AEROSPACE ENGINEERING

Aerodynamics
 AERODYNAMICS
CONTENTS
Basic Flow Analysis Techniques 5
Computational 5
Experimental 5
Continuity Equation 6

1
BASICS OF FLUIDS
Types of Fluid flow
Substantial Derivative
Streamline, Streakline, Pathline
Streamline
15
17
19
19
Pathline 19
Streakline 20
Newton’s Law of viscosity 22
Conservation of Momentum Equation (Differential form) 23
Circulation 25
Kelvin Theorem 27
Bernoulli’s Equation 29
Case 1: Steady irrotational flow 30
Case 2: Steady but rotational flow 30
Helmholtz Theorem 35
Biot – Savart’s Law 40
Energy Equation 45
NACA Airfoils Nomenclature 48
Four-digit series 49
Five- digit series 49
Modified 4 Digit and 5 Digit Series 50

2
AIRFOIL
1-series
6-series
7-series
50
50
51
8- series 51
NOMENCLATURE Objective Practice Question 52
Stream function   62

Potential Function  63
Types of flows 64

3
POTENTIAL
Uniform Flow
Uniform Flow inclined at an angle
Point Source    or Sink   

64
65
66

FUNCTION Vortex Flow 68

Combination of Elementary flows 69
Half Rankine Oval 69
Full Rankine Oval 71
Source– Sink Doublet 73
Vortex Doublet 74
Stationary or Non- rotating Cylinder (Uniform flow + 76
Source-sink Doublet +Vortex
Rotating Cylinder (Uniform flow + Source-sink Doublet + 81
Vortex
 Corner Flows 88
Spiral Flow 91
Blasius Theorem 93
Lift and Drag on Stationary cylinder 95
Lift and Drag on Rotation cylinder 99
Method of Images 101
NACA Airfoils Nomenclature 103
General 2d flow, between two infinite parallel plates 104
Couette’s Flow 106
Plane- Poiseuille’s Flow 110

4
LAMINAR VISCOUS
Different Boundary condition on plates
Axisymmetric-Poisueilli’s Flow
Expression for Velocity profile of fluid flowing between
two moving drums in tangential direction
113
115

119
FLOWS
Boundary layer thickness 122
Displacement Thickness 125
Momentum Thickness 127
Von Karmann’s Momentum Integral Equation 130

5
BOUNDARY LAYER
For Boundary layer over a flat plate
Turbulent Boundary Layer
133
136

Laws of Thermodynamics 138

0th Law 139
1st Law 139
2nd Law 139

6
GAS DYNAMICS
3rd Law
Compressibility
Speed of Sound
 
139
142

143
Energy Conservation 143
SHOCKS 147
Static Normal Waveform 148
Oblique Shocks 154
Multiple Shock Waves 158
The Detached Shock Wave 163
Expansion Waves 165
Nozzles and Nozzle Flows 167
Diffusers 172
Thin Airfoil & Finite Wing Theory 182
Starting Vortex 182
Kutta’s Condition 183

7
Thin Airfoil Theory 184
Thin Cambered Airfoil 189
Prandtl’s Finite Wing Theory 194
Special Case: Elliptical Lift distribution over finite wing 196
THIN AIRFOIL &
Effect of Aspect Ratio 200
FINITE WING
High Lift Devices 203
THEORY
 Linearized Theory 207
Linearized Velocity Potential Equation 210
Linearized Pressure coefficient 211
Prandtl –Glauert Compressibility Correction 213

8
LINEARIZED
Subsonic flow over a Wavy Wall
Linearized Supersonic Pressure Coefficient
Linearized Pressure Coefficient from oblique – shock relation
216
218
223
THEORY
Pressure Measurement 225
Pitot Tube 227
Flow Rate Measurement 229
Venturi meter 230

9
WIND TUNNEL
Orifice meter
Temperature Measurement
Velocity Measurement
231
233
237
(4) Dot Matrix 237
TESTING Hot Wire Anemometry 237
Laser Doppler Velocimetry 239
Particle Image Velocimetry 241
Density Measurement 242
Schlieren Method 245
Shadowgraph Technique 248
The Interferometer 249
 CHAPTER 1

BASICS OF FLUIDS

1.1 BASIC FLOW ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

There are two ways to solve or analyze fluid problem.

