Abdulkadir M Abubakar

UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
AN INVESTIGATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF USING

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CEMENTS ON BOTH MORTAR
STRENGH DEVELOPMENT AND PROPERTIES OF
CONCRETE
BY ABDULKADIR .M .ABUBAKAR, F16/3727/2010
A project submitted as a partial fulfillment of the requirement for the

award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
APRIL 2015
ABSTRACT
The mortar cube crushing strength, compressive and tensile strength of concrete from three
locally manufactured cements were tested.
The three cements tested were manufactured by Bamburi Cement brand name Nguvu, E.
African Portland Cement company brand name Blue triangle and Mombasa Cement brand name
Nyumba all Portland cement 32.5 were tested for mortar strength separately and results
compared.
The fine aggregates and coarse aggregate were graded and tested for Aggregate crushing value
(ACV) and flakiness index. Concrete was mixed for each cement brand, casted cured and tested.
The fresh concrete was tested for workability i.e. slump test and compaction factor test. In the
hardened state, Compressive and tensile tests were done.
The concrete from the three brands met the required 25 N/ (mix ratio M25 adopted) though
there were variations in both the fresh and hardened test done, the variation can be attributed to
different chemical composition and degree of quality control adopted by both the manufactures
and the carrying out the test. The 28 day cube crashing test result for class 25 concrete (M25)
showed that Bamburi Cement had the highest strength 31.3 N/ followed by Mombasa
cement 27.9N/ then finally 25.5N/ for Blue triangle .All the binders had a value higher
than the minimum required strength of 25 N/ .
For the mortar strength test all the binders did not achieve the required strength of 32.5 N/
due to use of river sand that was necessitated by unavailability of Standard sand. Bamburi had
the highest 30 N/ followed by Blue triangle 28.6 N/ then finally Mombasa cement
28.2 N/ .
i
Abdulkadir .M .Abubakar
F16/3727/2010
DEDICATION
To my parents, brothers, sisters, family, friends and lecturers. Thank you for being there for me
throughout my entire life and studies
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F16/3727/2010
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In The name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful. Praise is to God, the Cherisher and
Sustainer of the Worlds. Peace and Mercy be upon our beloved Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).
Thanks to my supervisor Dr. (Eng.) John Mere for his comments, knowledge shared guidance
and encouragement during the course of this project. His invaluable assistance, dedication and
objective criticism have resulted in the successful completion of this project.
Thanks to my friends just to mention a few Noor din, Moses, Haran, Abdullah, Yessing and
colleagues in the Department of Civil and Construction Engineering who have been a source of
encouragement and support. It was a wonderful journey. My thanks and appreciation also goes
to all the lecturers in the department for sharing immense knowledge and helping me with their
guidance.
I would also like to thank the Laboratory Technicians Mr. Machine, Mr. Nicholas from
Concrete Laboratory, and Mr. Martin from the soils laboratory Civil and Construction
Department, University of Nairobi for their kind help during lab work and also in assisting me
with this project.
Lastly, I wish to thank to my family my father, my mother, my sister and brothers for their
constant support throughout my life.
God Bless you All
Abdulkadir (2015)
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Table of Contents
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................................... i
DEDICATION ..............................................................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................................................iii
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................................................viii
LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................................................................................ ix
LIST OF PLATES ......................................................................................................................................................... x
LIST OF CHARTS ....................................................................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................................................ 1
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background .......................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem statement ............................................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Objectives ............................................................................................................................................................ 4
Specific Objectives ................................................................................................................................................ 4
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................................................... 5
LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................................................................. 5
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 History and Manufacture of Cement.................................................................................................................... 5
2.2.1 Portland Cement ........................................................................................................................................... 7
2.2.2 Properties of Cement .................................................................................................................................... 8
2.3 Mortar Strength.................................................................................................................................................. 11
2.4 Concrete ............................................................................................................................................................. 12
2.5 Aggregates ......................................................................................................................................................... 12
2.5.1 The Grading of Aggregates......................................................................................................................... 13
2.6 Water ................................................................................................................................................................. 14
2.7 Admixture .......................................................................................................................................................... 14
2.8 Batching ............................................................................................................................................................. 15
2.8.1 Volume of Batching .................................................................................................................................... 15
2.8.2 Weight of Batching ..................................................................................................................................... 15
2.9 Properties of Plastic Concrete ............................................................................................................................ 16
2.10 Workability ...................................................................................................................................................... 16
2.11 Slump test ........................................................................................................................................................ 16
2.12 Compaction ...................................................................................................................................................... 17
2.13 Curing .............................................................................................................................................................. 18
2.14 Strength of Concrete ........................................................................................................................................ 18
2.3.2.1 Compressive strength of concrete ........................................................................................................... 18
2.3.2.1 Tensile Strength of Concrete ................................................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER THREE ..................................................................................................................................................... 21
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3.0 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................................ 21
3.1 Sampling Collection and Preparation of Aggregates ........................................................................................ 21
3.2 Laboratory Testing of Properties of Aggregate................................................................................................. 21
3.2.1 Particle Size Distribution (BS: 812:PART1:1975) ..................................................................................... 21
Objectives ................................................................................................................................................................ 22
Procedure ................................................................................................................................................................. 22
3.6 Sieve Analysis and Grading of Fine Aggregates ................................................................................................. 23
3.7 Coarse Aggregates - (BS 882: 1992) .................................................................................................................. 23
3.7.1 Flakiness Index ........................................................................................................................................... 23
3.7.2 Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV).............................................................................................................. 25
Objective .................................................................................................................................................................. 25
Apparatus ................................................................................................................................................................. 25
Procedure ................................................................................................................................................................. 25
Calculation and expression of results......................................................................................................................... 26
3.12 Concrete Test ................................................................................................................................................... 26
3.12.4 Preparation of Test Samples for Concrete Tests ....................................................................................... 26
3.13 Portland Cement .............................................................................................................................................. 26
3.14 Aggregates ....................................................................................................................................................... 27
3.15 Water ............................................................................................................................................................... 27
3.16 Mix Ratio ......................................................................................................................................................... 27
3.17 Mixing ............................................................................................................................................................. 27
3.18 Properties of Plastic Concrete .......................................................................................................................... 28
3.18.1 Slump Test (BS 1881: PART 102). .......................................................................................................... 28
3.18.2 Compaction Factor test ............................................................................................................................. 29
3.19 Testing of the Properties of Hardened Concrete .............................................................................................. 32
3.19.1 Determination of Compressive Strength –Cube Test................................................................................ 32
3.12 Mortar Test ...................................................................................................................................................... 36
3.12.1 Test Specimen ........................................................................................................................................... 36
3.12.3 Testing Procedure ..................................................................................................................................... 37
CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................................................................ 38
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................................................................................................................. 38
4.2 Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) ........................................................................................................................ 41
4.3 Plastic Concrete ..................................................................................................................................................... 42
4.3.1 Workability ..................................................................................................................................................... 42
4.3.2 Mechanical Test .............................................................................................................................................. 44
4.3.2.1 Cube Crashing Test.................................................................................................................................. 44
4.3.2.2 Mortar Test Results ............................................................................................................................... 49
CHAPTER FIVE ......................................................................................................................................................... 53
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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ........................................................................................................... 53
5.1 General .............................................................................................................................................................. 53
5.2 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................... 53
5.3 Recommendation ............................................................................................................................................... 54
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................................ 55
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................................................. 56
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LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1 showing the cement consumption in Kenya over the years .................................................. 3
Fig 2 Factors affecting the compressive strength of concrete ..................................................... 19
Fig 3 Grading of fine aggregate ..................................................................................................... 38
Fig 4 coarse aggregate grading ...................................................................................................... 39
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Chemical composition of Portland cement (Brooks and Neville 1987) ............................. 7
Table 2 oxide composition limits of Portland cements ................................................................... 8
Table 3 workability and compaction factor .................................................................................. 17
Table 4 showing flakiness test result ............................................................................................. 40
Table 5 aggregate crushing value results ....................................................................................... 41
Table 6 showing results for slump and compaction factor test result ........................................... 42
Table 7 Compressive concrete cube 7 day results ......................................................................... 44
Table 8 Compressive concrete cube 14 day results ....................................................................... 45
Table 9 Compressive concrete cube 28 day results ....................................................................... 45
Table 10 showing result of tensile split test .................................................................................. 47
Table 11. 7 day mortar test result .................................................................................................. 49
Table 12. 14 day mortar test result ................................................................................................ 49
Table 13. 28 day mortar test result ................................................................................................ 50
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LIST OF PLATES
Plate 1 Washing of fine aggregate ................................................................................................. 22

