Chapter 1

Topographic Surveying

CHAPTER 1

TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYING

1.1. Introduction

Topographic surveying is the process of determining the

positions, on the earth's surface, of the natural and artificial
features of a given locality, and of determining the
configuration of the terrain. The location of the features is
known as planimetry and the configuration of the terrain is
known as topography. The purpose of the survey is to
gather data necessary for the preparation of the topographic
map that displays both the planimetric and topographic
features.

The topographic map shows by means of suitable symbols

1. The spatial configuration of the earth's surface, which

includes such features as hills and valleys;
2. Other natural features such as trees, streams, oceans,
seas, etc. and
3. Man-made features such as buildings, roads, canals,
cultivation, etc.

The distinguishing feature of topographic map is that it

represents terrestrial relief.

The principal data required for topographic mapping are

elevation and distance. Several ground methods that require
the use of transit, theodolite, plane table and alidade, level,
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hand level, tape leveling rod in various combinations are

available for furnishing data necessary for topographic
mapping total station EDMs and photogrametric methods
are also employed where available.

Use of Topographic Maps

1. They are necessary aids in the design of any

engineering project that requires consideration of
landforms, elevations, or gradients.
2. They furnish necessary data for economists,
geologists, and others interested in the general
development of natural resources.

Representation of Topography

Topography may be represented on a map by relief models,

shading color gradients, hachures, form lines, or contour
lines. Of these representation techniques, only contour lines
indicate elevations directly and quantitatively. The rest of
the chapter is mainly devoted to representation of
topography by contour lines and conventional symbols. But
first the uses of the plane table instrument will be
discussed, as it is the most versatile instrument used in
compiling topographic map by any or the field methods.

1.2 Plane table surveys

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The plane table and alidade combination can be used for

various surveying operations such as traversing leveling
and compilation of topographic maps. The combination
consists of a drawing board mounted on a tripod in such a
manner that the board can be leveled and rotated in azimuth
without disturbing the tripod. This condition is realized by
the Johnson head tripod which has two nuts that control
leveling and rotation of the board independently of one
another. The alidade is mounted on top of the board, and is
the device used for sighting. Standard board sizes are 18 x
18in, 18 x24 in and 24 x31 in.

During sighting the board provides the lower motion for the
alidade, and the movement of the alidade over the face of
the board can be considered as the upper motion. The
rotation of the board is used in back sighting whereas the
rotation of the alidade over the face of the board is used in
fore sighting.

The plane table and alidade is more versatile than the

theodolite for map compiling. the drawing sheet fitted on
top of the table should be of good quality to withstand
adverse weather effects and repeated erasures. It should
have a reasonable roughness to take pencils without undue
grooving.

1.2.1 Plane-table Traverse

Horizontal control for compiling maps can be established

by plane table traversing rather than by a more precise
theodolite tape traverse. If high quality, durable drawing
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sheet is used, and if the plane table operator exercises care

in taking stadia readings and in plotting the points, a highly
satisfactory traversing can be accomplished by using the
plane table. The operation can be carried out during map
compiling or before the commencement of the work. The
latter has the advantage of adjusting the traverse before
starting mapping and eliminates much erasing and map
revision in the event there is a relatively large closure. The
following general techniques are used in orienting the
instrument in plane table traverses.

1.Orienting by backsighting

This method is applicable to large-scale mapping. Each

traverse station is occupied and the board is oriented by
backsighting at the previous station. Each line in the
traverse is observed from both ends, thus providing checks
on observations. Set up and observation procedures for this
method are as follows: -
1. Select the traverse stations (A, B and C). Set up the
instrument over one of them (A) and level it. Measure
the H.I by holding a rod alongside the alidade.
2. Measure the distance from the instrument station to
rear station (C) and forward station (B) with the stadia
method. Then measure the DE between the instrument
station and the rear and forward stations respectively.
3. Using the blade of the alidade, draw a line parallel to
the line of sight on the drawing sheet. To the chosen
scale mark the respective positions of the rear and
forward stations (c and b) on the drawing sheet.

