrode and the sensing electrode. However, small electrode spacing of
parameters,
electrodeespecially
spacing ofthe width
planar of the will
capacitor driving
resultelectrode and the sensing
in low penetration depth ofelectrode. However,
electric field [26], andsmall
planar capacitor will result in low penetration depth of electric field [26], and the increase of the other
electrode spacingofof
the increase theplanar capacitor will
other parameters result inthelow
will enlarge sizepenetration
of the testingdepth of electric
unit, leading field [26],
to decrease of and
parameters
spatial will enlarge
resolution. the the
Thus, sizetrade-off
of the testing
should unit,
be leading
made among to decrease
the testingofsensitivity,
spatial resolution.
penetration Thus,
the increase of the other parameters will enlarge the size of the testing unit, leading to decrease of
the trade-off
depth should
and spatial be made among the testing sensitivity, penetration depth and spatial resolution.
resolution.
spatial resolution. Thus, the trade-off should be made among the testing sensitivity, penetration
depth and spatial resolution.

Figure
Figure 5. Influence
5. Influence of of geometricalparameters
geometrical parameters on
onthe
thesensitivity
sensitivityof of
capacitive unit.unit.
capacitive

Figure 5. Influence of geometrical parameters on the sensitivity of capacitive unit.

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Sensors 2018, 18, 1630 6 of 14

3.3. Performance Analysis of the Composite Sensor
When testing the thermal barrier coated blades with an electromagnetic/capacitive composite
3.3. Performance Analysis of the Composite Sensor
sensor, either the sensor output or its change caused by coating defect is very small and easy to be
When
affected by testing the thermal
other factors. barrier
Therefore, it coated blades
is necessary towith an electromagnetic/capacitive
analyze the interaction between thecomposite
induction
sensor,
coil andeither the sensor
the sensing output
electrode of or
theits change
planar caused by coating defect is very small and easy to be
capacitor.
affected by other factors. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the interaction between the induction
3.3.1.and
coil Influence of theelectrode
the sensing Sensing of
Electrode
the planaron capacitor.
the Electromagnetic Testing

3.3.1.In the electromagnetic

Influence of the Sensingtesting mode,
Electrode theElectromagnetic
on the transimpedanceTesting of electromagnetic coil is used to
represent the property of sensor, which is defined to be the ratio of induced voltage and excitation
In the electromagnetic testing mode, the transimpedance of electromagnetic coil is used
current:
to represent the property of sensor, which is defined to be the ratio of induced voltage and
V
excitation current: Z transfer  VS (2)
Ztrans f er = I DS ,, (2)
ID
where IIDD isis the
where theexcitation
excitationcurrent
currentflowing
flowingininthetheexcitation
excitationcoil, and
coil, VS VisS the
and induced
is the voltage
induced of the
voltage of
induction
the inductioncoil.coil.
When 20 mA
When current
20 mA withwith
current 100 100
kHzkHz frequency is applied
frequency to the
is applied excitation
to the coil,coil,
excitation andandthe
thickness
the of the
thickness ceramic
of the layer
ceramic is changing
layer is changingfrom
from 0.07 mm
0.07 mmtoto0.70.7mm,
mm,thethetransimpedance
transimpedance (Figure
(Figure 6) 6)
can be
can be calculated
calculated withwith Equation
Equation (2).
(2).

Figure 6. Variation of transimpedance imaginary part with top coating thickness.