Plate 2 Flakiness index test ............................................................................................................ 24
Plate 3 Mixing of constituents of aggregate .................................................................................. 28
Plate 4 Showing determination of slump test ................................................................................ 29
Plate 5 showing the compaction factor test apparatus ................................................................... 31
Plate 6 showing curing of concrete................................................................................................ 32
Plate 7 showing cube crushing test of concrete ............................................................................. 34
Plate 8 showing tensile split test .................................................................................................... 35
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LIST OF CHARTS
Chart 1 showing variation of slump test result .............................................................................. 43
Chart 2 Chart showing variation of the cement with age .............................................................. 46
Chart 3 showing the 28 day tensile split result .............................................................................. 48
Chart 4 showing mortar strength of different types of cement with age ...................................... 51
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
The most important use of cement is the production of mortar and concrete .Mortar strength
depends on adhesion of sand grains and cementing materials while concrete quality depends
upon the quantity and quality of the aggregate and the cement used as well as the bond
between them.
Cement is the most expensive component in both mortar and concrete and hence the need to
study and test to determine if indeed the cements meet the minimum set standards. The cost of
the cements in the country are not the same and vary therefore consumers may tend to go for
the cheapest of them to save a shilling without investigating the reliability and consistency of
every batch manufactured and used.
Cement is an adhesive substance of all kinds but in a narrow sense, it is the binding materials
used in building and civil engineering projects. Cement is a finely ground powder that when
mixed with water sets to a hard mass. The most important use of cement is the production of
mortar and concrete.
Mortar has been in use as a bond for brickwork for several thousand years dating as back as the
building of Egyptians pyramid. The standing of such ancient structures to date is a clear
indication of the durability of mortar. It is noted particularly for its strength and capacity to
adhere to bricks and masonry blocks. These properties make it an obvious choice for load
bearing joint materials. Compressive strength of mortar finds its widest application in
determination of the strength of masonry walls loaded perpendicularly to the joint bed. Mortar
derives its strength from adhesion of sand grains and cementing materials. Ordinary Portland
cement and hydrated lime are the usual cementing materials. The strength of a brick wall for
example is 25% to 50% the strength of brick.
Concrete is the most widely used material in the world. About a ton of concrete produced per
person per year worldwide, 6 billion metric tons produced annually. Concrete constitutes fine
aggregates, coarse aggregates, cement, water and if required an admixture. There are so many
1
types of concrete with different applications for example; pre-stressed concrete and reinforced
concrete are used for carrying enormous loads. Different types of concrete are produced
depending upon the required end application. The modern types of concrete include cellular or
aerated concrete which is light weight and durable, making it easy to be handled.
General use of are architectural structures, Pavements (concrete), motorways/roads,

bridges/overpasses, parking structures, brick/block walls and footing for gates, fences and poles.
Concrete will remain in use as a construction material well into the future. With such extensive
use, discovery of any shortcomings or problems associated with concrete structures or
reinforced concrete will become a matter of considerable public concern both from a safety
perspective and associated cost of reactivation.
In this project three most used ordinary Pozzolanic Portland cement (PPC) namely Bamburi
cement made at Mombasa brand name Nguvu, East African Portland cement company made at
Athi river brand name Blue Triangle and Mombasa cement limited (MCL) made at Athi river
brand name Nyumba were tested.
The practical utility of cements in general depends on the power which they gain strength with
age. The hardened concrete strength established depends on several factors such as the grading
of the sand or coarse aggregates as used in this study, the water-cement ratio, the degree of
mixing, the temperature and humidity of curing, the method of sample preparation, testing and
age of samples at testing. It was therefore imperative that these parameters remain reasonably
constant for this mix study whose aim is to compare the strengths of the various binders. The
same mix (Class 25 concrete) proportion is used to prepare samples and mortar cubes also tested
for compressive mortar strength tested. Temperature and humidity cannot be completely
controlled hence the preparation, curing and testing of specimens is all done within the same
environment.
2
Fig 1 showing the cement consumption in Kenya over the years by Kenya National Bureau
of Statistics (KNBS)
1.2 Problem statement

The cost of cement has been fluctuating over the years and thereby consumers go for the cheaper
cement to save cost without considering the effects of using different cements in the same
structures. As a procedure every batch that arrives in site should be tested to find out if it
conforms to the minimum specification required from Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS)
although it is not practical thereby testing sample batches .A major consideration of cement is it
consistency and little variation from the assumed strength. This project is tailored to look at the
variation if any that are there in using the three locally available binders. Since no cheap control
method that has been devised so far at site level, the quality control of the cement delivered to the
sites is left entirely on the manufacturer’s guarantee of good quality. The guarantee of good
quality in this case is the form of a Kenya Bureau of Standards seal on the cement bags. The
cement delivered to the sites is used without any rigorous checking, apart from occasional visual
inspection
This study is necessary because there have been many cases of collapse of buildings and
the major blame goes to the structural engineers. Determining the properties of concrete made
from different cement suppliers will help in partly solving the problem and raising
3
consciousness to the people (Contactors, Project managers, proponents/clients/employer etc.)
on site during construction.
Cement is widely used as a bonding material in concrete but most consumers do not
understand the mechanism by which it works. Since various cements have different physical
and chemical properties and an understanding of its rate of strength development of the
different locally available binders over specified time is essential.
1.3 Objectives
The main objective of this project is to determine and make a comparison of the compressive
strength of each brand of cement by compressive mortar strength and the corresponding
compressive strength of concrete.
Specific Objectives
1. To determine and make a comparison of the compressive and tensile strength of
concrete by using different types of cement.
2. To determine and make a comparison of the mortar strength of and variation if any by
using different types of cements.
3. To determine how slump and compaction factor of concrete are influenced by different
types of cements.
4
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Concrete should not be confused with cement. Cement refers to only the dry powder substance
used to bind the aggregates materials in concrete. Concrete is a construction material composed
of cement itself, coarse and fine aggregates, water and maybe admixtures if required.
2.2 History and Manufacture of Cement

Since civilization started exploring construction of buildings, a material has been sought that
would bind stones into a solid, formed mass .The Assyrians and Babylonians used clay for this
purpose, and the Egyptians advanced to the discovery of lime and gypsum mortar as binding
agent for building such structures as the pyramid .The Greeks made further improvement and
finally the Romans developed cement that produced structures of remarkable durability.
Cement is manufactured from four basic raw materials namely: lime obtained from limestone or
chalk, silica obtained from shale, alumina obtained from bauxite or shale and iron oxide. The
raw materials are ground into a very fine powder, mixing them intimately in predetermined
O O
proportions and burning in a large rotary kiln at a temperature ranging from 900 C -1400 C
where the material sinters and partially fuses into clinker. The clinker is cooled and ground to a
fine powder, with some gypsum added, and the resulting product is the commercial Portland
cement (Neville and Brooks 1987)
The process of manufacturing can be either be dry or wet(the mixing and grinding of raw
materials being done in dry and wet conditions respectively).The mixture is fed into a rotary
kiln that is slightly inclined. The mixture is fed at the upper end while pulverized coal (or other
source of heat) is blown in by an air blast at the lower end of kiln, where the temperatures may
5
reach about 1500oc .The amount of coal required is between 100kg and about 350kg, depending
on the process used. (Neville and Brooks 1987)
Although the cost of grinding cement to a high fineness is considerable and also leads to rapid
deterioration of the cement on exposure to the atmosphere, it is nevertheless a very important
factor in increasing the rapid development of strength, since it increases the rate of hydration. A
slight improvement in the workability of concrete is achieved when the cement used is made
finer, as this increases the water content. The water content of a cement paste of standard
consistency is greater the finer the cement, also fineness of the cement improves cohesiveness
of a concrete mix, thus reducing the possibility of the segregation of the concrete. The quantity
of water rising to the surface of the concrete known as bleeding is also reduced. The factors
discussed above enhance the strength of concrete, but if variable will cause a variable strength
concrete to be produced.
Cements which gain strength rapidly are prone to cracking due to early thermal expansion or
contraction. This implies that increasing the fineness of cement increases its rate of hardening or
of development of strength and so indirectly increases the risk of crack formation.
The strength of concrete generally increases with the cement content, although an increases
cement content will increase the shrinkage .When the water/cement ratios is maintained constant,
an increase in the cement content improves the workability of the mix without affecting the
strength .It should be noted that an increase in workability will result in the achievement of better
compaction, hence increasing the strength.
The last main factor which contributes to the quality of cement, hence of the concrete, is the
storage conditions of the cement .The cement bags must be placed in stacks in a shed and be kept
as dry as possible. A raised floor covered with water proofing material, may be provided to
prevent moisture from infiltrating and coming into contact with the cement bags. When stored
under good conditions bagged cement may lose 20% of its strength after 2 months storage, and
up to 40% after six months storage. It is therefore very necessary to reduce the storage time of
cement bags as much as practicable. This may be achieved by stacking the bagged cement in
such a way that the first lot to be delivered is used first.
6
2.2.1 Portland Cement
Portland cement is an artificial product obtained by finely pulverizing the clinker produced by
claiming to incipient fusion a natural or artificial mixture of finely ground argillaceous and
calcareous materials (Baker 1930)
Four compounds are regarded as the major constituents of cement:
Table 1: Chemical composition of Portland cement (Brooks and Neville 1987)
Name of Compound Oxide Composition Abbreviation
Tricalcium Silicate 3CaO.Si02 C3 S
Dicalcium silicate 2CaO.Si02 C2 S
Tricalcium Aluminate 3CaO.AlO3 C3 A
Tetra calcium Aluminoferrite 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 C4AF
The silicates C3S and C2S are the most important compounds, which are responsible for the
strength of hydrated cement paste.C3S contributes most to the strength development during the
first four weeks and C2S influences the later gain in strength. In reality the silicates are not pure
compounds but contain minor oxides in solid solution. These oxides have significant effects on
the atomic arrangements, crystal form, and the hydraulic properties of the silicates.
C3A presence in cement is undesirable as it contributes little or nothing to the strength of cement
at early ages and when hardened it is attacked by sulphates, leading to formation of calcium
sulphoaluminate may cause disruption. C3A benefits in the manufacture of cement lies in that
fact that it facilitates the combination of lime and silica. C4AF is also present in small quantities
and compared to other three compounds does not affect the behavior of cement significantly. It
however reacts with gypsum to form calcium sulphoferrite and its presence may accelerate the
hydration of silicates.
The amount of gypsum added to the clinker is crucial. It depends upon the C3A content and the
alkali content of cement. Increasing the fineness of cement has the effect of increasing the
7
quantity of C3A available at early stages and this raises gypsum requirement. An excess of
gypsum leads to expansion and consequent disruption of the set of cement paste. The table below
gives the oxide composition limits of Portland cements
Table 2: Oxide Composition limits of Portland Cements
OXIDE CONTENT,PER CENT
CaO 60-67
SiO2 17-25
Al2O3 3-8
Fe2O3 0.5-6.0
MgO 0.1-4.0
Alkalis 0.2-1.3
SO3 1-3
2.2.2 Properties of Cement