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4. Move the instrument to the next station (B) and level

it. Orient the board by backsighting to the previous
station (A). Then take observations to the rear (A) and
forward (C) stations by repeating (2) and (3) above.
Note: The position of each station is plotted after taking
observations from both ends of a line.

a c a c

b b

Fig.1.1 Orienting by backsighting

Any misclosure is adjusted by the graphical method. Let aa’

be the closure at stations b and c, draw a line parallel to aa'.
Locate adjusted stations b' and c' on the line bb' and cc'
respectively in proportion to their partial distance from a.
a’ c’
bb’=(lab/L)*aa’ cc’=((l
a ab+lbc)/L)*aa’
c
b’
The adjusted traverse is shown as a’b’c’.
b
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2. Orienting by Compass needle:

The figure below shows a traverse to be carried out by

plane table. The positions of the stations A through F are to
be located by using the compass needle of the alidade.
Station A is occupied and the board is so oriented that the
entire traverse will fall on the sheet

The compass needle is unclamped and the alidade is rotated

in azimuth until the compass needlepoints to the magnetic
north on the compass. A line representing the magnetic
meridian is drawn the full length of the blade. The alidade
is then pivoted in turn to F and B and the rays af and ab are
drawn to scale representing the distances AF and AB.
Differences in elevation are computed for determining
elevations of F and B.

F f e
a E
d
b
c

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D
A a
f
b
a d

B
C b c
Fig . 1.2 Orienting by compass needle

The plane table is next set up at station C and leveled. The

compass needle is released and the blade is aligned with the
line representing the magnetic meridian. The board is
rotated in azimuth until the compass needle points to the
magnetic north of the compass. The board is now oriented.
The alidade is rotated in turn to Band D and the rays
obtained are drawn to scale representing CB and CD. The
procedure for the set up at E is the same as that of C.

3. Method of Radiation

In this method, the plane table is set up at only one station

and various points are located by radiating (drawing) a ray
from the instrument station to each of the points and
plotting a scale along the ray the distance measured from
the station to the point sighted.
The radiation method is suitable for surveys of small areas,
which are likely to be commanded from a single station. It
is useful in large-scale works, if used in combination with
other methods.
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The procedure of plane tabling by radiation method is as

follows:

Fig 1.3 Orienting by method of radiation

*Select an instrument station O such that all points to be

located re visible from it;
*Setup and level the table and clamp the board;
*Mark the point o on the sheet exactly over the station O on
the ground by means of plumb bob;
*Mark out the direction of the magnetic meridian with the
help of trough or circular box compass on the top right
hand corner of the sheet.
*With the alidade touching o, sight the various points A,B,
…etc to be located and draw the radial lines towards them
along the fiducial edge of the alidade lightly with a sharp
pointed pencil.
*Measure the distance OA, OB…etc from station to the
various points with a chain tape or by stadia hairs;
*Plot the distance to scale along the corresponding ray and
then join the points a ,b ,…etc to give the outline of the
survey.
Notes
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(1) Care should be taken to see that the fiducial edge of

the alidade should touch the station point o on
the paper while taking the sights on different points.
This can be best done by erecting a pin on the point o
on the sheet and keeping the alidade’s ruling edge just
touching it.
(2) To avoid the confusion, the various rays should be
referenced.
(3) The fieldwork can be satisfactorily checked by
measuring the distances AB, BC, etc on paper.
Intersection or triangulation method of plane tabling

This method is widely employed for plotting the details on

the maps. It can also be used for plotting the position of
points to be used at subsequent stations. The various points
can be located by the intersection of rays drawn from two
different stations P and Q forming a base line
The only linear measurement required is that of the base
line the distant and inaccessible objects, the rivers, in
B
survey of hilly countryA (where distancesC cannot be
measured easily), and for checking the distant objects.