1.1.1 COMPUTATIONAL
1. Control–volume, or integral analysis
2. Infinitesimal system or differential analysis
3. Spectral methods
4. Modelling using LES etc.

1.1.2 EXPERIMENTAL
1. Experimental study on scaled model or dimensional analysis.
2. Full practical problem experiments

In all cases, the flow must satisfy

1. Conservation of mass (continuity)
2. Momentum
3. First law of thermodynamics (Conservation of energy)

4. A state relation like     P, T 

5. Appropriate boundary condition at solid surfaces, interfaces, inlets and exits.

1.2 CONTINUITY EQUATION

Assume that there is an arbitrary domain of mass M, the mass inside the domain will change by adding or
removing the mass from the domain with respect to time, hence
dM
 mIn  mout …(1.1)
dt
R.H.S. of Equation (1.1) is mass flux through surface, which can be written as,
 dM
    V. dA …(1.2)
dt s

From Gauss Divergence Theorem

(a)  F .ds   . Fd

s v

(b)  .ds     d

s v

Therefore equation (1.2) becomes,

d
dt  d    V.dS  0
s

And using Guass divergence theorem, we get

  V.dS   .  Vd

s
…(1.3)

As time is independent of (x, y, z) coordinates hence, we can take time operator also inside the integral.
Therefore from equation (1.3), equation (1.2) can be written as

d 

V
  d  0
 dt  .  V …(1.4)

Equation (1.4) is the integral form of conservation of mass, taking the volume to be very very small, we
don’t required integration. Hence we get differential form of the equation as,
d
dt
 
 .  V  0 …(1.5)

For Incompressible fluid

d
0
dt

 
.  V  0

.V  0 …(1.6)
Assume
(i) If there is no source or sink
(ii) Area and velocity vector are parallel
(iii) All streamline has uniform velocity and density at inlet (1) and at outlet (2)
 1 A1V1  2 A2V2 …(1.7)

If  will be constant but then,

A1V1  A2 v2 …(1.8)

Continuity Equation in Polar coordinates

Polar Coordinate:
 1  1 
  rur    u    uz   0 …(1.9)
t r r r  z
Also, u  ur i r  u i   uz i z
Question 1: A plate is dipped inside honey bottle. Due to viscosity, honey sticks at the surface of the plate.
Keeping the plate vertical, honey starts dropping down due to earth’s gravity. Consider profile
of honey as triangular and the variation of velocity of honey as linear. Find the equation of the
thickness of honey at the bottom of the plate w.r.t time if honey is considered as
incompressible fluid?
Solution:

dM . .
 m in  m out
dt
Considering the control volume domain as triangular area per unit depth, in this domain no
mass is coming in, and honey is going out.

.
Therefore, m In  0
 dM
  m.out
dt
b
    u.dy
0

y
 u  y   um … (1.10)
b
d  1  b
  lb     0 u.dy
dt  2 
1 db b
 l     u.dy
2 dt 0

1 db b
 l    u.dy
2 dt 0

Substituting the value of u from equation (1.10), we get

1 db b y
 l    um .dy
2 dt 0 b
b
1 db y2 1 
 l  um   
2 dt  2 b 0
l db b 2 1 
  um   
2 dt  2 b
db
 l  umb
dt
b db t
 l  um  dt
b0 b 0

At t  0,b  b0
t  t ,b  b
When t  ,b  0
b
Therefore, l  In  umt
b0
b t
 In  um
b0 l
 um t
b
 e l
b0
 um t
 b  b0e l
Question 1.2

There is a pump at the inlet of the tank, which is pumping the fluid of density,
in  1.4 kg / m 3 inside the tank with volume flow rate 2m 3 /sec. If another pump
at the outlet of the tank is pumping fluid outside with flow rate 1m 3 /sec. Then calculate
expression for density and also calculate steady level density, s inside the tank. Assume the
initial density 0 3
inside the tank and volume of tank is 1m .