As the
As the thickness
thickness of of the
the ceramic
ceramic layer
layer increases,
increases, the the eddy
eddy current induced on
current induced on the
the metal bond
metal bond
coating and substrate will become weaker. Thus, the intensity of secondary
coating and substrate will become weaker. Thus, the intensity of secondary magnetic field induced magnetic field induced
by eddy
by eddy current
current will
will decrease,
decrease, whose
whose direction
direction is opposite to
is opposite the main
to the main magnetic
magnetic field
field generated
generated by by
the excitation
the excitation coil.
coil. Because
Because the the excitation
excitation current
current and
and mainmain magnetic
magnetic field
field intensity
intensity remain
remain constant,
constant,
the total
the total magnetic
magnetic field
field strength
strengthwill
willincrease,
increase,andandthe theinduced
inducedvoltage
voltageVSVas well as the module of
S as well as the module
the transimpedance will increase accordingly. Since the imaginary part of
of the transimpedance will increase accordingly. Since the imaginary part of the transimpedancethe transimpedance is the
is
main concern in electromagnetic induction [27], it is mainly studied in the following
the main concern in electromagnetic induction [27], it is mainly studied in the following simulation simulation and
experiment.
and experiment.
It can
It can be
be seen
seen from
from Figure
Figure 66 that
that the
the imaginary
imaginary part part of
of the
the transimpedance
transimpedance is is approximately
approximately in in
linear relationship with the thickness of the ceramic layer when the sensor contains
linear relationship with the thickness of the ceramic layer when the sensor contains sensing electrode. sensing electrode.
However, the
However, the relationship
relationship is is nonlinear
nonlinear when
when the
the sensor
sensor is is working
working without
without aa sensing
sensing electrode.
electrode. As As
shown by
shown by the
the slopes
slopes ofofthe
thecurves
curvesininthe
theFigure
Figure6,6,thethemeasurement
measurementsensitivity
sensitivityofof
coating
coating thickness
thickness is
is 3.588 Ω/m when the sensor with sensing electrode, smaller than 4.763 Ω/m when the sensor
Sensors 2018, 18, 1630 7 of 14

Sensors 2018, 18, xFOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14

without sensing electrode. The reason is that the eddy current induced on the sensing electrode will
3.588 Ω/m when the sensor with sensing electrode, smaller than 4.763 Ω/m when the sensor without
influence the eddy current induced on the bond coating and substrate. However, the improvement of
sensing electrode. The reason is that the eddy current induced on the sensing electrode will influence
the thickness
the eddy testing
current sensitivity
induced onisthe achieved in the and
bond coating capacitive testing.
substrate. However, the improvement of the
The
thickness testing sensitivity is achieved in the capacitive testing. eleven different conductivity values
electromagnetic simulations were carried out under
of the bond The coating: 0.1, 0.2,
electromagnetic 0.5, 1, 2,were
simulations 5, 10, 15, 25,
carried out 40,
underand 60 MS/m.
eleven differentThe operating
conductivity frequency
values of
is 100the
kHz,
bondascoating:
same as0.1,in the
0.2, 0.5,earlier case.
1, 2, 5, 10, 15, It
25,can be seen
40, and fromThe
60 MS/m. Figure 7 that
operating the imaginary
frequency part of
is 100 kHz,
as same as in will
transimpedance the earlier case.the
fall with It can be seen fromof
conductivity Figure
bond7 that
layer.the When
imaginary
the part of transimpedance
conductivity of the bond
will fall with the conductivity of bond layer. When the conductivity of the
coating increases, the eddy current induced on the metal bond coating and substrate will become bond coating increases,
the eddy
stronger. Thus,current inducedof
the intensity onsecondary
the metal bond coating
magnetic and
field substrate
induced bywill
eddybecome
currentstronger. Thus, thewhich
will increase,
intensity of secondary magnetic field induced by eddy current will increase, which will reduce the
will reduce the total magnetic field strength, finally leading to the decrease of induced voltage VS
total magnetic field strength, finally leading to the decrease of induced voltage VS and the imaginary
and the imaginary part of transimpedance. When the sensing electrode exists in the sensor, the eddy
part of transimpedance. When the sensing electrode exists in the sensor, the eddy current will be
current will be
induced oninduced
the sensingon the sensing
electrode andelectrode
the eddy and the on
current eddythecurrent on the
metal bond metalis bond
coating coating
smaller. In is
smaller. In general, the sensing electrode will influence the sensitivity of the composite
general, the sensing electrode will influence the sensitivity of the composite sensor more or less sensor more or
less under
under the electromagnetic
electromagnetic testing
testing mode.
mode.

Figure
Figure 7. Variation
7. Variation of of transimpedance imaginary
transimpedance imaginary part
partwith
withconductivity of bond
conductivity layer.
of bond layer.

