Trigonometry

Cody Johnson
merlincody@gmail.com
July 21, 2014

1 Trigonometric Functions
Consider the following triangle:

hypotenuse
opposite

adjacent

We know that all right triangles with another common angle are similar. Hence, for a given θ, the value
opposite
of hypotenuse is constant. Therefore, define

opposite adjacent
sin θ = and cos θ =
hypotenuse hypotenuse
for any θ. Furthermore, define
opposite adjacent hypotenuse hypotenuse
tan θ = , cot θ = , sec θ = , and csc θ =
adjacent opposite adjacent opposite
This is the foundation of all of trigonometry.

1.1 Exercises
1. Prove that sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1. Note that sin2 θ = (sin θ)2 .
sin θ
2. Prove that tan θ = cos θ . How can we express cot θ, sec θ, and csc θ in terms of sin θ and cos θ only?

3. Prove that sin(90◦ − θ) = cos θ. What other identities like this exist?
4. Find the values of sin 0◦ , sin 90◦ , sin 45◦ . Bonus: find the values of sin 30◦ and sin 60◦ .

1
2 Radians
We define a radian as the angle in a circle such that the the arc length formed by 1 radian is equal to
the radius of the circle. Unlike degrees, radians are unitless, so we do not have any symbol like the degree
symbol, ◦ .

1 radian ≈ 57.295◦

There are 2π radians in one circle, or 360◦ , and 90◦ is equal to π

2. In general, to convert degrees to
radians, we note that
radians degrees π
= =⇒ radians = degrees
2π 360◦ 360◦

3 Unit Circle
As of the last section, we have only defined the trigonometric values for 0 < θ < 90◦ . We will now extend
these to all real θ. Since trigonometric values work for any values of the hypotenuse, we may assume without
loss of generality that the hypotenuse is equal to 1 so that adjacent = cos θ and opposite = sin θ. Therefore,
if we consider a unit circle (a circle with radius 1), then we can map (cos θ, sin θ) to (x, y):

(x, y)

sin θ
θ

cos θ

There are a few things to note. Firstly, we consider angles in the counterclockwise direction from the
positive x direction. We call two angles “coterminal” if one can be attained from the other by adding 360◦
an integer number of times. For example, 45◦ and 765◦ are coterminal because 45◦ = 765◦ − 2 · 360◦ .

2
Furthermore, we are using directed lengths, so cos θ is positive for 0◦ ≤ θ < 90◦ and for 270◦ < θ ≤ 360◦
and negative for 90◦ < θ < 270◦ . Similarly, sin θ > 0 for 0 < θ < 180◦ and negative for 180◦ < θ < 360◦ .
Finally, don’t forget that x is cos θ and y is sin θ! This often tricks people up!
We have derived the trigonometric values for θ = 0◦ , 30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ , 90◦ in exercise 4 of 1.1, and the
trigonometric values for other similar angles can be found from these. Therefore, we will highlight these
important angles in the unit circle, shown below. The unit circle is convenient because it helps visualize the
values of sin θ and cos θ:
y

(0, 1)
 √   √ 
3 3
− 12 , 2
1
,
2 2

 √ √  √ √ 
2 2 2 2
− 2 , 2 π 2 , 2
2
2π π
3 3
 √  √ 
3 1 3 1
− 2 , 2
3π
90 ◦ π
2 , 2
4 4
120◦ 60◦
5π π
6 135◦ 45◦ 6

150◦ 30◦

(−1, 0) (1, 0)
π 180◦ 0◦ ◦
360 2π x

210◦ 330◦
7π 11π
6 225◦ 315◦ 6
240◦ 300◦
 √  5π ◦ 7π
√ 
− 3 1 270 3 1
2 , −2 2 , −2
4 4
4π 5π
3 3
 √ √  3π √ √ 
− 22 , − 22 2 2
2 ,− 2
2

 √   √ 
3 3
− 12 , − 2
1
2 , − 2

(0, −1)

3.1 Exercises
1. Show that for any coterminal angles, each of the trigonometric values of one angle is equal to that of
the other.
2. Show that −1 ≤ sin θ, cos θ ≤ 1.
3. Find the values of the following in terms of sin θ and cos θ: sin(180◦ − θ), cos(180◦ − θ), sin(−θ),

3
 cos(−θ), sin(90◦ + θ), and sin(180◦ + θ).
4. Plot the known values of f (x) = sin x and g(x) = cos x from −360◦ ≤ x ≤ 360◦ . Analyze the functions.