P Q

Fig 1.4 Orienting by intersection

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Procedure

The procedure of plane tabling by the method of

intersection is as follows:
1- Choose two instrument stations P and Q such that
all the points may be commanded from both the
stations.
2- Set up and level the plane table at station P and
mark the point P on paper so that it is vertically
over station P on the ground.
3- Mark the direction of the magnetic meridian by
means of the trough compass.
4- With the alidade centred on point P, sight towards
Q and then all other objects A, B, C and D (to be
located) and draw rays towards them along the
fiducial edge of the alidade.
5- Mark all the lines by letters a1,b1,c1,q1 , d1 while
sighting towards A,B,C,Q, and D for reference
and avoiding any confusion.
6- Measure the distance from P to Q accurately with
a steel tape and set it off to scale along the ray
drawn to Q, thus fixing the position of point Q on
the paper as q (at the first station P only).
7- Shift the table, set it up at another chosen station
of the base line Q. Center the table so that point
q is directly over the station point Q on the
ground, and then level it.
8- Place the alidade along qp and turn the table to
sight the ranging rod at P. This is called the
orientation of the table by backsighting. Clamp
the board.
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9- With the alidade centered at q, sight the same

points A, B, C, and D to intersect the rays a 1, b1,
c1 and d1, respectively. The points of intersection
will be a, b,c, and d on the paper as shown in fig
which will represent the corresponding points
A,B,C and D on the ground.
Note
The intersection method of plane tabling is termed as “
graphic triangulation”. Care should be taken that
intersection angles are not very acute or obtuse. The
angles of intersection should be possibly within the limits
of 30oand 120o.

1.3 Contour and Contour Lines

A contour is an imaginary level line that connects points of

equal elevation. It may be defined as the line of intersection
of a level surface with the surface of the ground. Thus,
every point on a contour line has the same elevation as that
of the intersecting surface. If the contour lines determined
by several equidistant level surfaces are imagined to be
traced out on the surface of the ground and surveyed, the
resulting plan will indicate the contours in their relative
positions and thus give information on the character of the
ground. So, the configuration of the ground and the
elevations of points are most commonly represented by
means of contour lines.
The contour interval of a map is the vertical distance
between contour lines. The interval is determined by the
purpose of the map and by the terrain being mapped (hilly
or level).
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1.3.1 Characteristics of contour Lines

The principal characteristics of contour lines are:

1. Horizontal distance between contours is inversely

proportional to the ground slope. Hence, on a steep
slope, contour lines run close to each other.
2. On uniform slopes the contour lines are spaced
uniformly.
3. Along plane surfaces such as embankments, the
contour lines are straight and parallel.
4. As contour line represent level surfaces, they are
perpendicular to lines of the steepest slope. Thus, they
are perpendicular to ridge and valley lines where they
cross such features.
5. Contour lines do not simply end. They must close on
themselves. Therefore, a closed contour line on a map
always indicates either a summit or a depression.
6. As contour lines represent contours of different
elevation on the ground, they cannot merge or cross
one another on the map except in the case of vertical
surfaces (e.g. retaining wall) or overhanging ground
(e.g. a cave).
7. A single control line cannot lie between two contours
of higher or lower elevation.
8. When a contour line crosses gully/stream/ ravine on
other drainage structures, it forms a modified V
pointing upstream. For ridges, the V points
downstream. The forms of the V's depend on the type

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of bed material. For clay bed the V is smooth and

rounded; for coarse, granular bed, it is sharp.

1.3.2 Scale and Contour Interval

The scale of a map is the ratio of distance on the map to the

corresponding distance on the ground. It can be stated as a
ratio (e.g. 1cm= 100m) or a representative fraction (e.g.
1:10000).

The following factors are to be considered while selecting

scale for a map
Purpose of the map (the desired accuracy)
The cost of the work
Clarity/legibility
Correlation of map data with related maps
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Desired size of the map sheet

Physical factors to be show on the map

Factors to be considered while selecting a contour interval

for a map are:
Desired accuracy of elevations read from the map
Characteristic features of the terrain-coarse or fine
textures
Legibility/ clarity of the map
Cost of the work
In general the following scales and contour intervals are
recommended.
Large scale 1:100 to 1: 2000
Contour interval 0.1 to 2m
Intermediate scale 1:2000 to 1:10000
Contour interval 0.2 to 5m
Small scale 1:10000 to 1: 1000000
Contour interval 5 to 2000m

1.4 Field Methods for compilation of topographic maps

Factors that influence the selection of field methods to be

used in the compilation of topographic maps are the scale
of the map, the contour interval, the type of terrain, the
nature of the project, the equipment available, the required
accuracy, the type of existing control and the extent of the
area to be mapped.