The most important property in cement is:
a. Color
b. Specific gravity
c. Activity
d. Soundness
e. Strength
f. Fineness of cement
2.2.2.1 Color
Color of cement has little bearing upon the quality and may indicate an excess of some
ingredient, and for any given brand, variation in shade may indicate differences in the character
of rocks used, or in the degree of burning. Usually Portland cement should be dull grey, bluish
gray probably indicates an excess of lime, dark green indicates a high percentage of iron, brown
8
indicates an excess of clay and yellowish shade indicates over burning. Usually some site
engineers rely on color for inspection.
2.2.2.2 Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of its weight to the weight of an equal volume of
water. Specific gravity of cement maybe be said to give a true indication of the thoroughness of
burning and well burned cement is known to have certain definite limits. Too high a specific
gravity will therefore indicate over burning and over burning tends to break up some of the
compounds which should be present in normal cement and form others which may compromise
the quality of cement
A low specific gravity indicates under burning, adulteration and hydration. An under burnt
cement contains large proportion of uncombined, or insufficiently combined elements, some of
which are sources of great danger. If such cement is used, these elements may cause
disintegration and the ultimate failure of the structure. The specific gravity of Portland cement
varies between 3.00-3.25 while for natural cement the variation was between 2.75-3.05.
2.2.2.3 Activity and Setting

The term is used to describe stiffening of cement paste. If cement is mixed into a paste with
water allowed to stand, it gradually hardens. The rate of hardening is termed the time of setting
or activity. Cements differ widely in their rate and manner of settling. A knowledge of the
activity of a cement is of importance both in testing and in using a cement, since its strength is
seriously impaired if the mortar is disturbed after it has begun to set. Ordinarily, the moderately
slow setting cements are preferable, since they need not be handled so rapidly and may be mixed
in large quantities (Baker 1905)
There are two distinct stages in setting the initial and the final set. The initial set takes place
when the mass begins to harden, and the hard set, when the hardening has reached a point where
the mass cannot be appreciably disturbed without fracture. The best cements should be slow in
acquiring initial set but should harden quickly afterwards. Natural cements are generally much
9
quicker in setting than Portland cements. In natural cements, the hard set frequency occurs within
a few minutes after the initial set, sometimes within a period of 15 minutes and should develop
hard set from 30 minutes to 3 hours. Initial set should in no case develop in less than 10 minutes.
The composition degree of burning, age, fineness of grinding, amount of water used in mixing
and the temperature and the humidity of the air, affect the activity of cement. The initial and final
setting time are approximately related by the following equation (Reid 1907)
Final set time (min) =90+1.2(initial set time in minutes)
2.2.2.4 Soundness
It is essential that cement paste once it has set does not undergo a large change in volume. The
restriction is that they must be no large appreciable expansion which under condition of restraint
could result in disruption of the hardened cement paste. Such expansion occur due reaction of
free lime, magnesia and calcium sulphate and cements exhibiting this type of expansion are
classified as unsound
Free lime cannot be determined by chemical analysis since it is not possible to distinguish
between unreacted CaO and Ca(OH)2 produced by a partial hydration of the silicates when the
cement is exposed to the atmosphere.
Magnesium and Calcium sulphate are also liable to cause expansion through formation of
magnesium hydroxide and calcium sulphoaluminate respectively. (A.M Neville and J.J Brooks
revised1990).
10
2.2.2.5 Strength
Strength tests are not made on neat cement paste because of difficulties in obtaining good
specimen and in testing with a consequent large variability of test results. Cement-sand mortar
and in some cases concrete of prescribed proportions made with specified materials under strict
controlled conditions, are used for purpose of determining the strength of cement.
There are several tests forms of strength test: direct tension, compression and flexure. Tension
tests have been gradually superseded by compression tests. They are two British Standards
methods for testing compressive strength of cement: one uses mortar and the compressive and
tensile strength of concrete.
2.2.2.6 Fineness of Cement

"Fineness", defined as "the total surface area of the cement that is available for hydration", has
great influence on properties of fresh and hardened concrete.
The rate of hydration deepens on the fineness of cement particles and for a rapid development of
strength a high fineness is necessary. The more finer the particles of cement the higher its
compressive strength and higher workability. However, the cost of grinding and the effects of
fineness on properties like gypsum requirement, workability of fresh concrete and long-term
behavior must be borne in mind.
2.3 Mortar Strength

Mortar strength development is the process through which a cement, sand and water are mixed
and increases in strength over time. In the presence of water, the aluminates and silicates of
which cement is composed form products of hydration that are responsible for firming and
hardening that occurs in cement paste. The strength is influenced by cohesion of the cement
paste, adhesion of the cement to the sand particles and to a certain extent the strength of the sand
itself. The mechanical strength of the hardened cement is the property of the material that is most
obviously required for structural purposes.it is for this particular reason that the strength tests
plays an important role in the use of binders as building materials. There exists several forms of
strength test namely direct tension, direct compression and flexural. Compressive strength of
cement is determined by compressive strength test on mortar cubes compacted by means of a
standard vibration machine. Standard sand (IS: 650) is used for the preparation of cement mortar.
The specimen is in the form of cubes 70.6mm×70.6mm×70.6mm. Mortar compressive strength is
11
influenced by the cement type, or more precisely the compound composition and fineness of
cement, water-cement ratio, type and grading of sand.
Since cement gains strength over time, the time at which strength test is to be conducted must be
specified. Typical times are 1 day (for high early strength cement), 3days, 7days, 28days and
90days (for low heat of hydration cement)
It is important to note that the strength test of cement is carried out on the cubes of hardened
cement –sand mortar and not on a neat cement paste because of difficulties of moulding and
testing with a consequent large variability of test results. It should be assumed that two types of
cement meeting the same minimum requirements will produce the same strength of mortar or
concrete without modification of mix proportions
In this study, the sand proportions 66% of the mortar mix and thus may greatly influence its
properties. Some types of organic matter present in aggregate may reduce the hydraulic activity
of the cement and thus compromising normal setting and hardening time. Dust or clay matter on
the surfaces of the aggregate particles may reduce the bond between them and cement paste.
Some natural aggregates contain as little as possible amounts of constituent that might adversely
affect the hardening of cement paste. For this reasons and uniformity a standard sand (IS: 650) is
used for this purpose. Standard sand is used to assess the quality of cement, lime, pozzolana and
other mineral admixture used in construction industry. It is imported from the United Kingdom
(UK)
2.4 Concrete
Concrete as mentioned in the introduction is a man-made composite which constitutes cement as
the binder, aggregates i.e. fine (sand) and course (gravel), water and admixture (if required).it is
defined by properties in its fresh and hardened state.
2.5 Aggregates
The original view that aggregates were an inert material dispersed through the cement paste
largely for economic reasons is now obsolete since recent research has shown that the properties
of aggregate greatly affect the durability and strength performance of concrete. Only natural
aggregates will be considered as they may be deemed relevant in production of normal concrete.
Artificial aggregates are mainly used in the production of special concrete such as lightweight
12
concrete. Out of the materials which form concrete, aggregate is the most abundant, comprising
of at least ¾ of the volume of concrete.it may hence be said that the quality of the aggregates is
of considerable importance of concrete with consistent properties.
The other properties of aggregate include crushing strength, resistant to impact and factors which
affect the bond between the aggregates and the cement paste. The factors which affect the bond
between aggregates and the cement paste are the shape, surface texture and the size of the
individual aggregate particles. Since aggregates are cheaper than cement it is therefore of
economic interest to include into the mix as much of the former and as little of the latter as
technically possible.
Aggregates are divided into two basic size groups fine aggregates, often referred to as sand, and
coarse aggregates, also referred to as ballast. Aggregates can also be conveniently grouped into
two main categories, i.e. According to source or occurrence; Natural aggregates and artificial
aggregates. According to densities; Light weight, normal weight and heavy weight aggregates.
2.5.1 The Grading of Aggregates