4 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Due to the continuity of the unit circle, for each −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, there exists at least one θ such that sin θ = x.
We define sin−1 x (also known as arcsin x) as the unique − π2 ≤ θ ≤ π2 such that sin θ = x. Notice that
sin−1 x has a domain of −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, as this is the range of sin x. Similarly, we define cos−1 x (also known as
arccos x) as the unique 0 ≤ θ ≤ π such that cos θ = x. It is very important to  remember the ranges of these
two functions! Saying sin−1 21 = 5π 5π π π

6 is incorrect, as 6 is not in the interval − 2 , 2 . Furthermore, we have
− π2 ≤ tan−1 x ≤ π2 , − π2 ≤ cot−1 x ≤ π2 , −0 ≤ sec−1 x ≤ π, and − π2 ≤ csc−1 x ≤ π2 .
We do necessarily have sin sin−1 x = x and cos cos−1 x = x for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1. But, be careful with
sin sin x and cos−1 cos x, as the range restrictions of sin−1 x and cos−1 x cause the graphs to actually look
−1

like

4.71

3.14
f (x) = sin−1 sin x
1.57

−7.85−6.28−4.71−3.14−1.57 0 1.57 3.14 4.71 6.28 7.85

−1.57

−3.14

−4.71

4.71
f (x) = cos−1 cos x
3.14

1.57

−7.85−6.28−4.71−3.14−1.57 0 1.57 3.14 4.71 6.28 7.85

−1.57

−3.14

−4.71

4.1 Exercises
√
1. Find the value of sin−1 3
cos−1 1, and cos−1 − 12 .


2 ,

2. Find the value of sin sin−1 14 , cos cos−1 2, sin−1 sin π3 , cos−1 cos 5π
4 , and sin cos
−1 3
5.

5 Angle Sum Identities

In this section, we expand sin(α + β) and cos(α + β) in terms of sin α, cos α, sin β, and cos β. Although
we could easily do this using geometry, very simple and elegant solution exists using Euler’s theorem and
complex numbers. Euler’s theorem is stated as

4
 eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ
which is easily provable using Maclaurin expansion, a technique in calculus. But, if we want sin(α + β)
and cos(α + β), we can use

cos(α + β) + i sin(α + β) = ei(α+β) = eiα eiβ

= (cos α + i sin α)(cos β + i sin β)
= (cos α cos β − sin α sin β) + i(sin α cos β + sin β cos α)
Comparing the imaginary and real parts of this, we get

sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + sin β cos α, and

cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β

5.1 Exercises
1. Find the values of sin 15◦ and sin 75◦ .
2. Expand tan(α + β) in terms of tan α and tan β.
3. Expand sin 2θ, cos 2θ, sin 3θ, cos 3θ, sin 4θ, cos 4θ in terms of sin θ, cos θ. Bonus: express cos 2θ, cos 3θ,
and cos 4θ in terms of cos θ.
4. Find the value of sin 22.5◦ .

6 Products to Sums, Sums to Products

The product-to sum and sum-to-product formulas are not trivial to derive, but they are easy to prove. Try
proving the following formulas using the angle sum identities:

1
cos α cos β = (cos(α + β) + cos(α − β))
2
1
sin α sin β = (cos(α − β) − cos(α + β))
2
1
sin α cos β = (sin(α + β) + sin(α − β))
2
α+β α−β
cos α + cos β = 2 cos cos
2 2
α+β α−β
sin α + sin β = 2 sin cos
2 2

7 Law of Sines, Law of Cosines, Area Formula

So far, we have focused only on right triangles, but trigonometry can also help us with other triangles. The
Law of Sines states that, in any triangle labeled as in the diagram below,

b a

A c B

5
 we have
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
To prove this, drop an altitude from c to AB:

b a
h

A c B

From sin A = hb and sin B = ha , we get a

sin A = b
sin B , which implies the Law of Sines by symmetry.
We also have the Law of Cosines:

c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C
b2 = c2 + a2 − 2ca cos B
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2ab cos A

To prove this, consider the segments into which the altitude divides AB:

b a
h

x
A c B

Using the Pythagorean Theorem,

a2 = h2 + (c − x)2 = (b sin A)2 + (c − b cos A)2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A

which implies the Law of Cosines follows by symmetry.
Also, we have a nice formula for the area of a triangle:
1 1 1
A= ab sin C = bc sin A = ca sin B
2 2 2
This is trivial by solving for h and using A = 21 bh.

7.1 Exercises
1. Solve the following triangles for a, b, c, A, B, and C: a = 4, b = 5, c = 6; a = 8, b = 4, A = 150◦ ;
a = 6, A = 15◦ , B = 45◦ .
2. Prove the Extended Law of Sines,

a b c
= = = 2R
sin A sin B sin C
where R is the circumradius of 4ABC.