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There are four field methods for compiling topographic

maps. Examples under which each method is suitable are
given below.

1. Direct method of contouring:

i. For study of drainage, irrigation or water impounding

structures, each contour has to be carefully located in its
correct horizontal position on the map by following it
along the ground. This is the Method of radial lines
(trace contour method.)

2. Indirect type of contouring:

i. For highway/railway/ canal construction, a strip (30 to

300m wide) needs to be mapped. Control lines are the
sides of a traverse which has been established by a
previous survey and which has been stationed and
profiled. Vertical control is provided by profile leveling
along the centerline. The method of locating the
topography most commonly used is the cross section
method.

ii. For an area of limited extent with many constant

slopes, the grid method is employed. Points forming
grids are located on the ground and their elevations are
determined.

iii. For an extensive area mapping, the contour lines are

located by determining the elevations of well chosen
points from which the position of points on the contours
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are determined by interpolation. This is the controlling

point method.

Direct method of contouring

In this method various points are located on each contour

by using a level or hand level and these are surveyed and
fixed up on the plan. This method is very slow and tedious
as a lot of time is wasted in searching points on the same
contour. But this is the most accurate method and is
suitable for small areas where great accuracy is required.

i. Method of radial lines

The method of radial lines can be very conveniently

adopted when the area to be surveyed is not very large and
when all the points may be commanded by the same
position of the instrument. A point is selected some where
at the center of the area to be surveyed and various radial
lines are laid out from this point. The relative positions of
these lines are fixed up by the measurement of horizontal
angles or by bearings. Temporary benchmarks are first
established near the radial lines and the staff readings to get
the various contours are calculated. Contour points are
located along these radial lines by pegs and the positions of
the various pegs may be determined by measuring their
distances from the center.

It is most effectively run by the use of plane table and

alidade, although the transit stadia can be employed.
Control is provided by a suitable traverse, which is
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computed, adjusted and plotted on the plane table sheet.

The elevations of the control points are directly entered on
the sheet. The positions of the control points S and R have
been plotted on the sheet as s and r, respectively. The
ground elevation of S is 995. 2m. The plane table is set up
over S and is oriented by backsighting at R. It is desired to
plot contour lines on the sheet at whole 1-m interval. The
H.I at S is established by holding the rod alongside the
alidade, and the alidade is, say 1.4m above the station. The
H.I is 995.2+1.4=996.6m. If a 995-m contour is desired the
rodman backs off until a reading of 1.6m is obtained
through the telescope. At the point the foot of the rod is on
the 995-m contour. The topographer reads the interval,
draws a ray from s to the direction of the rod using the
blade and scales the distance along this ray to plot the
point. The rodman walks along this contour, and the
topographer reads intervals to successive points along the
contour.

When the 995-m contour is traced out as far as practicable

from this set up, the topographer locates the 994-m contour
by guiding the rodman until he obtains rod reading of 2.6m
through the telescope. Then he traces out this contour in the
same manner as the 995-m contour. All points on the same
contour are joined by sketching on the sheet. When the
ground is beyond the limit of the rod the topographer runs a
short traverse to a new set up, from which additional
contours are traced. This method is the most accurate and
also the costliest and most time consuming.

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Application the high water level of an impounding

reservoir or a dam may be obtained by a combination of
plane table traversing and trace contouring. The desired
contour is at the elevation of the top of the spillway of the
reservoir dam. It is determined by traversing along the
water line.