Grading means mixing of two or more aggregates sizes to achieve specific proportions of fine
aggregate and coarse aggregate as desired. The grading of aggregates does not affect the strength
of fully compacted concrete with a given water/cement ratio hence in the project water/cement
ratio was kept constant and same aggregate used .grading is important since it affects
workability. Workability determines the amount of compaction that can be achieved and in turn
determines the strength achieved
The main factors governing desired aggregate grading are surface area of aggregates, which
determines the amount of water necessary to wet all the solids, the relative volume of the
aggregate, the workability of the mix and the tendency to segregation.
For a concrete mix to be satisfactory workable, it is requirement for it to contain a sufficient

amount of materials finer than no.50 BS sieve. The water /cement ratio of mix is generally fixed
from strength considerations, but as the same time the amount of cement paste has to be
sufficient to cover the surface of all aggregates, this implies that the lower the surface area of
13
aggregates, the lesser the paste required and therefore less water is required. This implies that
coarse aggregates having less surface area will produce concrete of high strength
In practice when trying to approximate to some type of grading, it should be noted that the
properties of the mix will remain largely unaffected when compensation of a small deficiency of
fine by a somewhat larger excess of coarse particles is applied, provided the departure is not too
great. The workability of a concrete mix is largely controlled by the grading of the aggregate
contained therein. The workability, in turn affects the water and cement requirements, controls
segregation and its compaction that can be achieved
2.6 Water
Water is the third ingredient necessary for making concrete. The water is usually required not to
contain impurities such as organic matter, suspended and dissolved solids and salts which will
affect the concrete adversely. Water in addition to reacting with cement thereby causing it to set
and harden, also facilitates mixing, placing and compacting of the fresh concrete. Water is also
used for washing the aggregates and for curing purpose. Water fit for drinkable is acceptable for
mixing concrete.
2.7 Admixture
Are substances introduced into a batch of concrete during or immediately before its mixing in
order to improve the properties of the fresh or hardened concrete
Rixom1997; Concrete Society Technical Report No.18, 1980).
14
2.8 Batching
The process of proportioning the various constituent of concrete materials to produce concrete is
known as batching. The batching process is normally carried out in two ways either weigh
batching or volume batching. Each of these methods of batching has its advantage and
disadvantage in terms of accuracy of measurement, cost and time. However, the weight batch
system has been found to produce a more consistent concrete compared to volume batching.
Following below is a brief discussion of the two methods.
2.8.1 Volume of Batching

Is a batching method which utilizes volume measurements as means of proportioning the various
materials to make concrete. The volume measurements units in use today include gauge box pans
and (karais) buckets etc.
The accuracy of the volume measurements depends on closeness with which the materials pack.
If the material packs closely with few air voids, the solids volume of the materials is greater than
when the material is loosely packed. The above, in addition to errors in the measurements are the
two main sources of variation of cube crushing strength when the volume batching is adopted.
The increase in volume of sand due to increase in moisture content known as bulking is another
important cause of the inconsistency of this method.
2.8.2 Weight of Batching

This is a method of batching whereby weight units are used for the purpose of proportioning the
various constituent concrete materials. This method holds one special advantage over volume
batching that is, it eliminates errors due to the variation in the amount of voids present in a
special volume, a point of importance in connection with the batching of sand (fine aggregate)
provided proper maintenance service is given to the weighing machine, thus retaining its
accuracy on site. Errors in proportioning are generally negligible.
Where good and regular maintenance is available, Weigh is the method of choice, outstanding
advantage being in the consistency of the quality of the resulting successive batches of concrete.
In weight batching constant changes in the amount of mixing water should be effected to
compensate changes in the moisture of the aggregate
15
2.9 Properties of Plastic Concrete
Plastic mixed concrete can be considered as a suspension of particles of varying sizes (coarse
aggregate, fine aggregate and cement) in water. Surface attractive forces are significant for
cement particles, but less so for aggregate particles. Aggregate account for 65-80% of the
volume of concrete and will control the performance of fresh concrete. The main resistance to
flow will therefore be the interference and friction between aggregate particles. The main
properties of interest in fresh concrete are:
a) Compatibility -the property of concrete that determines how easily it can be compacted
to remove air voids.
b) Mobility - that property which determines how easily the concrete can flow into moulds
and around the reinforcement.
c) Stability - that property which determines the ability of the concrete to remain a stable
and coherent mass during handling and vibration.
Even though there is no single test that has been devised to satisfactorily measure all the
properties associated with workability. There are some types of consistency test that act
as an index to workability: the slump test, the compacting factor test and the vebe (VB)
consistometer test (Evans and kong1987).
In this project, the slump and the compacting factor test were used as an index to workability.
2.10 Workability
Defined as that property of freshly mixed concrete or mortar that determines the ease and
homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed, compacted and finished. It’s significant
because it affects the quality of several aspects of the construction process including finishing.
Good workability provides indirect benefits to the hardened concrete as well due to full
consolidation (density) are easier to achieve.
2.11 Slump test

This test was done in accordance to BS1881:part 102:1983.this test is paramount since it helps
in determining batch to batch variations in the uniformity of concrete production .Uniformity or
16
consistency is important to a successful project. Slump is a much better way of describing
consistency of concrete than terms like wet, dry, runny etc.
Table 3: Workability and Compaction Factor
Description of workability slump mm compaction factor
No slump 0
Very low 0-25 0.78
Low 25-50 0.85
Medium 50-100 0.92
High 100-175 0.95
2.12 Compaction
Compaction is usually performed on a workable mix to achieve maximum density. The
principle behind compaction is to eradicate air voids. Concrete should not be to dry
necessitating the use of excessive efforts in achieving the necessary compaction which is
uneconomical. Concrete also should not be too wet to avoid segregation therefore workability of
concrete is a governing factor as far as compaction is concerned. Compaction can be done by
1. Compaction by hand: whereby a tamping rod is used by hand .due to the amount of
effort which must be used in this method its can be satisfactory applied on a fairly
workable mix. When carried out properly compaction by hand gives a good result and
because of its simple equipment required its more economical method of compaction.
2. Compaction by vibration: This method has made it possible to use less workable mix
which cannot otherwise be compacted by hand methods. The available external vibrators
are hydraulic, pneumatic or electric power. Vibration tables or shaken tables (the ones
we have in our concrete laboratory) can be used for making cubes to be tested.
17
2.13 Curing
The curing of cubes has an important influence on the strength attained. Particular attention
should be given to the avoidance of any possible drying out and to the curing temperature.
BS1881:part3: gives details for the curing of test tubes. For specimen made on site it is required
that the cubes shall be stored immediately after making under damp matting or other suitable
damp materials covered with polythene at a temperature of 20+-5oc for 16-24hours. After
demoulding they are submerged in a tank maintained at 20+_2oc until the time for testing
2.14 Strength of Concrete

Strength is considered the most valuable property of concrete. Strength gives an overall picture
of the quality of concrete and is directly related to the structure of cement paste.
2.3.2.1 Compressive strength of concrete

Compressive strength is the most common performance measure used by engineers in design of
buildings and other structures.
Measured by considering failure under the action of a uniaxial compressive force. Under
uniaxial compression, the failure pattern is such that the cracks are approximately parallel to the
applied load though some cracks form at an angle to the applied load as shown in the figure
below. The parallel cracks are caused by a localized tensile stress in a direction normal to the
compressive load. The inclined cracks are due to collapse caused by development of shear plate
18
Fig 2 Compression test of Concrete
Water cement ratio, degree of compaction and age: Under full compaction, at a given age and at
normal temperature, the strength of concrete is inversely proportional to the water cement ratio.
At a given degree of hydration, the water/ cement ratio determines the porosity of the cement
paste.
 Aggregate properties: Size, shape, grading, surface texture, strength, stiffness and
maximum size of aggregates.
 Aggregate/ cement ratio: for a constant water/cement ratio, a smaller proportion of paste
to the total volume of mix leads to higher strength of concrete.
19
2.3.2.1 Tensile Strength of Concrete
Concrete is not expected to resist direct tension because of it has low tensile strength and is brittle
in nature. Tensile strength is used in the design of structural members to evaluate the shear
resistance provided by concrete and determine the steel requirement. Determination of tensile
strength is however necessary in order to determine the load at which concrete members may
crack. Cracking in concrete is a form of tension failure and has detrimental effects on a concrete
member by promoting corrosion of reinforcement or eventual total failure. Cracking problems
occur when diagonal tension arising from shearing stresses develops.
Determination of tensile strength is mostly done by indirect methods in which a compressive force
is applied to a concrete specimen in such a way that the specimen fails due to the tensile stresses
developed in the specimen. The splitting tensile test is the most commonly used indirect test
method and its advantages are:
 The same moulds and testing machine used for compression tests are used for
splitting tensile tests.
 The tests is simple to perform and gives more uniform results than that given by other tests
and the values obtained are closer to the actual tensile strength of concrete than the
modulus of rapture value.
Tensile strength is of interest in unreinforced concrete structure under earthquake conditions and
in structures designed on the basis of flexural strength, which involves strength in tension e.g.
highways and pavement
20
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Sampling Collection and Preparation of Aggregates