6
8 Solutions to Exercises
1.1
1. We have
 2  2
2 2 opposite adjacent
sin θ + cos θ = + =1
hypotenuse hypotenuse
by the Pythagorean Theorem.
2. We have

opposite
sinθ hypotenuse opposite
= adjacent
= = tan θ
cos θ hypotenuse
adjacent

cos θ 1 1
as desired. Similarly, cot θ = sin θ , sec θ = cos θ , and csc θ = sin θ .

3. 90 − θ is just the other angle in the right triangle!

adjacent
sin(90◦ − θ) = = cos θ
hypotenuse
as desired. Similarly, cos(90◦ −θ) = sin θ, tan(90◦ −θ) = cot θ, cot(90◦ −θ) = tan θ, sec(90◦ −θ) = csc θ,
and csc(90◦ − θ).
4. As θ approaches 0◦ , opposite approaches 0, so sin 0◦ = 0. As θ approaches 90◦ , opposite approaches
hypotenuse, so sin 90◦ = 1. When θ = 45◦ , the triangle is isosceles because the other angle must
also be 180◦ − 90◦ − 45◦ = 45◦ , so opposite √= adjacent. Therefore, by the Pythagorean theorem,
√
hypotenuse = opposite 2, so sin 45◦ = √12 = 22 . When θ = 30◦ , we have one half of an equilateral
triangle! Therefore, opposite = 21 hypotenuse, so sin 30◦ = 12 . Using 1 = sin2 60◦ + cos2 60◦ = sin2 60◦ +
√
sin2 (90◦ − 60◦ ) = sin2 60◦ + sin2 30◦ and our value of sin 30◦ , we get sin 60◦ = 23 .
3.1
1. For any two coterminal angles, we can reach one from the other by an integer number of 360◦ rotations
of the unit circle. Therefore, any two coterminal angles have the same Cartesian coordinates, which
implies that their trigonometric values are equal.
2. Since sin2 θ, cos2 θ ≥ 0, we get sin2 θ, cos2 θ ≤ 1, which gives the desired inequality.
3. We see on the unit circle that θ and 180◦ − θ have the same y values and opposite x values, from which
we deduce sin(180◦ − θ) = sin θ and cos(180◦ − θ) = − cos θ. Similarly, θ and −θ have the same x
values and opposite y values, from which we deduce that sin(−θ) = − sin θ and cos(−θ) = cos θ. For
sin(90◦ + θ), we note that the rotation of the unit circle by 90◦ swaps the x and y coordinates, and then
makes the x negative, from which we deduce sin(90◦ + θ) = − cos θ. Finally, sin(180◦ + θ) = − sin θ
from the fact that rotating the unit circle 180◦ makes the y values negative.
4. The plot is shown below.

1
0.5 f (x) = sin x

−6.28 −4.71 −3.14 −1.57 0 1.57 3.14 4.71 6.28

−0.5
−1

7
 f has a domain (−∞, ∞) and range [−1, 1]. f is periodic with period 2π. f is odd.

1
0.5 g(x) = cos x

−6.28 −4.71 −3.14 −1.57 0 1.57 3.14 4.71 6.28

−0.5
−1

g has a domain (−∞, ∞) and range [−1, 1]. g is periodic with period 2π. g is even.

4.1
√ √
1. sin−1 23 = π
because sin π3 = 3
and − π2 ≤ π π
cos−1 − 21 = 2π
because cos 2π 1


3 2 3 ≤ 2. 3 3 = − 2 and
0 ≤ 2π
3 ≤ π.

2. sin sin−1 14 = 14 because −1 ≤ 41 ≤ 1, but cos cos−1 2 is undefined because 2 > 1. sin−1 sin π3 = π3
because − π2 ≤ π3 ≤ π2 , but cos−1 cos 5π4 = 3π 5π
4 because 4 ≥ π, so we need to find the value on the
appropriate interval, which is 4 . For the last one, we construct a right triangle with angle θ = cos−1 35
3π

and hypotenuse 1. Since cos cos−1 53 = 53 , we must have the length of the adjacent leg to be 35 . By the
Pythagorean Theorem, the length of the opposite leg must by 45 , so sin cos−1 35 = 54 .

5.1
√ √
1. sin(15◦ ) = sin(45◦ −30◦ ) = sin 45◦ cos(−30◦ )+sin(−30◦ ) cos 45◦ = 6− 2
4 . sin(75◦ ) = sin(45◦ +30◦ ) =
√ √
sin 45◦ cos 30◦ + sin 30◦ cos 45◦ = 6+ 4
2
.
sin(α+β) sin α cos β+sin β cos α tan α+tan β
2. tan(α + β) = cos(α+β) = cos α cos β−sin α sin β = 1−tan α tan β .

