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LIGHT

In a strict sense, light is the region of the


electromagnetic spectrum that can be perceived by
human vision, i.e., it is the visible spectrum, which
includes wavelengths ranging approximately from 0.4 P
m to 0.7 Pm.
This section contains the most frequently used formulas,
rules and definitions relating to the following:
1. General Terms
2. Photometry
3. Reflection, Refraction, Polarization
4. Geometric Optics
LIGHT 329
General Terms

1. Visible Light
Visible light is the portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum between the frequencies of 3.8 10 l 4 Hz and
7.5 10 l4 Hz. Hence,

’ ~f I 7 . 5 ~ 1 0 (Hz)
3 . 8 ~ 1 0I ’~

2. Speed of Light
The speed of light is a scalar quantity, having only
magnitude but no direction. The following basic
relationship exists for all electromagneticwaves, and
relates the frequency, wavelength, and the speed of the
waves. It is,
c= ;If
where
c = speed of light, 3 .OO x 10’ ( d s )
f= frequency (Hz)
;I= wavelength (m)

3. Light as a Particle
In quantum theory, particles of light are given the
name “photons.” A photon has energy defined by
the equation,
330 LIGHT
Photometry

where
E = energy (J)
h = Planck's constant, h = 6.62 x (J.s)
f = frequency (Hz)
iZ = wavelength (m)
c = speed of light, 3.00 x lo8 ( d s )

4. Luminous Intensity
Luminous intensity refers to the amount of luminous
flux emitted into a solid angle of space in a specified
direction:
r2E,
I, =
cos e
~

where
I , = luminous intensity (cd)
r= distance between the source and
the surface (m)
E,= illuminance (lux)

5. Luminous Flux
Luminous flux is a measure of the energy emitted by a
light source in all directions:

where
@ "= luminous flux (lm)
LIGHT 33 1
Photometry

t-2= solid angle (sr)


I , = luminous intensity (cd)

6. Luminous Energy
Luminous energy is photometrically weighted radiant
energy:
Q, = %t
where
Q,,= luminous energy (lms)
CD "= luminous flux (lm)
t= time (s)

7. Illuminance
Illuminance is the luminous flux collected by a unit of a
surface:

where
Ev=illuminance (lx)
332 LIGHT
Photometry

@ "= luminous flux (lm)


R = solid angle (sr)
I,,= luminous intensity (cd)
A = surface ( m2)

8. Luminance
Luminance is the luminous intensity emitted by the
surface area of one square meter of the light source. The
luminance value indicates glare and discomfort when we
look at a lighting source. The following figure shows the
concept:

where
LV= luminance (cdm2)
IV= luminous intensity (cd)
S = area of the source surface perpendicular to
the given direction (m2)
LIGHT 333
Reflection, Refraction, Polarization

9. Laws of Reflection
hicjdent ray ~~~~l Reflected ray

A ray of light is a line whose direction gives the


direction of flow of radiant energy.

a) First law of reflection


The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
That is,
8, = 8,
where
ej = angle of incidence

8 r = angle of reflection

b) Second law of reflection


The incident ray, the reflected ray, and normal to the
surface all lie in the same plane.

10. Refraction

Incident
,1,
ray POI arizai ray
334 LIGHT
Reflection, Refraction, Polarization

In an isotropic medium, rays are strength lines, along


which energy travels at speed:
C
y= -
n
where
n = refractive index of the medium
c = speed of light in vacuum ( d s )

a) Law of refraction
When a ray of light passes at an angle from a medium of
less optical density to a denser medium, the light ray is
bent toward the normal.
When a ray of a light passes, at an angle, from a denser
medium to one less dense, the light is bent away from
the normal. Hence,

sine,
-
-
~-
n2
sine, nl

where
v, = speed of light in a medium 1, ( d s )
v2= speed of light in a medium 2, ( d s )
nl = refractive index of the medium 1,
n2= refractive index of the medium 2,
c = speed of light in vacuum ( d s )
LIGHT 335
Reflection, Refraction, Polarization

If nl > n2 and Biexceeds the critical B,, where

then there will be no refracted ray; this is a phenomenon


called total reflection

11. Polarization
An electromagnetic or other transverse wave is polarized
whenever the disturbance lacks cylindrical symmetry
about the ray direction.
When the reflection is at 90' to the refraction, the
transverse component of the electric field lies along the
path of the reflection.
This would make the wave longitudinal, so clearly there
is no transverse component in the reflection.
The incident angle at which this happens is called the
polarizing angle or Brewster's angle:

tan@, =-
n2
nl
where
BB= Brewster's angle (')
n,= refractive index of the incident medium
336 LIGHT
Geometrical Optics

n2= refractive index of the reflecting medium

12. Plane Mirrors

-9Object
do
- 1tn age

The image is at the same distance behind the mirror as


the object is in front of it:
do = dj

13. Concave Mirrors

Depending upon the position of object, the image will be


real or virtual.

14. Convex Mirrors


Convex mirrors produce only virtual and smaller images.
LIGHT 337
Geometrical Optics

15. Mirror Formula

1 1
-=-+-; 1 4 -
- di
f do di ho d
where
f= focal length of mirror
do = distance of object from mirror
d = distance of image from mirror
hi= image height
ho = object height

16. Lens Equation


338 LIGHT
Geometrical Optics

1 1 1
-=-++=(n-l
f dj do

where
f= focal length
F, F’ = focuses
4 , r2= radii of curvatures
n = refractive index
hi = image height
ho= object height
m= magnification factor
do = object distance from lens center
di = image distance from lens center

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