The fine aggregates used in this project were provided by the civil engineering laboratory. The
source of the fine aggregates (sand) was from Machakos River. It was noted that the aggregates
were not protected from rainfall, sunlight or impurities. A sample was prepared by quartering
and dried in the oven for one day then graded according to BS 812:Part 1:`1975.
The coarse aggregated were provided by the civil engineering laboratory. It was noted that there
was no effort to protect the aggregates from neither rainfall nor impurities. They were well
graded natural coarse aggregates obtained from Ndarugu quarry near Juja. Aggregates passing 19
mm sieve but retained in 10 mm sieve were used. The natural coarse aggregates were further
sieved in order to remove traces of quarry dust and other small particles. They were cleaned and
dried in the oven for a day. A sample was prepared by quartering and graded according to BS
882-1992.Excess fines in the coarse aggregates were removed by sieving through 4.76mm sieve
to conform to requirements of BS 8500-2-2002.
3.2 Laboratory Testing of Properties of Aggregate

3.2.1 Particle Size Distribution (BS: 812:PART1:1975)
This test consists of dividing up and separating by means of a series of test sieves, a material
into several particle size classification of decreasing sizes. The mass of the particles retained on
the various sieves is related to the initial mass of the material. The cumulative percentages
passing each sieve are reported in numerical and graphical form.
21
Plate 1 Washing of fine aggregate
Objectives
1. To determine the particle size distribution of specified aggregates.

2. To draw grading curves for the aggregates specified.
Procedure
The test sieves were arranged from top to bottom in order of decreasing aperture sizes with pan
and lid to form a sieving column. The aggregate sample was then poured into the sieving
column and shaken thoroughly manually. The sieves were removed one by one starting with the
largest aperture sizes (top most), and each sieve shaken manually ensuring no material is lost.
All the material which passed each sieve was returned into the column before continuing with
the operation with that sieve. The retained material was weighed for the sieve with the largest
aperture size and its weight recorded. The same operation was carried out for all the sieves in
the column and their weights recorded. The screened material that remained in the pan was
weighed and its weight recorded. The cumulative mass retained and passing on each sieve was
22
calculated as a percentage of the original mass. The results of the sieve analysis were presented
graphically in charts known as grading charts.
3.6 Sieve Analysis and Grading of Fine Aggregates

. The sieve sizes in general used for particle size distribution of fine aggregates were 14, 10, 5,
2.36, 1.18 mm and 600, 300,150 and 75μm. This test consisted of dividing up and separating by
means of a series of test sieves named here above, a material into several particle size
classifications of decreasing sizes. The cumulative percentages passing each sieve were reported
in numerical and graphical form.
3.7 Coarse Aggregates - (BS 882: 1992)

The sieve sizes general used for particle size distribution of coarse aggregates were 50, 37.5,25,
19, 10, and 4.75 for coarse aggregate. The aggregates were collected approximately 2kg by
mass. The proportions of the different sizes of particles making up the aggregates are found by
sieving and are known as the 'grading' of the aggregates, the grading was given in terms of the
percentage by mass passing the various sieves. The cumulative percentages passing through
each sieve were reported in both numerical and graphical form.
3.7.1 Flakiness Index

Approximately 1kg of aggregate was taken and each particle of the 7/8 in. (22.4 mm) to 5/8 in.
(16.0mm) sample was passed through the 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) slot of the thickness gauge. The
particles passing through the gauge were separated from those retained on the gauge. Each
particle of the 5/8 in. (16.0 mm) to 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) sample was passed through the 1/4 in.
(6.3mm) slot of the thickness gauge. The particles passing through the gauge were separated
from those retained on the gauge. Each particle of the 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) to 1/4 in. (6.3 mm)
sample was passed through the 5/32 in. (4.0mm) slot of the thickness gauge. The particles
passing through the gauge were separated from those retained on the gauge.
23
All particles retained on the gauge were combined and counted. The total is the Retained
Sample. The particles passing through the appropriate slots were combined and counted; this is
the total passing sample.
Analysis
Flakiness index = Sample passing ÷ (sample passing + sample retained) x 100%
Plate 2 Flakiness index test
24
3.7.2 Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)
ACV is a relative measure of the aggregates resistance to crushing under gradually applied load
conducted on aggregates to check their individual resistance
Objective
1. To determine the relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to crushing under

gradually applied compressive load.
Apparatus
1. An open ended steel cylinder of nominal 150mm internal diameter with plunger and open
plate.
2. Round ended steel tamping rod 16mm and 600mm long.
3. Weighing balance.
4. BS Test sieves 14mm, 10mm and 2.36mm.
5. A compressive testing machine capable of applying 400KN, at a uniform loading rate.
6. A cylindrical metal measure of internal dimensions: 115 mm by 180 mm deep.
Procedure
The surface –dry aggregate was sieved through 14mm and 10mm sieves and the material
retained on 10mm sieve adopted for test. The retained material was placed in the cylindrical
measure and its weight of aggregate determined and recorded at Wt. (A).
The cylinder of the test apparatus was put in position and the test sample placed in three layers
each layer being subjected to 25 strokes of the tamping rod.
The surface of the aggregate was then leveled and the plunger inserted and insured it rested
horizontally on the surface of the aggregates.
25
The apparatus with the test sample and plunger were then placed in position between the platens
of the testing machine and loaded at 400KN in 10 minutes.
After loading the crushing material was removed from the cylinder and sieved through 2.36mm
sieve.
Calculation and expression of results
Calculate the aggregate crushing value (ACV) expressed as a percentage to the first decimal
place, of the mass of lines formed to the total mass of the test specimen from the following
equation
ACV
Where:
M1 is the mass of the specimen (in g)
M2 is the mass of the material passing the 2.36 mm test sieve (in g).
3.12 Concrete Test

3.12.4 Preparation of Test Samples for Concrete Tests
Batching by weight by use of a weighing machine was chosen in this project. The calculated
amount of each constituent will be tabulated in the mix proportion section. Three batches were
made.
3.13 Portland Cement

Nguvu Ordinary Portland cement Cem IVlB 32.5N, Blue Triangle Ordinary Portland cement
Cem IVlB 32.5N and Mombasa Ordinary Portland cement Cem IVlB 32.5N were used in each
batch respectively.
26
3.14 Aggregates
Fine aggregates (sand) that was stored in the yard of the laboratory was used (the sand was from
Machakos river).The coarse aggregates in the laboratory were two types 10mm diameter and
20mm diameter. The 10mm diameter was used because the moulds provided were 100mm by
were from Ndarugo quarry from Juja. The aggregates were stockpiled into 3 distinct piles .The
was no effort to protect the aggregates from impurities or from Rain water.
3.15 Water
The water used in this project was sourced from the laboratory tap .The technician assured that
the water was fresh, free from organic matter and drinkable. To get a comparable basis of the
result, a constant water/cement ratio of 0.5 was assumed.
3.16 Mix Ratio

The mix design adopted was class 25 commonly referred to M-25M stands for mix. The ratio is
1:1.5:3 in order of cement, fine aggregates and coarse aggregates respectively. The table below
shows each constituent by mass in each batch of cement type, attached a detail table of the
batches. See Appendix 1(page 6) for the comprehensive mix quantity calculation
Table 4 Showing Batches Mix Proportions
Sand (kg) Cement(kg) Coarse aggregate(kg) Water(litres)
13.5 9 27 4.5
3.17 Mixing
With the weight of each constituent ready, first the coarse aggregates were poured followed by
fine aggregates then cement into the pan mixer. They were mixed for about five minutes until
they were evenly distributed. Water was then added as the mixing continued until it was even.
27
Plate 3 Mixing of Constituents of Aggregate
3.18 Properties of Plastic Concrete

3.18.1 Slump Test (BS 1881: PART 102).
The slump test is the most well-known and widely used test method to characterize the
Workability of fresh concrete. The inexpensive test, which measures consistency of concrete
batch mixes.
Apparatus
1. Truncated conical mould 100 mm diameters at the top, 200mm diameter at the
bottom and 300mmm high.
2. Steel tamping rod 16mm diameter and 600mm long with ends hemispherical.
Procedure
28
The slump test is carried on the design mixes. The standard slump cone with a base plate was
used. The inside of the mould was cleaned and oiled before the test and the mould made to
stand on a smooth hard surface. The mould was held down using the feet rested on the foot
rests, and the mould filled in three layers of approximately equal sizes. Each layer was then
tamped with 25 strokes using
Tamping rod and the strokes being uniformly distributed over the cross-section of the layer.
The surface was smoothened using the trowel, and the surface of the cone and base plate
wiped clean. The cone was then lifted vertically upright and the slump measured for each
sample design.
Plate 4 Showing Determination of Slump Test
3.18.2 Compaction Factor test