3.3.2. Influence of the Induction Coil on the Capacitive Testing

3.3.2. Influence of the Induction Coil on the Capacitive Testing
In the capacitive testing mode, when a given voltage U is applied between the driving electrode
In
andthe
thecapacitive testing of
sensing electrode mode,
planarwhen a given
capacitor, voltage
a certain U is applied
amount of chargebetween the driving
Q will produce on theelectrode
two
and the sensing electrode of planar capacitor, a certain amount of charge Q
electrodes. The capacitance can be calculated using the equation C = Q/U. When the physical will produce on the two
electrodes. Theof
properties capacitance can
the dielectric be calculated
materials inside using the equation
the planar C = Q/U.
capacitor change, theWhen the
electric physical
field properties
distribution
of thearound the planar
dielectric capacitor
materials will
inside thealso change,
planar thus affecting
capacitor change,the the
charge produced
electric field on the electrodes
distribution around
and the capacitance of the planar capacitor.
the planar capacitor will also change, thus affecting the charge produced on the electrodes and
The planar
the capacitance of thecapacitor in the composite sensor for TBCs testing can be described with an
planar capacitor.
equivalent circuit diagram as shown in Figure 8, where Cair is the capacitive contribution of the air,
The planar capacitor in the composite sensor for TBCs testing can be described with an equivalent
Csf is the fringe capacitive contribution of the insulating layer in the composite sensor, Ctcf is the
circuit diagram as shown in Figure 8, where Cair is the capacitive contribution of the air, Csf is the fringe
fringe capacitive contribution of the top coating, Cec is the overlap capacitance between the driving
capacitive contribution
electrode of the insulating
and the induction layer
coil, Csp is the in thecapacitive
overlap composite sensor, Ctcf
contribution of is
thethe fringe capacitive
insulating layer
contribution of the top coating,
between the driving electrode and C is the overlap capacitance between the driving
ec the metallic bond coating, and Ctcp is the overlap capacitive electrode and
the induction coil,ofCthe
contribution sp istop
thecoating
overlapbetween
capacitive
the contribution of the
driving electrode andinsulating layer
the metallic between
bond theThe
coating. driving
electrode and the metallic
total capacitance bondcapacitor
of the planar coating,can andbeCexpressed
tcp is the overlap
by: capacitive contribution of the top
coating between the driving electrode and the metallic bond coating. The total capacitance of the planar
capacitor can be expressed by:

Cec Csp Ctcp

C f = Cair + + Cs f + Ctc f + . (3)
2 2(Csp + Ctcp )
thickness of the top coating increases, Ctcp will decrease and Ctcf will increase, while Cair, Cec, Csf and
Csp remains constant, and, moreover, the decrease of Ctcp is about two orders larger than the increase
of Ctcf [28–32]; thus, the total capacitance Cf will fall with the thickness of top coating. As shown in
Figure 8, the capacitance variation against the thickness of the top coating is nonlinear. This is,
however,
Sensors 2018,within
18, 1630 expectation considering the non uniform field distribution of the planar capacitor
8 of 14
since most of the field energy is concentrated around the sensor electrodes.

Cf
Induction coil Air
Insulating layer
Cair

Cec Cec Composite sensor

Driving electrode Csf Sensing electrode
Csp Csp
Ctcp Ctcp Top coating
Ctcf
Bond coating

(a)
Cair

Cec Cec

Csf
Cf
Ctcf

Csp Ctcp Ctcp Csp

(b)

Figure 8. Planar
Figure 8. Planar capacitor
capacitorininthe
thecomposite
composite sensor
sensor forfor
TBCTBC testing:
testing: (a) schematic
(a) schematic sketch
sketch in a view;
in a side side
view; (b) equivalent circuit diagram.
(b) equivalent circuit diagram.