Solution: At steady state, mass in  mass out, hence

1Q1  2Q2
d  
Also we know that,  dt  v  dv  0
If density is not changing

    Q entering  s  Q
 1.4  2  s  1
 s  2.8kg / m 3

dm . .
 m In  m Out
dt
d
    1  2.8  
dt
 2.4    e t  2.4  0 
     r t  2.8  0 

Question 1.3 There is a combustor tube of length I and uniform cross-section area (A) filled with fuel-
oxidizer mixture, If the empirical relations given are:

P 
b  n 0  
 P0 
where   0.25
 n  0.8 and

P 
u   0  
 P0 
Where ρ b and ρ u are the densities of the unburnt and burnt mixture and ρ 0 and P0 are
initial density and pressure. Calculate the following
1. What is the pressure inside the tube when total fuel- oxidizer mixture has burnt?

2. How much fraction of fuel-oxidizer mixture is burnt when the flame reaches half
distance?
3. When flamer reached at half distance, what is the pressure inside?
Solution: 1. Using continuity equation

oQo  uQu  bQb

Here, volume of the tube is same before and after burning, and mass is conserved,
therefore

 u  o  b
From,

P 
b  n 0   , we get
 P0 
1
1
P  P0
n
2. We have to calculate the fraction of fuel- oxidizer burnt when the flame reaches at
half of the distance, hence
Q
b
 2 ?
Q Q
b  u
2 2
 
P 
n 0  
b  P0 
   
b  u P  P 
n 0    0  
 P0   P0 
b n
 
b  u n 1

Substituting t ? e value of n  0.8

b 0.8
   0.44
b  u 1.8
i.e. the fuel– oxidizer burnt is less than 50%.
3. Pressure inside the tube when flame is at half way ?
Q Q
 b  u  0Q
2 2
b u
   0
2 2
substituting the value of b and u
 
P  P 
n 0    0  
  P0   P0   
0
2

n 1 P 
   1
2  P0 

P   2 
    
 P0   n 1
1
 P   2 
   
 P0   n  1 
Substituting the value of n and 
4
 p   2 
  
 p0   1.8 
P 
    1.11
4

 P0 
GATE Questions
Question 5.7: Consider a steady two– dimensional zero pressure gradient laminar flow of air over a flat
plate as shown below. The free stream conditions are U   100m /sec,   1 atm
and   1.8X 105 kg /m  sec. The ratio of displacement thickness to momentum
thickness of the boundary layer at a distance of 2 m from the leading edge is (GATE 2011)

[a] 7.53
[b] 2.59
[c] 2.91
[d] 0.39
Solution: [b] From Blasius solution of steady two – dimensional zero, pressure gradient laminar flow
of air over a flat plate
* 1.721  0.664
 1
,  1
x x
Re x
2
Re 2x
 * 1.721
   2.59
 0.664
Question 5.8: The laminar boundary layer over a large flat plate held parallel to the freestream is 5mm thick
at a point 0.2 m downstream of the leading edge. The thickness of the boundary layer at a
point 0.8 m downstream of the leading edge will be (GATE 2007)
[a] 20 mm
[b] 5 mm
[c] 10 mm
[d] 2.5 mm
Solution: [a] Blasius’s solution for laminar boundary layer over flat plate givens boundary layer
thickness as
5.0x
 
Rex

X is the distance of point from leading edge. Rex is local Reynold’s number.
Assuming Rex to be constant, we get:–
 0.2 5 0.2
 
 0.8  0.8 0.8
 0.8  20mm