Compaction factor is obtained by passing the mix through an arranged system where the mix
falls through the apparatus and is compacted by gravity as it falls from one level to another to
establish the amount of work necessary to produce full compaction. The compression factor
apparatus was greased on the inner surface of the cylinder to prevent concrete from sticking on
the inside of the apparatus. The mass of the empty cylinder was first measured and labeled
M1.Using a spatula the upper hopper was filled with the fresh concrete gently without
compacting it. Afterwards, trap door was then released and concrete fell into the lower hopper.
Once the concrete had come to rest, the excess concrete above the lower hopper was removed
29
and trap door opened. Concrete then fell into the cylinder and excess was removed with a
trowel and outside of the cylinder cleaned and mass of the cylinder with un-compacted fresh
concrete taken and recorded as M2.Thereafter, the cylinder was vibrated on the vibration table
and more concrete was added until the cylinder was fully compacted and full. The new weight
M3 was taken and the compaction factor is obtained as the ratio of the weight of non-
compacted concrete sample divided by the compacted weight of the sample.
30
Plate 5 showing the compaction factor test apparatus
31
3.19 Testing of the Properties of Hardened Concrete
3.19.1 Determination of Compressive Strength –Cube Test
Casting of Cubes
The specimens were cast in iron moulds generally 100 mm cubes. This conforms to the
specification of BS 1881- 3:1970. The moulds surface were first cleaned and oiled on their inside
surface in order to prevent development of bond between the mould and the concrete. The
moulds were then assembled and bolts and nuts tightened to prevent leakage of cement paste.
After preparing trial mixes, the moulds were filled in three layers, each layer being compacted
using a poker vibrator to remove as much entrapped air as possible and to produce full
compaction of concrete without segregation. The moulds were filled to overflowing and excess
concrete removed by sawing action of steel rule. Surface finishing was then done by a means of
trowel. The test specimens were then left in the moulds undisturbed for 24 hours and protected
against shock, vibration and dehydration at a temperature of 20+_30oc
Plate 6 Showing Cast Concrete
32
3.19.1.2 Curing of Cubes
The specimens were removed from the moulds and marked with details of; type of mix, date of
casting, duration for curing and the determined crushing date, using a water proof marker then
placed in water of temperature about 200C such that they were completely submerged. Some
samples were cured for 7days, 14days and others 28days so as to determine how the duration
of curing would affect strength of concrete. Curing took place by hardening of the concrete.
The temperature controlled the rate of progress of the reactions of hydration and consequently
affected the development of strength of concrete.
3.19.1.2 Compressive Test

After curing the cubes for the specified period, they were removed and wiped to remove
surface moisture in readiness for compression test .the cubes were then placed with the cast
surface in contact with the platens of the testing machine that is the position of the cube when
tested should be at right angles to that as cast. The load was applied at a constant rate of stress
and load at which the cubes failed was recorded.The cube compressive strengh was determined
from the formula
F=
Where P= failure load(N)
A=Cross sectional area of the specimen,
for this project the size used was 100mm 100mm
33
Plate 7 showing Compressive Cube Crushing Test of Concrete
3.19.1.3 Splitting Tensile Test

Tensile splitting strength of the concrete cylinder was performed to comply with BS 1881-
117:1983-Method for determination of tensile splitting strength.
Apparatus
1. Standard test cylinder of concrete specimen (300mm length x 150mm diameter)
2. Compression testing machine
Procedure
The standard cylinder of concrete specimen was placed horizontally between the loading
surfaces of the Compression Testing Machine with strips of wood were placed between the
specimen to ensure uniform distribution of applied load. The compression load was then
34
applied uniformly along the length of the cylinder until failure of the cylinder along the
vertical diameter. Strips of ply wood were placed between the specimen and the loading
surfaces to ensure uniform distribution of the applied load and thus preventing high magnitude
of compressive loads near the points of application. The load at which failure occurred was
recorded for the different cement used.
The formula used to obtain the tensile splitting strength is shown below
F=
Where:
P=Maximum load at failure (KN)
L=length of the specimen (mm)
D=diameter of the specimen (mm)
Plate 8 Showing Tensile Split Test
35
3.12 Mortar Test
3.12.1 Test Specimen
3.12.1.1 Description of Test Apparatus

The halve of the cube moulds and base plates were thoroughly scrapped and wiped clean
especially on the inside surfaces and on the edges to remove coating .The joints between the
halves of the cubes were covered with the thin film of grease and the halves rigidly fixed
together. The inside faces of the cube mould were also coated with a thin film of oil. This was
also done for the plate before the mould was placed on top of it.
3.12.1.2 Description of Test Specimens

The test specimen was mortar cubes of size 70.7mm with the area of each cube face equal 5000
mm2.
3.12.1.3 Materials
Cements provided by the university was used throughout the study both for financial reasons and
to ensure a realistic and reliable determination of strength development.
3.12.1.4 Sand
The sand used in this study was fine river sand from machakos passing through 0.15mm sieve
and retained at sieve 0.075mm due to unavailability of British standard sand in the laboratory.
3.12.2 Preparation of Test Specimen

Cement - 185g
Sand - 555g
Water - 74g
36
The amount of sand and cement given in the mix proportion were weighed and the required
amount of water measured in the measuring cylinder.
The weighed sand and cement were dry mixed a non-porous plate for about for about 1 minute
then with water for approximately 3 ½ minutes. The mixing was done such that the resulting mix
was homogenous.
The paste was immediately transferred to the cubes mould hopper fixed on the vibration machine
in contact and directly above the cube mould clamped onto the table of the vibration machine.
The vibration machine was then turned on and the mortar compacted by vibration for 2 minutes.
At the end of vibration, the mould (still containing mortar) was removed from its clamped
position.
Excess materials above the mould edges were sliced off and the top face smoothed. The
specimen was then labeled and placed in an area free from any kind of interference. In order to
reduce evaporation, the exposed top of the cubes was covered with sheet of polythene paper
making contact with the upper edge of the mould. The test specimens were de-moulded after 24
hours and submerged in water in the curing room.
3.12.3 Testing Procedure

The cement mortar cubes were tested on the compression testing machine upon removal from
water and were tested in a wet condition. Before testing, the cube faces were wiped to remove
any surface grit. The cubes in contact with the machine’s platens were the smooth faces i.e. any
pair of the 4 perpendicular to the one facing up during casting.
For compression testing machine, with the aid of a load placer, the loading was steadily and
uniformly applied until the specimen failed as indicated by the backward motion of the black
pointer. The failure load was that denoted by the red pointer which remained at the maximum
value even after loading was stopped. It had to be reset for every subsequent cube.
For each binder at each age, 3 cubes were tested. The failure load was then recorded.
37
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
100
90
80
70
Passing (%)
60
50
40
Min
30 Max
20
10
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Sieves (mm)
Fig 3 Grading of Fine Aggregate
From the graph grading did lie between the upper and lower boundary as required by BS 882 -
1992. They are to the right meaning they are coarser than fine (sand).
38
100
90
80
70
Passing (%)
60
50
40
Min
30 Max
20
10
0
1 10 100
Sieves (mm)
Fig 4 Coarse Aggregate Grading
The graph showed that the grading did lie between the boundaries set by BS882-1992 for coarse
aggregate though the coarse aggregates are not of uniform size.
The gradation of aggregate is important since it determines the paste requirement of a workable
concrete. Paste requirement itself controls the cost of the project since cement is the most
expensive component in concrete. The best way to achieve a workable concrete is by adoption of
a good gradation of aggregate. The better the gradation, the lesser the paste requirement hence
saving in economy, higher strength, lower shrinkage and greater durability .This is due to the fact
that the more the paste the more concrete is permeable and susceptible to chemical attacking.it
should be noted that they are no ideal requirements for grading since workability is not only
dependent on grading alone but on surface area of the aggregates which determines the amount
of water to wet all the solids. Workability also depends on the relative volume occupied by the
aggregate, tendency to segregate and amount of fines in the mix. The result in this project shows
that the sand and the coarse aggregates did conformed to the specification to BS 882-1992 .
39
4.1 Flakiness index
Table 5: Flakiness Test Result
Sieve size(mm) 12.7 to 9.525 9.525 to 6.35 Total
Weight passing(g) 45.2 182.9 228.1
Weight retained(g) 68.2 257.2 325.4
Flakiness index = 100 = 41.2%
According to BS882-1992 it is undesirable to have aggregates containing flaky particles in

excess of 10%-15%.The results tabulated report that the aggregates are indeed flaky and had
failed to be within the specified standard and hence affects workability of the concrete.
Flakiness tests are useful only in general assessment of aggregates and don not adequately
describe the shape of the particles since the aggregate shape can be conveniently assessed by test
for angularity, flakiness and elongation indices.
40
4.2 Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)
Table 6: Aggregate Crushing Value Results
Weight passed, M2 490
Weight retained 2210
Total weight, M1 2700
ACV Calculated ×100 ×100=18.15%
The ACV result is 18.15% which is alright since the BS 882-1992 requirement is not to exceed
35%. Technically when the ACV of the aggregates exceeds 30% the results may be unusual and
10% fine test is carried out. Due to the fact that the result18.15% is lower than 30%, 10% fine
test was not done. The aggregate did not fail by ACV.
41
4.3 Plastic Concrete
4.3.1 Workability
As indicated earlier, the slump test and the compaction factor test were done on plastic concrete
to determine workability of the concrete. The tests were conforming to BS 1881-102:1983.The
test result is tabulates as shown below.
Table 7: Results for Slump and Compaction Factor Test
Type of cement Portland Slump Compaction factor