3. (a) sin 2θ = sin(θ + θ) = 2 sin θ cos θ.

(b) cos 2θ = cos(θ + θ) = cos2 θ − sin2 θ.
(c) sin 3θ = sin(θ + 2θ) = sin θ(cos2 θ − sin2 θ) + (2 sin θ cos θ) cos θ = 3 cos2 θ sin θ.
(d) cos 3θ = cos(θ + 2θ) = cos θ(cos2 θ − sin2 θ) − sin θ(2 sin θ cos θ) = cos3 θ − 3 sin2 θ cos θ.
(e) sin 4θ = sin(2(2θ)) = 2 sin 2θ cos 2θ = 2(2 sin θ cos θ)(cos2 θ − sin2 θ) = 4 sin θ cos3 θ − 4 sin3 θ cos θ.
(f) cos 4θ = cos(2(2θ)) = (cos2 θ − sin2 θ)2 − (2 sin θ cos θ)2 = cos4 θ − 6 sin2 θ cos2 θ + sin4 θ.
(g) cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ = cos2 θ − (1 − cos2 θ) = 2 cos2 θ − 1.
(h) cos 3θ = cos3 θ − 3 sin2 θ cos θ = cos3 θ − 3(1 − cos2 θ) cos θ = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ.
(i) cos 4θ = cos4 θ − 6 sin2 θ cos2 θ + sin4 θ = cos4 θ − 6(1 − cos2 θ) cos2 θ + (1 − cos2 θ)2 = 8 cos4 θ −
8 cos2 θ + 1
p
4. Let x = sin 22.5◦ . We have sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x = 2 sin x 1 − sin2 x = sin 45◦ = √12 . We get
r √ q √
4 2 −(−8)± (−8)2 −4(8)(1) 2± 2 ◦
0 = 8 sin x − 8 sin x + 1, or sin x = ± = ± √1
2(8) 4 . But 0 < sin 22.5 < 2
q √
◦ ◦ ◦ 2− 2
because 0 < 22.5 < 45 , so sin 22.5 = 4 .

7.1

1. (a) We have c2 = 62 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C = 42 + 52 − 2(4)(5) cos C so that cos C = 18 or C = cos−1 81 .

9
Similarly, b2 = 52 = c2 +a2 −2ca cos B = 62 +42 −2(6)(4) cos B so that cos B = 16 or B = cos−1 16
9
,
2 2 2 2 2 2 3 −1 3
and a = 4 = b + c − 2bc cos A = 5 + 6 − 2(5)(6) cos A so that cos A = 4 or A = cos 4 .

8
 −1 1 ◦ ◦
(b) We have sina A = sin 150
8 b 4
◦ = 16 = sin B = sin B so that B = sin 4 . Therefore, C = 180 − (150 +
−1 1 ◦ −1 1 a 8 c c
sin 4 ) = 30 − sin 4 . Finally, sin A = sin 150◦ = 16 = sin C = sin(30◦ −sin−1 1 ) . To evaluate
4 √
sin(30◦ − sin−1 14 ), we expand it as sin 30◦ cos sin−1 14 − sin sin−1 14 cos 30◦ = 12 cos sin−1 14 − 83 . To
find cos sin−1 41 , draw a right triangle with angle sin−1 14 and hypotenuse 1, so that the opposite
√ √
side has length 14 , and the adjacent side has length 415 . Therefore, cos sin−1 14 = 415 , sin C =
√
2 15− 3
√
128 √ 128
√ √
8 , and hence c = 2√15− 3
= 57 (2 15 + 3).
√ √
(c) We have C = 180◦ − (15◦ + 45◦ ) = 120◦ . Since, sina A = √6−6 √2 = 6( 6 + 2) = sinc C = sin 120 c
◦ =
4
√ √ √  √ √
c
√ .
3
Therefore, c = 6( 6 + 2) 23 = 3( 6 + 3 2). Finally, b2 = c2 + a2 − 2ca cos B =
2 √ √ √ √ √
(3( 6 + 3 2))2 + 62 − 2(3( 6 + 3 2))(6) cos 45◦ = 72(2 + 3).
2. Let O be the circumcenter of 4ABC, and let D be the foot of the perpendicular from O to BC.
Then 6 BOC = 26 A. Since OD is the perpendicular bisector of BC, we have 6 BDO = 90◦ and
6 BOD = 6 COD, so 6 BOD = 6 A. Furthermore, note that BD = a and BO = R. Now we apply the
2
a/2 R
Law of Sines on 4BDO: sin A = sin 90◦ = R, which gives the desired result.