When the theodolite is used for trace-contouring the

instrument is set up over the control point and the H.I is
determined. The azimuth of the backsight line set on the
horizontal circle and backsight is taken to the other control
point. This orients the horizontal circle. All subsequent
sighting is done by the upper motion. With the telescope
leveled, he directs the rodman to a contour by getting the
proper reading of the middle cross hair, reads the interval
and the azimuth to the point, and roads these data along
with the rod reading. The sketching may be done in the
field or in the office using a 360 0 protractor to plot the
azimuths.

Indirect type of contouring

This metod is known as contouring by spot levels or heights

and is less laborious, cheaper and is quicker than the
direct method. Spot level or spot height may be defined as
the reduced level of a point on the ground.

i Cross-section Method

In the cross section method cross section lines are

established along the center line at intervals of 100-m or ft
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(full station), 50-m or ft (half station), 30-m or ft, 20-m or

10-m and additionally at all points where prominent
features occur (e.g. change in direction of the center line or
slope). The cross section method can be carried out by any
one of transit and tapes, transit stadia level and tape, hand
level and tape, plane table and tape or plane table stadia.
Horizontal control is established by a theodolite tape
traverse; vertical control by profile leveling.
When transit and tape is used, each station or plus station is
occupied. The H.I is determined by holding the staff against
the instrument. A right angle is turned off the center line,
and the rod man, holding one end of the tape, proceeds
along this cross line until a break in the slope occurs. If
possible the instrument man takes a level, a sight on the rod
and the distance is taped. If the rod cannot be sighted with
the telescope level, a vertical angle is read and the slope
distance is recorded. The rise or fall of the line of sight
equals the slope distance times the sine of the vertical
angle. The rod man proceeds along the same cross line to
the next break in the topography and the process of
observation is repeated.
The stadia method is used for measuring distances and
elevations to cross-sections. When the stadia method is
used only to obtain elevations, two persons can measure the
distances to the left and to the right of the centerline with a
tape. Perpendicularity is estimated by rodman. This avoids
setting up the theodolite at every station.
When the level and tape or EDM are used for cross section
the H.I is determined by backsighting to a point of know
elevation. The distances are observed and recorded with
station elevations. When the rod is out of sight, a new set
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up is needed and the H.I is determined by backsighting to

another point of known elevation or to a turning point. Be
careful of collimation errors.
The operation with plane table and tape is similar to that
with the theodolite and tape, except that the plotting is
carried out in the field directly on the plane table sheet in
the former case. Control points can be prepared beforehand
or concurrently with the mapping.
Once cross section data are produced by field operation,
contour lines can be plotted at desired contour intervals and
scale by interpolation. Linear interpolation between values
is the most commonly used mathematical method to locate
a missing contour line on a map. Many mechanical
methods are also available. All desired details could also be
shown on the map.

In compiling topography by the cross section method, the

position of all planimetric features, such as buildings,
fences, streams and property corners must be located with
respect to the control line and plotted on the topographic
map. The positions of the features can be located by transit
stadia or plane table methods by observing the interval and
azimuth to the various points.

ii. Grid Method

The grid method may be used for mapping of areas of

limited extent with a fairly regular topography. A level is
usually used for determining the elevations of the grid
points. The following steps are used in running the grid
method.
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1. Establish the boundary of the area to be surveyed by

running a traverse around the area. Establish control
points at the corners.
2. Divide the area into uniform rectangles or squares.
The dimensions of these divisions are governed by the
required accuracy and the regularity of the topography.
The size of the divisions will be such that, for the most
part, the ground slopes can be considered uniform
between the grid points at the corners of the divisions.

The point of intersection of the grid lines is defined by a

letter and a figure of the respective intersecting grid lines as
shown is figure 3.3. Data are entered into notebooks against
these respective designations of the grid points.
It is not usually necessary to mark all grid intersections, but
enough points should be marked by stakes to permit the
remaining points to be located easily and quickly by
ranging them from the points that are marked. The rougher
and more irregular the surface, the more stakes must be set.

Levels are taken at all points and at all intermediate points

where the slopes change abruptly. Such intermediate points
are generally located in a direct line between two
intersections by its distance from the intersection having
the lower letter or figure. The distance may be measured or
estimated.