It can be seen from Figure 9 that the planar capacitor with the induction coil has higher
In this capacitor model, the capacitor Ctcp is considerably larger than the capacitor Ctcf . When
equivalent capacitance and testing sensitivity to the thickness of ceramic layer than that of the
the thickness of the top coating increases, Ctcp will decrease and Ctcf will increase, while Cair , Cec ,
instance without induction coil, which can be explained as following. The voltage applied on the
Csf and Csp remains constant, and, moreover, the decrease of Ctcp is about two orders larger than
driving electrode will produce charges on the induction coil and the metal bond coating, which will
the increase of Ctcf [28–32]; thus, the total capacitance Cf will fall with the thickness of top coating. As
accordingly induce charges on the sensing electrode. The change of charge on the sensing electrode
shown in Figure 8, the capacitance variation against the thickness of the top coating is nonlinear. This
and the driving electrode due to the variety of the ceramic layer thickness is larger than the instance
is, however, within expectation considering the non uniform field distribution of the planar capacitor
without induction coil. Since the potential difference between the driving electrode and the sensing
since most of the field energy is concentrated around the sensor electrodes.
electrode is constant, the capacitance change and thickness testing sensitivity of planar capacitor is
It can be seen from Figure 9 that the planar capacitor with the induction coil has higher equivalent
higher when the induction coil exists.
capacitance and testing sensitivity to the thickness of ceramic layer than that of the instance without
induction coil, which can be explained as following. The voltage applied on the driving electrode
will produce charges on the induction coil and the metal bond coating, which will accordingly induce
charges on the sensing electrode. The change of charge on the sensing electrode and the driving
electrode due to the variety of the ceramic layer thickness is larger than the instance without induction
coil. Since the potential difference between the driving electrode and the sensing electrode is constant,
the capacitance change and thickness testing sensitivity of planar capacitor is higher when the induction
coil exists.
Sensors
Sensors 2018, 18, 1630
2018, 18, xFOR PEER REVIEW 99 of
of 14
14
Sensors 2018, 18, xFOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14

Figure 9. Variation of capacitance with ceramic layer thickness.

Variation of
Figure 9. Variation of capacitance
capacitance with
with ceramic
ceramic layer
layer thickness.
thickness.
It can be seen from Figure 10 that the capacitance of the planar capacitor will increase
It can
It canbewith
nonlinearly be seen
seenthe
fromfrom
relativeFigure
Figure 10 the
permittivity
10 that that ofthe
the capacitance
ceramic
capacitance of and
layer,
of the planarthe planar
the planar
capacitor capacitor
willcapacitor
increasewill
hasincrease
higher
nonlinearly
nonlinearly
testing
with with
thesensitivity the relative permittivity
to the permittivity
relative permittivity of the
of thelayer,
of the ceramic ceramic
ceramic layer
and the layer,
when
planar and the planar
the induction
capacitor capacitor
coil testing
has higher has
exists. When higher
the
sensitivity
testing
induction sensitivity
coil to
exists the
and permittivity
the potential of the ceramic
difference layer
between when
the the induction
driving coil
electrode exists.
and
to the permittivity of the ceramic layer when the induction coil exists. When the induction coil exists and theWhen the
sensing
induction
electrode coil
is exists
constant, and
the the potential
charge change difference
on the between
sensing the driving
electrode electrode
caused by the
the potential difference between the driving electrode and the sensing electrode is constant, the charge and the
change sensing
of the
electrode
change on is
permittivity theconstant,
ofsensing the charge
the ceramic
electrodelayer change
is larger
caused onthan
by the the sensing
change the electrode
theofinstance caused
without
permittivity the by
ofinduction the coil.
ceramic change
layer is of
Thus, the
larger
permittivity
than the instanceof the
testing ceramic
sensitivity
without layer is larger
of capacitor
induction coil. than
is higher.
Thus, the instance
the permittivity without
testing induction
sensitivity coil. Thus,
of capacitor the
is higher.
permittivity testing sensitivity of capacitor is higher.

Figure
Figure 10.
10. Variation
Variation of capacitance with relative permittivity of ceramic layer.
Figure 10. Variation of capacitance with relative permittivity of ceramic layer.
In
In aa word,
word, thethe existence
existence of of induction
induction coil is beneficial
coil is beneficial to
to the
the sensitivity
sensitivity in
in capacitive
capacitive testing
testing
mode,In and
a word,
the the existence
influence of of induction
sensing coilon
electrode is beneficial
the to theofsensitivity
sensitivity the in capacitive
electromagnetic testing
testing is
mode, and the influence of sensing electrode on the sensitivity of the electromagnetic testing is weaker.
mode, and
weaker. the influence
Therefore, it is of sensing
feasible to electrode
integrate the on the sensitivityunit
electromagnetic of the
and electromagnetic
the planar testing
capacitor in is
a
Therefore, it is feasible to integrate the electromagnetic unit and the planar capacitor in a sensor and to
weaker. Therefore,
sensor it it
is in
feasible to integrate
mode.the electromagnetic unit and the planar capacitor in a
operateand
it intotime-sharing
operate time-sharing
mode.
sensor and to operate it in time-sharing mode.
Sensors 2018, 18, 1630 10 of 14