(32.5N)
Bamburi cement 34 0.91
E. African Portland cement 36.4 0.94
Mombasa cement 33.6 0.90
42
A graph of Slump against type of cement
37
36.5
36
35.5
35
Slump (mm)
34.5
slump
34
33.5
33
32.5
32
Bamburi cement E.african portland Mombasa cement
cement
Chart 1 Showing Variation of Slump Test Result
From the experiment it was realized that there was a variation on the consistency and workability
depending on the type of cement used. The result obtained show that slump ranging from 30m-
35mm and compaction factor ranging from 0.9 to 0.94 the degree of compaction was low in all
the three cement used. This was a result of using the same w/c ratio (0.5) .The difference in both
the slump and compaction factor is due to the fact that mix water being absorbed by aggregates
had different saturation level (looking at the result the difference in saturation level of the
aggregates used was very small) since each batch of cement was done on different days due to
unavailability of casting cubes. The usual practice in site is the amount of water to be added to
the concrete constituent is left to the mixer operator to decide due to his experience with the W/C
ratio calculated in mind.
43
4.3.2 Mechanical Test
4.3.2.1 Cube Crashing Test
Table 8: Results of Compressive Strength Test at 7 Day
Type of Sample 1(KN) Sample 2(KN) Average Compressive

cement load(KN) strength
(N/ )
Bamburi 160 180 170 17

cement
African 155 167 161 16.1

Portland
cement
Mombasa 140 143 142 14.2

cement
44
Table 9: Compressive Concrete Cube 14 Day Results
Type of Sample 1(KN) Sample 2(KN) Average load Compressive

cement (KN) strength
(32.5N) (N/ )
Bamburi 260 248 254 25.4

cement
African 231 239 235 23.5

Portland
cement
Mombasa 235 251 243 24.3

cement
Table 10 : Compressive Concrete Cube 28 Day Results
Type of Sample 1(KN) Sample 2(KN) Average load Compressive

cement (KN) strength
(32.5N) (N/ )
Bamburi 326 300 313 31.3

cement
African 250 260 255 25.5

Portland
cement
45
Mombasa 278 280 279 27.9
cement
A Bar chart of compressive strengh against

age
35
30
.Compressive Strength (MPa)
25
20
Bamburi
15 Mombasa
10 Blue triangle
0
7 day 14 day 28 day
Age of Concrete in Days
Chart 2 Chart showing variation of the compressive strength of cements with age
From the results shown Bamburi cement had the highest strength in 7 day followed by Blue
triangle than lastly Mombasa cement.
Their 7 day strengths are 17, 16.1 and 14.2 (N/ ) respectively. Bamburi exhibited a faster
rate of gain of strength from early ages which gives advantage of removing formwork earlier.
The 14 day test result shows Bamburi has the highest strength followed by Mombasa and finally
Blue triangle cement. Their 14 day strengths are 25.4, 24.3 and 23.5 (N/ ) respectively.
The 28 day test result shows Bamburi has the highest strength followed by Mombasa and finally
blue triangle. Their 28 day strengths re 31.3 27.9 and 25.5 (N/ ) respectively.
46
Different cements have different chemical constituent’s proportions and degree of fineness
which determine the purpose and type of cement. The strength of concrete is controlled by
many factors other than the type of cement used. These factors range from characteristics of
aggregate, W/C ratio and voids in concrete. In this research the aggregate used were the same
and a constant W/C ratio adopted to get a comparable result. It’s true that some cements gain
strength more rapidly than others but for a given W/C ratio the difference are only 10 %
(Evans and Kong 1987). All the brands of cements surpassed the minimum required strength
of 25 (N/ ).
Table 11: Result of Tensile Split Test
Type of Sample Sample Average(KN) Tensile split

cement(32.5N) 1(KN) 2(KN) strength(N/ )
Bamburi 200 190 195 2.76

cement
African 150 155 153 2.16

Portland
cement
Mombasa 140 160 150 2.12

cement
47
A Bar chart of Tensile strengh against
age
3
Tensile Strength (MPa)
2.5
2
1.5 Bamburi
1 mombasa
0.5 blue triangle
0
28 Day
Age of Concrete in Days
Chart 3 Showing 28 Day Tensile Split Result
From the results of tensile strengths Bamburi had the highest followed by blue triangle and
finally Mombasa Cement. The 28 day results were 2.76, 2.16 and 2.12 (N/ ).The results of
tensile strengths of the cements used did not range between 1/8 to ½ of cube strength, as
recommended range by Evans and Kong 1987.
48
4.3.2.2 Mortar Test Results
Table 12: 7 Day Mortar Test Result
Type of Sample 1(KN) Sample 2(KN) Average Compressive

Bamburi 20 22 21 4.3
cement
African 17.5 18.5 18 3.8

Portland
cement
Mombasa 19 22 21 4.3
cement
Type of cement Sample 1(KN) Sample 2(KN) Average load Compressive

(KN) strength
Bamburi 115 110 113 23.1

cement
African 120 123 122 24.9

Portland
cement
Mombasa 118 104 111 22.7

cement
49
Type of Sample 1 Sample 2 Average Compressive

Bamburi 145 148 147 30

cement
African 140.5 139.5 140 28.6

Portland
cement
Mombasa 135 140 138 28.2

cement
50
A Bar chart of Mortar strengh against
age
35
Mortar Strength (MPa)
30
25
20
Bamburi
15
mombasa
10
blue triangle
5
0
7 Day 14 Day 28 Day
Age of Mortar in Days
Chart 4 Showing Mortar Strength of different Types of cement with Age
From the results shown Bamburi cement has the highest strength in 7 day followed by Mombasa
cement than lastly African Portland cement. Their 7 day strength is 4.3, 4.3 and 3.8 (N/ )
respectively. Bamburi exhibited a faster rate of gain of strength from early ages which gives
advantage of removing formwork earlier
The 14 day test result shows Bamburi has the highest strength followed by blue triangle and
finally Mombasa cement. Their 14 day strength 23.1, 24.9 and 22.7 (N/ ) respectively.
The 28 day test result shows Bamburi has the highest strength followed by blue triangle and
finally Mombasa. Their 28 day strength is 30, 28.6 and 28.2(N/ ) respectively.
Different cements have different chemical constituent’s proportions and degree of fines of the
cement. The result shows that Bamburi has the highest Mortar strength amongst them followed
Blue triangle and finally Mombasa cement. The result were lower than the 32.5(N/ )
expected due to the size of the mortar cube (70mm cube), it was hard to compact and test hence a
major source of error in the results .A prism would have given a more accurate results if it were
available. The sand used was from machakos and not the standard cement imported from Britain
which was not available. The sand used was out in the open with no effort to protect it from
rainwater and impurities .clay ,mud and oil interfere with the bonding of the cement and sand
51
reducing strength and although care was taking by washing the sand particles, the reduction of
strength is attributed to the impurities present in the river sand after washing. Chemical
contaminants such as sulphates, acids and chlorides affect the durability of concrete which cannot
be accounted for since durability issue is a long term investigation.
52
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 General
In this research, three brands of cement were tested for mortar strength, concrete was prepared
for each brand of cement and both its compressive and tensile strength compared. The
conclusion drawn are based on the results obtained and are summarized below.
5.2 Conclusion
1. For given water content the slump varied from 34-37mm while compaction Factor varied
between 0.90-0.94.Bamburi was the most workable followed by Blue triangle then
Mombasa cement.
2. The 28 day cube crushing test result for class 25 concrete (M25) showed that Bamburi
Cement had the highest strength 31.3 N/ followed by Mombasa cement 27.9N/
then finally 25.5N/ for Blue triangle .All the binders passed the minimum required
strength of 25 N/ .
3. For the 28 day tensile split test Bamburi had the highest strength 2.76 N/ followed
by Blue triangle cement 2.16 N/ and finally Mombasa cement 2.12 N/ .
4. For the mortar strength test all the binders did not achieve the required strength of 32.5
N/ due to use of river sand that was necessitated by unavailability of Standard sand.
Bamburi had the highest 30 N/ followed by Blue triangle 28.6 N/ then finally
Mombasa cement 28.2 N/ .
5. All the cement increased strength with age, Bamburi cement was found to be the most
consistent cement among all and had achieved a more strength than the 25 N/
minimum strength required.
6. Both The fine aggregate and coarse aggregate were not the specified grading of BS882-
1992. The Coarse Aggregate failed Flakiness index test .The aggregate in the laboratory
should be protected from Rainfall and impurities to get a more Accurate results.
53
5.3 Recommendation
1. A chemical analysis of the local cement to explain the strength development in addition
fineness test be done to fully explain the variation in strength.
2. A through research done on the locally available cement by testing all of them and
casting various mixes that will give a comparison so as to support this project results a
get more accurate results.
3. Provision of more moulds in the concrete laboratory to cater for more samples to done
to get a more accurate result. The moulds were few that the students had to book earlier
and cast less so as to allow others also to finish the test.
4. The laboratory technicians should put effort to get aggregates that are well graded and
protect the aggregate from external harsh weather and impurities.
5. The flexural strength test be conducted and the samples observed for a longer time than
this project to get more conclusive and accurate results.
6. Standard sand was not available hence the sand should be used for all the locally
cements to get a more accurate results.
7. For future research on this topic other locally available binders and limes are tested and
standard be made for them.
8. The Mortar Test be done with care due to the size of the cubes and a prism should be
used for the test as the practice in the ministry testing laboratory.
54
REFERENCES
1) Joseph F.Lamond, J.H.Pielert (Jan1, 2006) Significance of Tests and Properties of

