What is aliasing? How it can be reduced?

High freq/ spectrum of g(t) taking identity of lower freq/ in the spectrum
of sampled signal g(t) called aliasing or fold over.
when sampling analog signals, analog filtering must first be used to
reduce the higher frequencies.

Pulse Code Modulation:

 PCM (Pulse-Code Modulation)

 A message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses,

which is accomplished by representing the signal in discrete form
in both time and amplitude.

 The basic operation

 Transmitter : sampling, quantization, encoding

 Receiver : regeneration, decoding, reconstruction

Fig 11. The basic elements of PCM (a) Transmitter (b) transmission path
(c) receiver
 Explain in detail about the principle of operation of DPCM with neat
sketch.

Fig 20.DPCM System Transmitter

Fig 21.DPCM System Receiver

Mention the types of noise in PCM system.

 Quantization noise
 Channel noise

Short notes on Robust quantization.

For uniform quantizer,
∆2
𝜎𝑄2 = , 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑟
12
PCM for transmission of speech signals, the quantizer has to accommodate
input signals with widely varying power levels.
Explain the concept of coherent BPSK transmitter and receiver block
diagram and derive the expression for probability of error.
• BPSK uses coherent (or synchronous) demodulation, which requires that
information about the phase and frequency of the carrier be available at the
receiver.
• Differential PSK is a non-coherent form of PSK which avoids the need for
a coherent reference signal at the receiver.
• Non-coherent receivers are easy and cheap to build, and hence are widely
used in wireless communications.
• In DPSK, the input binary sequence is first differentially encoded and then
modulated using a BPSK modulator. Hence the name differential phase
shift keying [DPSK].

Generation of DPSK signal table

DPSK Transmitter:

To
 To send symbol ‘0’ we phase advance the current signal waveform by
1800 and to send symbol 1 we leave the phase of the current signal
waveform unchanged.
 The differential encoding process at the transmitter input starts with an
arbitrary first but, securing as reference and there after the differentially
encoded sequence {dk} is generated by using the logical equation.
 {dk}=bk dk-1

 Where bk is the input binary digit at time kTb and dk-1 is the previous
value of the differentially encoded digit. Generation of DPSK signal table
illustrate the logical operation involved in the generation of DPSK signal.

DPSK Receiver:

 The received signal is first passed through a BPF centered at carrier

frequency fc to limit noise power.
 The filter output and its delay version are applied to correlator the resulting
output of correlator is proportional to the cosine of the difference between
the carrier phase angles in the two correlator inputs.
 The correlator output is finally compared with threshold of ‘0’ volts.
If correlator output is +ve -- A decision is made in favor of symbol ‘1’
If correlator output is -ve --- A decision is made in favor of symbol ‘0’

Signal space diagram of received DPSK signal

Write short notes on matched filter receiver.

The device for the optimum detection of such a pulse involves the use of a
linear time invariant filter known as a matched filter.

Draw the signal space diagram of QPSK and mark the decision regions in
the space.
Explain the operation of MSK transmitter and receiver in detail.
Bit error rate for coherent MSK is given by

MSK a) transmitter and b) receiver

Explain in detail about the principle of operation of ADPCM with neat

sketch.
Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation
Reduction in the number of bits per sample from 8 to 4 involves the combined use of
adaptive quantization and adaptive prediction.
 The term adaptive means being responsive to change levels and spectrum of the input
speech signal. A digital coding scheme that uses both adaptive quantization and adaptive
prediction is called Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation (ADPCM)

Fig 26.Adaptive quantization with forward estimation (AQF)

The AQF scheme first goes through a learning period by buffering unquantized samples of the
input speech signal. The samples are leased after the estimate 𝜎
̂(𝑛𝑇
𝑋 𝑠 ) has been obtained.

Fig 27.Adaptive quantization with backward estimation (AQB)

1. Adaptive prediction with forward estimation (APF), in which unquantized samples of
the input signal are used to derive estimates of the predictor coefficients.
2. Adaptive prediction with backward estimation (APB), in which samples of the quantizer
output and the prediction error are used to derive estimates of the predictor
coefficients.

Fig 28. Adaptive prediction with forward estimation

 Fig 29. Adaptive prediction with backward estimation
̂k (nTS + TS ) = h
h ̂k (nTS ) + 𝜇𝑦(nTS )𝑢(nTS − kTS ) 𝑘 = 0,1 … 𝑀

Where, 𝜇-adaptation constant.

Fig 30.Predictor’s structure