4. Experimental Validation
Sensors 2018, 18, xFOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

In order
Sensors 2018,to
18,verify
xFOR PEERtheREVIEW
effect of the composite sensor, benchmark experiments were carried 10 of 14 out.
4. Experimental Validation
Figure 11 shows the measurement system, which consists of the composite sensor, impedance analyser,
4. Experimental
In order toValidation
verify the effectand
of the composite sensor, benchmark experiments wereprecise
carried impedance
out.
multiplex unit, personal computer a LabVIEW program. A Wayne Kerr 6510B
Figure 11 shows
In order Kerr
to verifythe measurement system,
the effect Chichester,
of the compositewhich consists of the composite sensor, impedance
analyser (Wayne Electronics, UK)sensor, benchmark
was utilized experiments and
for capacitance weretransimpedance
carried out.
analyser,
Figure multiplex
11 shows theunit, personal computer
measurement system, and a LabVIEW
which consistsprogram.
of A Wayne Kerr
the composite 6510B
sensor, precise
impedance
measurement.
impedance
The operating
analyser (Wayne
frequency
Kerr
of the
Electronics,
impedance
Chichester,
analyser
UK) was
was
utilized
set
for
to be 100
capacitance
kHz.
and
This
analyser,
particular multiplex unit,
frequency measurement. personal
ensured thatThe computer
theoperating and
measurement a LabVIEW
error program.
of impedance A
the impedanceWayne Kerr
analyser6510B precise
transimpedance frequency of the analyser was set towas less than
be 100
impedance analyser (Wayne Kerr Electronics, Chichester, UK) was utilized for capacitance and
0.05% for
kHz.a 1This
pF particular
capacitance, whileensured
frequency at the same time
that the giving a good
measurement error approximation
of the impedancefor the electrostatic
analyser was
transimpedance measurement. The operating frequency of the impedance analyser was set to be 100
case in less
the than
model for for
0.05% capacitive testing mode.
a 1 pF capacitance, while The
at themultiplex
same timeunit consists
giving a good of reed relay switch
approximation for the arrays
kHz. This particular frequency ensured that the measurement error of the impedance analyser was
electrostatic
to extend the 0.05%
numbercase in the model for capacitive testing mode. The multiplex unit consists of reed relay
less than for of
a 1measurement
pF capacitance,channels,
while at theand to enable
same different
time giving a goodterminal configurations
approximation for the for
switch arrays to extend the number of measurement channels, and to enable different terminal
various measurement protocols. The multiplex unit is connected
electrostatic case in the model for capacitive testing mode. The multiplex unit to H , L
CURconsists , H POT and
CUR of reed relay LPOT
configurations for various measurement protocols. The multiplex unit is connected to HCUR, LCUR,
terminals
switch ofarrays
HPOT and
WKLPOT 6510B and can
toterminals
extend the switch
number
of WK
between
6510Bofand
the 4-terminal-pair
measurement
can switch channels,
between the and (4TP) and the
to enable
4-terminal-pair
mutual
different
(4TP) and
inductance
terminal
the
configurations
configurations [33]. for various measurement
mutual inductance configurations [33]. protocols. The multiplex unit is connected to H CUR, LCUR,

HPOT and LPOT terminals of WK 6510B and can switch between the 4-terminal-pair (4TP) and the
mutual inductance configurations [33].
Personal
Computer
Personal
Computer