Concrete and Concrete-Making Materials, Chapter 12 on Strength, ASTM STP 169B.
2) BS 1881-108: 1993. Testing Concrete – Method for making test cubes from fresh
concrete, British Standard Institute.
3) 1881-110: 1993. Testing Concrete – Method for making test cylinders from fresh
concrete, British Standard Institute.
4) BS 1881-116: 1983. Testing Concrete – Method for determination of compressive
strength of concrete cubes, British Standard Institute.
5) BS 1881-117: 1983. Testing Concrete – Method for determination of tensile splitting
strength, British Standard Institute.
6) Studies of Flexural Strength of Concrete, Part 3 (ASTM Proceedings, Volume 57,
1957). , Effects of Variations in Testing Procedures, by Stanton Walker and D.L.
Bloem, NRMCA Publication No. 75
7) Rixom 1997; concrete society Technical report No.18 1980
8) Baker, C.E (1930) -A Treative on Masonry construction, 9th Edition, John Wiley &
sons Inc.
9) Hughes, B.P & Bahramian, B (December 1965) -cube tests and uniaxial compressive
strength of concrete, Mag.of concrete research, vol 17, No.53
10) L. J Murdock, K. M. Brook and J. D. Dewar (1991), Concrete Materials and practice,
6th Edition; London Melbourne Auckland, London.
11) Newman, J. and Choo, B.S. (2003). Advanced Concrete Technology, Elsevier Ltd.
12) Neville, A.M and Brook, J.J. (2001). Concrete Technology, Pearson Education
Limited, Edinburg Gate, England.
13) Neville, A.M (1981). Properties of Concrete, 3rd Edition, Longman Scientific and
Technical.
14) BS 1881-102: 1983. Testing Concrete - Method for determination of slump, British
Standard Institute.
55
APPENDICES
56
List of appendices
Appendix 1: Tables of aggregate grading 1
Appendix 2: Compressive cube strength and tensile split results for each type of cement 4
Appendix 3: Mortar test results 6
Appendix 4: Plates 8
1
Appendix 1: Tables of aggregate grading
Table A1: fine aggregate grading results

Pan mass(gm.) 126
Initial dry mass
+pan(gm.) 384
Initial dry mass(gm.) 258 Fine mass(gm.) 4
Washed dry mass Fine percent % 1.6
+pan(gm.) 380
Washed dry Acceptance criteria %
mass(gm.) 254
Sieve Retained % retained Cumulative Lower limit Upper limit

analysis(mm) mass(gm.) passed criteria criteria
percentage
14 0 0.0 100.0
10 4 1.6 98.4 100
4.76 5 1.9 96.5 89 100
2.36 12 4.7 91.9 60 100
1.18 21 8.1 83.7 30 100
0.6 73 28.3 55.4 15 100
0.3 107 41.5 14.0 5 70
0.15 28 10.9 3.1 0 15
0.075 4 1.6 1.6
254
Table A2: coarse aggregate grading results

Sieve Retained % retained Cumulative Lower limit Upper limit
analysis(mm) mass(gm.) passed criteria criteria
percentage
20 0 0.0 100.0
14 0 0.0 100.0 100
10 114 10.0 90.0 85 100
5 780 68.5 21.4 0 25
2.36 244 21.4 0.0 0 5
1138
2
Table A4: BS and ASTM requirements for grading of fine aggregate
Table A5: Grading requirements for coarse aggregates according to BS 882: 1992
3
CLASS 25 MIX DESIGN QUANTITIES
Cube size of 100x100x100 mm was used

Volume of one cube = 0.001 m3
Density of concrete = 2400 Kg/m3
Mass of concrete required for one cube = 0.001 x 2400 = 2.4 Kg
Total number of cubes required = 2 cubes for averaging, 3 types of cement to be tested cubes at 7
and 14 and 28 day strength = 18 cubes in total.
Cylinder size of 150 mm diameter and 300 mm height was used.
Volume of one cylinder = 0.053 m3
Mass of one cylinder = 12.72 Kg
Total number of cylinder required = 2 cylinders for averaging, 3 types of cements to be tested,
cylinders at 28 day strength required = 6 cylinders
A water cement ratio of 0.5 to be used
A 15% to cater for wastage during the laboratory tests was added
For each batch (6 cubes +2 cylinders) =2.4 6+2 12.72=39.84
Sand=1.5/5.5 1.15 39.84=13.5Kg
Cement=1/5.5 1.15 39.84=9Kg
Coarse Aggregate=3/5.5 1.15 39.84=27Kg
The quantities were rounded to the nearest whole number for ease of measurements.
Appendix 2: Compressive cube strength and tensile split results for each type of cement
Table A6 Compressive concrete cube 7 day results
Type of cement Sample 1(KN) Sample 2(KN) Average Compressive strength

load(KN) (N/ )
Bamburi cement 160 180 170
African Portland 155 167 161

cement
Mombasa 140 143 142
cement
4
Type of cement Sample 1(KN) Sample 2(KN) Average load Compressive strength
(32.5N) (KN) (N/ )
(

cement
Mombasa 235 251 243
cement

(32.5N) (KN) (N/ )

cement
Mombasa 278 280 279
cement
5
Table A9 showing result of tensile split test
Type of Sample 1(KN) Sample 2(KN) Average(KN Tensile split
cement(32.5N) ) strength(N/ )
=

cement
Mombasa 140 160 150
cement
Appendix 3: Mortar test results

Table: 7 day mortar test result
Type of cement Sample 1(KN) Sample 2(KN) Average Compressive
load(KN) strength
African Portland 17.5 18.5 18

cement
Mombasa 19 22 21
cement
6
Table 14 day mortar test result
(KN)

cement
Mombasa 118 104 111
cement
Table 28 day mortar test result

Type of cement Sample 1 Sample 2 Average Compressive strength
load(KN)
African Portland 140.5 139.5 140

cement
Mombasa 135 140 138
cement
7
Appendix 4: Plates
Plate A1: showing flakiness index performed
Plate A2: Showing sieving of coarse aggregates from outside the laboratory.
8
Plate A3: showing application of concrete to construct a swimming pool

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UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

AN INVESTIGATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF USING

BY ABDULKADIR .M .ABUBAKAR, F16/3727/2010

A project submitted as a partial fulfillment of the requirement for the

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

God Bless you All

Plate 1 Washing of fine aggregate ................................................................................................. 22

General use of are architectural structures, Pavements (concrete), motorways/roads,

1.2 Problem statement

2.2 History and Manufacture of Cement

Four compounds are regarded as the major constituents of cement:

Table 1: Chemical composition of Portland cement (Brooks and Neville 1987)

Name of Compound Oxide Composition Abbreviation

Tricalcium Silicate 3CaO.Si02 C3 S

Dicalcium silicate 2CaO.Si02 C2 S

Tricalcium Aluminate 3CaO.AlO3 C3 A

Tetra calcium Aluminoferrite 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 C4AF

Table 2: Oxide Composition limits of Portland Cements

OXIDE CONTENT,PER CENT

2.2.2 Properties of Cement

2.2.2.2 Specific Gravity

2.2.2.3 Activity and Setting

Final set time (min) =90+1.2(initial set time in minutes)

2.2.2.6 Fineness of Cement

2.3 Mortar Strength

2.5.1 The Grading of Aggregates

For a concrete mix to be satisfactory workable, it is requirement for it to contain a sufficient

Rixom1997; Concrete Society Technical Report No.18, 1980).

Following below is a brief discussion of the two methods.

2.8.1 Volume of Batching

2.8.2 Weight of Batching

2.11 Slump test

Table 3: Workability and Compaction Factor

Description of workability slump mm compaction factor

Very low 0-25 0.78

Low 25-50 0.85

Medium 50-100 0.92

High 100-175 0.95

2.14 Strength of Concrete

2.3.2.1 Compressive strength of concrete

3.1 Sampling Collection and Preparation of Aggregates

3.2 Laboratory Testing of Properties of Aggregate

1. To determine the particle size distribution of specified aggregates.

3.6 Sieve Analysis and Grading of Fine Aggregates

3.7 Coarse Aggregates - (BS 882: 1992)

3.7.1 Flakiness Index

Flakiness index = Sample passing ÷ (sample passing + sample retained) x 100%

Plate 2 Flakiness index test

1. To determine the relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate to crushing under

Calculation and expression of results

M1 is the mass of the specimen (in g)

3.12 Concrete Test

3.13 Portland Cement

3.16 Mix Ratio

Table 4 Showing Batches Mix Proportions

Sand (kg) Cement(kg) Coarse aggregate(kg) Water(litres)

3.18 Properties of Plastic Concrete

Plate 4 Showing Determination of Slump Test

3.18.2 Compaction Factor test

Plate 6 Showing Cast Concrete

3.19.1.2 Compressive Test

Where P= failure load(N)