After the fieldwork is completed, the control points, the

boundary and the grid are plotted to the desired scale. The
elevations of the grid points are then written at the
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corresponding map positions of the intersections. The

positions of the desired contour lines are located by
interpolation between the grid intersections.

Exercise: The elevations of grid points for an area as

follows:
F 690 709 726 732 735 740 743 747
E 696 715 729 736 740 737 739 740
D 702 723 733 742 737 737 745 747
C 707 726 732 732 729 740 740 730
B 709 725 723 722 730 738 731 727
A 711 721 715 715 732 730 719 722
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
The elevations are in m. The readings are taken at 15-m
intervals. Plot a 5-m interval contour lines for the area. Use
a scale of 1: 200. On your map locate the intermediate point
B+3.5m, 3+2m with a spot elevation of 720m.

3. Controlling- point Method

The compilation of a topographic map by determining the

positions and elevations of carefully selected controlling
points is applicable to nearly every condition economy
realized. It can be used for mapping of a strip of land for
route location studies.

The experience and judgment of the topographer

determines the accuracy of the map, the speed of progress
and the faithful delineation of the true shapes of the contour
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lines. The method is the most difficult to master, but it is

also the most valuable method due to its universal
application. In addition to the accuracy of the technical
operations of making observations on the controlling
points, the topographer's knowledge of land shapes, slopes
and stream gradients, his facility for making maximum use
of equipment, and his ability to decide where to select
points so that he takes neither too many nor too few
observations, all affect the success of the mapping
operation.

Various combinations, of instruments can be used for this

method although the plane table and alidade is most
desirable. The horizontal control for an area to be mapped
by this method can be established by making a simple
traverse which is computed adjusted and plotted on the
plane table sheet. Vertical control is established by leveling.
The accuracy of control depends on the scale to which the
map is to be plotted, the contour interval and the required
map accuracy. In general horizontal positions on basic
control points should be located to within 1/200 in.
(0.10m). The basic vertical control should be established to
within one-tenth of the contour interval.

Once the horizontal and vertical controls are plotted on the

sheet, the topographer sets the plane table over a control
point and orients the board. He determines the H.I points
are selected along ridges, draws, streams and drainage
channels, at tops and bottoms of lines with constant slopes,
and at points between which the topographer can estimate
the crossing of the contour lines. For a topographer,
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drainage has more influence on land shape than any other

feature. Hence, drainage lines have to be located fairly
accurately.
The positions of the desired contour lines as they cross the
drainage lines are obtained by interpolation and are
sketched in. The elevations of the points at the changes in
slopes will allow the positions and elevations of the
controlling points by the plane table and alidade.
1.5 Map Finishing

In addition to contours, the positions of other natural

features (e.g. trees, streams, lakes, etc.) and man made
features (e.g. buildings, dams, roads, etc.) should appear on
topographic maps. For this, their positions are observed in
the field. Symbols are used to represent these features on
the map. Most of the symbols used for object representation
on a map are conventional. Where feasible colored symbols
are used. The following list gives various colors and objects
they represent.

Black- for man made or cultural features: roads, buildings,

names and boundaries.
Blue-for hydrographic features: lakes, seas, oceans, rivers,
canals, glaciers, etc.
Brown-for relief configuration of ground in terms of
contour lines, hachures, etc.
Green-for wooded or vegetative covers, with typical
patterns to show such features as scrub, vineyards or
orchards.

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Red- to emphasize important roads and public and division

lines, and shows built-up areas. Nature and source of
data used in the mapping ought to be known.
Other information to be shown on the finished map
includes.

1. The direction of the meridian and the basis for

directions (grid, magnetic, true meridian).
2. A graphical scale of the map with a corresponding
note stating the scale at which the map is drawn.
3. A legend or key to symbols other than the common
conventional signs. This should be brief but should not
leave doubt to the map users.
4. An appropriate title.
5. On topographic maps, a statement of the contour
interval.
6. A statement giving the datum to which horizontal and
vertical control are referenced.
7. A statement giving the mapping projection.
8. A statement giving the co-ordinate systems for which
grid lines are published on the map.

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Lecture note