Electromagnetic/Capacitive Multiplex Impedance

Composite Sensor Unit Analyser
Electromagnetic/Capacitive Multiplex Impedance
Figure
Composite 11. Schematic diagram of the
Sensor sensor testing system. Analyser
Unit
Figure 11. Schematic diagram of the sensor testing system.
According to theFigure
numerical modeling results, we optimized and fabricated the composite
11. Schematic diagram of the sensor testing system.
According
sensor forto allthe numerical modeling
measurements. As shown in results,
Figure we 12, aoptimized and fabricated
flexible composite sensor is the composite
fabricated with sensor
flexible printed
for all measurements. circuit
As board
shown (FPCB)
in Figuretechnology.
12, a The
flexible meandering
composite
According to the numerical modeling results, we optimized and fabricated the composite driving
sensor electrode/excitation
is fabricated withcoilflexible
printed extends
circuit a half wavelength at each end of the array, and a pair of dummy sensing elements
coil are
sensor for board (FPCB) technology.
all measurements. As shownThe meandering
in Figure driving
12, a flexible electrode/excitation
composite sensor is fabricated extends
with a
formed within those final meander half wavelengths to maintain the periodicity of the field as
half wavelength
flexible printed at each
circuitend of the
board array,
(FPCB) and a pair
technology. The ofmeandering
dummy sensing drivingelements are formedcoil
electrode/excitation within
viewed by the end sensing elements. The dummy elements are not closed and not connected to form
thoseextends
final a half wavelength
meander at each end
half wavelengths of the array,
to maintain theand a pair ofof
periodicity
a loop so that the net current flowing through the windings is minimized. The purpose of dummy
dummy
the fieldsensing elements
as viewed by are
the end
formed
sensingelements within
elements. those final meander half wavelengths to maintain the periodicity of the field
that as
is toThe dummy
extend elementsofare
the periodicity thenot
fieldclosed
beyondand the not connectedsensing
last connected to form a looptoso
element reduce the net
viewed
currentthe by
flowing the end
through sensing elements.
theeffects
windings The dummy elements are not closed and not connected to form
unmodeled “edge” at the is minimized.
end of the sensor. The Thepurpose
shape of ofthedummy
compositeelements is to
sensor array is extend
a loop so that the net current flowing through the windings is minimized. The purpose of dummy
T-shapedof
the periodicity andthethe sizebeyond
field of sensortheis 133
lastmm × 142 mm.
connected The sensitive
sensing element area
to is about the
reduce 38 mm × 10 mm, “edge”
unmodeled
elements
includingis to extend
four pairs the
of periodicity
detection of the
units and field
two beyond element
dummy the last connected
structures. sensing element to reduce
effects at the end of the sensor. The shape of the composite sensor array is T-shaped and the size of
the unmodeled “edge” effects at the end of the sensor. The shape of the composite sensor array is
sensor is 133 mm
T-shaped and the× 142sizemm. The issensitive
of sensor 133 mm area
×
Driving 142 ismm.
electrode /about
The 38
Excitation coilmm ×area
sensitive 10 mm,
is aboutincluding
38 mm ×four 10 mm,pairs of
Dummy electrode Dummy winding
detection unitsfour
including andpairs
twoof dummy
detectionelement
units and structures.
two dummy element structures.

Driving electrode / Excitation coil

Dummy electrode Dummy winding
Induction coil
Sensing electrode

Induction coil
Sensing electrode
The back of The front of
sensing area sensing area

The back of The front of

sensing area sensing area

Shielded terminal

Figure 12. A composite sensor fabricated with flexible printed circuit board (FPCB).

Shielded terminal

Figure
Figure 12. 12. A composite
A composite sensorfabricated
sensor fabricated with
withflexible
flexibleprinted
printedcircuit board
circuit (FPCB).
board (FPCB).
Sensors 2018, 18, xFOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14

Sensors 2018, 18, 1630 11 of 14

4.1. Thickness Testing of Top Coating
A three-layer structure is employed in the experiments as test specimens. The layered structure
4.1. Thickness Testing of Top Coating
consists of a plastic slice (as top coating), an Aluminum slice (as bond coating) and a Brass plate (as
substrate). The parameters
A three-layer structureofisthe test specimens
employed are listed inas
in the experiments Table
test 2.
specimens. The layered structure
consists of a plastic slice (as top coating), an Aluminum slice (as bond coating) and a Brass plate (as
substrate). The parameters of the Table
test 2.specimens
Parametersare
of the testin
listed specimens.
Table 2.
Thickness Conductivity Relative Relative
Table 2. Parameters
(mm) of the(MS/m)
test specimens.
Permeability Permittivity
Plastic slice (top coating) 0.07–0.7 0 1 4
Thickness (mm) Conductivity (MS/m) Relative Permeability Relative Permittivity
Aluminum slice (bond coating) 0.2 38.1 1 1
Plastic slice (top coating) 0.07–0.7 0 1 4
Brass plate (substrate)
Aluminum slice (bond coating) 0.2 2 38.1 58.1 1 1 11
Brass plate (substrate) 2 58.1 1 1
The thickness of plastic slice was changed by stacking one to ten thin plastic slices with the
sameThe
thickness of of
thickness 0.07 mm.slice
plastic When
wasthe composite
changed sensorone
by stacking operates in the
to ten thin electromagnetic
plastic slices with thetesting
same
mode, 20 mA current is applied to the excitation coil with frequency
thickness of 0.07 mm. When the composite sensor operates in the electromagnetic testingof 100 kHz
mode, and the
20 mA
transimpedance
current is appliedoftosensor was obtained
the excitation withfrequency
coil with the impedance
of 100analyser.
kHz andFigure 13 shows the variety
the transimpedance of
of sensor
transimpedance imaginary part with top coating thickness, which shows good agreement
was obtained with the impedance analyser. Figure 13 shows the variety of transimpedance imaginary with the
simulation
part data.
with top coating thickness, which shows good agreement with the simulation data.

Figure 13. Variety of transimpedance imaginary part with top coating thickness.

When the
When thecomposite
compositesensor
sensor operates
operates in the
in the capacitive
capacitive testing
testing mode,mode, the capacitance
the capacitance of the
of the planar
planar capacitor is measured with the impedance analyzer. Figure 14 shows
capacitor is measured with the impedance analyzer. Figure 14 shows the variety of capacitance with the variety of
capacitance
the thicknesswith of topthe thickness
coating, whichofshows
top coating,
rather goodwhich shows rather
agreement good
with the agreement
simulation data.with the
Because
simulation data. Because the simulation model does not consider the influence of parasitic
the simulation model does not consider the influence of parasitic and stray capacitors in the testing and stray
capacitors
circuit, the in the testing
measured circuit, the
capacitance is measured capacitance
slightly larger than theissimulation
slightly larger
data.than the simulation data.
It can
It can bebe seen
seen from
from Figures
Figures 13
13 and
and 1414 that
that the
the top
top coating
coating thickness
thickness can
can be tested by
be tested both
by both
transimpedance and capacitance with impedance analyzer. It is obvious that
transimpedance and capacitance with impedance analyzer. It is obvious that the composite sensor the composite sensor
has higher
has higher thickness
thickness testing
testing sensitivity
sensitivity inin capacitive
capacitive mode
mode when
when thethe thickness
thickness is
is less
less than
than 0.21
0.21 mm,
mm,
and the sensitivity is higher and more constant in electromagnetic mode when the thickness is
and the sensitivity is higher and more constant in electromagnetic mode when the thickness is larger
larger
than 0.21
than 0.21 mm.
mm. InInaddition,
addition,information
informationfusionfusion under
undertwo modes
two modes cancan
be implemented
be implemented to improve
to improvethe
reliability
the of the
reliability non-destructive
of the testing
non-destructive (NDT)
testing (NDT)system.
system.
Sensors 2018, 18, 1630 12 of 14
Sensors 2018, 18, xFOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14

Figure 14.
Figure 14. Variety
Variety of
of capacitance
capacitance with
with the
the thickness
thickness of
of top
top coating.
coating.

4.2. Conductivity
4.2. Conductivity Testing
Testing of
of Bond
Bond Coating
Coating
The conductivity
The conductivity variety
variety of
of bond
bond coating
coating will
will change
change the the voltage
voltage ofof the
the induction
induction coil,
coil, but
but has
has
no influence on the planar capacitor. Thus, in order to investigate how the sensor
no influence on the planar capacitor. Thus, in order to investigate how the sensor signal depends signal depends on
conductivity
on of the
conductivity bond
of the layer,
bond thethe
layer, imaginary
imaginary partpart
of transimpedance
of transimpedance is tabled as aasfunction
is tabled of the
a function of
conductivity for a closely spaced set of thicknesses. When the thickness
the conductivity for a closely spaced set of thicknesses. When the thickness of the top layer and of the top layer and
substrate are
substrate are 0.35
0.35 mmmm andand 22 mm,
mm, respectively,
respectively, and and two
two kinds
kinds ofof 0.1
0.1 mm
mm thick
thick metal
metal sheet
sheet with
with
different conductivities
different conductivities areare selected
selected asasbond
bondcoating,
coating,thethecalculated
calculatedandandmeasured
measuredimaginary
imaginarypartpart of
of
transimpedance is listed in Table 3, which shows good agreement between
transimpedance is listed in Table 3, which shows good agreement between the measured value and the measured value and
the calculated
the calculated value
value with
with simulation
simulation model
model forfor two
two different
differentvalues
valuesofofbond
bondlayer
layerconductivity.
conductivity.

Table
Table 3.
3. Comparison
Comparison of
of transimpedance imaginary part
transimpedance imaginary part between
between experimental
experimentaland
andsimulation
simulationresults.
results.

Conductivity of
Calculated
Conductivity of Bond Layer (MS/m) Value (mΩ)
Calculated Value (mΩ)Measured Value
Measured (mΩ)
Value (mΩ) Relative
RelativeError
Error (%)
(%)
Bond Layer (MS/m)
11.4 11.4 3.62 3.62 3.74
3.74 3.31
3.31
37.74 3.21 3.31 3.12
37.74 3.21 3.31 3.12

In
In the
the real
real coatings,
coatings, the
the conductivity
conductivity change between the bond coating and the substrate substrate is
often less than 10%.
less than 10%. Therefore, it is difficult to detect and evaluate
to detect and evaluate the changes in
in the thickness and
the thickness
the
the conductivity
conductivity ofof the
the bond
bond coating
coating when
when its
its conductivity
conductivity is
is so
so close
closeto
tothe
thesubstrate.
substrate.

4.3.
4.3. Permittivity
Permittivity Testing
Testing of
of Top
TopCoating
Coating
The
The capacitance
capacitancewill willincrease
increasewith dielectric
with permittivity
dielectric of topofcoating
permittivity when its
top coating thickness
when remains
its thickness
constant.
remains In order toIn
constant. investigate
order tohow the permittivity
investigate how theaffects the sensor affects
permittivity signal, the
thecapacitance is tabled
sensor signal, the
as a function of the dielectric permittivity for a closely spaced set of thicknesses. When the thickness
capacitance is tabled as a function of the dielectric permittivity for a closely spaced set of thicknesses. of
top
When layer
theand substrate
thickness of are
top0.35 mm
layer andand 2 mm, respectively,
substrate are 0.35 mmthe andcalculated and measured
2 mm, respectively, thecapacitance
calculated
are
and measured capacitance are listed in Table 4, which shows good agreement between thecalculated
listed in Table 4, which shows good agreement between the measured data and the measured
value
data with
and simulation
the calculatedmodel for two
value different
with valuesmodel
simulation of top layer
for twopermittivity.
different values of top layer
permittivity.

Table 4. Comparison of capacitance between experimental and simulation results.

Permittivity of Top Layer Calculated Value (pF) Measured Value(pF) Relative Error (%)
2 2.08 2.17 4.32
4.5 2.91 3.02 3.78
Sensors 2018, 18, 1630 13 of 14

Table 4. Comparison of capacitance between experimental and simulation results.

Permittivity of Top Layer Calculated Value (pF) Measured Value (pF) Relative Error (%)
2 2.08 2.17 4.32
4.5 2.91 3.02 3.78

5. Conclusions
In this paper, an electromagnetic/capacitive composite sensor for comprehensive testing of TBCs
is proposed. The ceramic layer can be tested with the planar capacitor, and the metal substrate
material can be tested with the electromagnetic coils. The sensor is optimized by simulation analysis,
and the interaction between the planar capacitor and the electromagnetic coils is studied. It can be
found that the existence of induction coil can improve the sensitivity of planar capacitor to some
extent, and the existence of a sensing electrode has a slight negative influence on the sensitivity of
the electromagnetic coils. Three kinds of experiments were carried out and the experimental results
are in good agreement with the simulation results, which shows the feasibility of integrating the two
testing methods. Future work will deal with an attempt to use the experiment data, which measured
with the composite sensor in two operating modes, in order to achieve parametric inversion of TBCs.

Author Contributions: Yuan Ren proposed the idea. Yuan Ren and Dixiang Chen arranged the methods and also
contributed to the writing and editing the manuscript. Wugang Tian ensured the realization of the experimental
device and prepared the data. Mengchun Pan and Wugang Tian guided the research and were charged with
the critical revisions of the manuscript. All of the authors analyzed the results and revised the paper.
Funding: This paper was supported by The National Key R&D Program of China (Program Number:
2016YFF0203400) and National Natural Science Foundation of China (Project Number: 61171460).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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