 Patterns of Occurrence and Distribution

a. Sporadic occurrence

- is the intermittent occurrence of a few isolated and unrelated cases in a given locality

- the cases are few and scattered, so that there is no apparent relationship between them and
they occur on and off, intermittently through a period of time

b. Endemic occurrence

- is the continuous occurrence throughout a period of time, of the usual number of

cases in a given locality

- the disease is therefore always occuring in the locality and the level of occurrence is
more or less constant through a period of time

- the disease is more or less inherent in that locality, it is in a way identifiable with the
locality itself

c. Epidemic occurrence

- Is of unusually large number of cases in a relatively short period of time

- there is a disproportionate relationship between the number of cases and the period
of occurrence, the more acute is the disproportion, the more urgent and serious is the problem

d. Pandemic occurrence

- is the simultaneous occurrence of epidemic of the same disease in several countries

- it is another pattern of occurrence from an international prospective

 Community

- Defined as a sociological group in a large place sharing one environment

- Includes the individual and the family

- A group of people with a common characteristic or interest living together within a larger
society

- a whole entity that functions because of the interdependence of its parts or subsystems.

 Different types of Community

You can classify every type of community by the purpose that brings them together.

1. Interest. Communities of people who share the same interest or passion.

 2. Action. Communities of people trying to bring about change.

3. Place. Communities of people brought together by geographic boundaries.

4. Practice. Communities of people in the same profession or undertake the same activities.

5. Circumstance. Communities of people brought together by external events/situations.

 Types of community based on location

1. Urban – have a high population

- are found in a city

- have little space that is not occupied with buildings or roads

2. Suburban – have moderate population

- are found near a city

- have lots of spaces covered with buildings and roads, but still have room for parks,
gardens and fields

3. Rural – have low population

- are found in the country near ranches and farms

- have lots of open space and very few buildings, roads or parks

What do you think is the CORE of the community?

The core of the community is its people: history, values, characteristics and beliefs.

- The core is the demographics of the population

 Subsystems of the community

1. Housing

2. Education

3. Fire and Safety

4. Politics and Government

5. Health

6. Communication

7. Economics
8. Recreation

 Housing

What type of housing facilities are there in the community?

Are there enough housing facilities available?

Are there housing laws/regulations governing the people?

 Education

These includes laws, regulations, facilities, activities affecting education, ratio of health
indicators to learners, distribution of educational facilities, who utilizes these, wht informal
educational facilities and activities exist in the community

 Fire and safety

Fire protection facilities and fire prevention activities, distribution of these

 Politics and government

Political structures present in the community, decision-making process/ pattern leadership

styles observed

 Health

Health facilities and activities, distribution, utilization, ratio of providers to clients served;
priorities in health, programs developed, etc

 Communication

Systems, types of communication existing, forms of communication, be it formal or informal

 Economics

Occupation, types of economic activities, income, etc

 Recreation

Recreational activities/facilities; types consumers, appropriateness to consumers

 Community Health
 - Is defined as the art and science of maintaining, protecting, and improving the health of all the
members of the community through organized and sustained community efforts.

- refers to the health status of a defined group of people, or community, and the actions and
conditions that protect and improve the health of the community.

 Elements of a healthy community

1. People are partners in health care

2. People work together to attain goals

3. Physical environment promotes health, safety, order and cleanliness

4. Safe water and nutritious food

5. Families provide members with basic needs

6. Available, affordable health care

Factors that affect community health

 Political

 Socio-economic

 Hereditary

 Environment

 Behavior

 Health care delivery

Determinants of health according to WHO:

 the social and economic environment,

 the physical environment, and

 the person’s individual characteristics and behaviours.

These determinants—or things that make people healthy or not—include the above factors, and many
others:
 Income and social status - higher income and social status are linked to better health. The
greater the gap between the richest and poorest people, the greater the differences in health.

 Education – low education levels are linked with poor health, more stress and lower self-
confidence.

 Physical environment – safe water and clean air, healthy workplaces, safe houses, communities
and roads all contribute to good health. Employment and working conditions – people in
employment are healthier, particularly those who have more control over their working
conditions

 Social support networks – greater support from families, friends and communities is linked to
better health. Culture - customs and traditions, and the beliefs of the family and community all
affect health.

 Genetics - inheritance plays a part in determining lifespan, healthiness and the likelihood of
developing certain illnesses. Personal behaviour and coping skills – balanced eating, keeping
active, smoking, drinking, and how we deal with life’s stresses and challenges all affect health.

 Health services - access and use of services that prevent and treat disease influences health

 Gender - Men and women suffer from different types of diseases at different ages.

HOST DEFENSE MECHANISM

 Resistance

 Ability to ward off disease

 Varies among organisms and individuals within the same species

Immunity - mechanisms used by the body as protection against microbes and other
foreign agents; self vs. non-self

 Nonspecific immunity (innate, natural, inborn

 Defenses against any pathogen

 Specific immunity

 Resistance to a specific pathogen

 HOST DEFENSE MECHANISM

 Two types of immunity

1. Innate (non-adaptive)

 first line of immune response

 relies on mechanisms that exist before infection

2. Acquired (adaptive)

 Second line of response (if innate fails)

 relies on mechanisms that adapt after infection

 handled by T- and B- lymphocytes

 one cell determines one antigenic determinant

Two ways to acquire immunity

• Active - YOU produce the Ab

• Passive – OTHERS produce the Ab

Environmental pollution

 is something that brings harm to our environment and in turn to the people who exist based on
the environment.

 occurs when pollutants contaminate the surroundings; which brings about changes that affect
our normal lifestyles adversely.

Pollution disturbs our ecosystem and the balance in the environment. With modernization and
development in our lives pollution has reached its peak; giving rise to global warming and human illness.

Types & Causes of Pollution:

 Air Pollution

- It is the most prevalent and dangerous form of pollution especially considered to go

hand in hand with urbanization.
 - it is primarily caused by the excessive fuel combustion which has become a basic
necessity for cooking, transport and other industrial activities.

 Water Pollution

- can be attributed to many factors -industrial effluent dumped into the rivers and sea
causes a huge imbalance in the water properties which renders the water bodies unfit for aquatic lives

- is also a major cause of diseases caused to the non-aquatic species.

- not only harms the aquatic beings but it also contaminates the entire food chain by
severely affecting humans dependent on these.

 Soil pollution

- Also known as Land Pollution, this occurs due to incorporation of unwanted chemicals
in the soil due to human activities.

- use of insecticides and pesticides absorbs the nitrogen compounds from the soil
making it unfit for plants to derive nutrition from

- Release of industrial waste, mining and deforestation also exploits the soil. Since plants
can’t grow properly, they can’t hold the soil and this leads to soil erosion.

 Other types of pollution

 Noise pollution

 Radioactive pollution

 Thermal/heat pollution

 Light pollution

Environmental Sanitation

 Environmental Sanitation is (a) the promotion of hygiene and, (b) the prevention of disease and
other consequences of ill-health, relating to environmental factors

 means the art and science of applying sanitary, biological and physical science principles
and knowledge to improve and control the environment and factors therein for the protection
of the health and welfare of the public.

 Environmental Sanitation
  Activities aimed at improving or maintaining the standard of basic environmental conditions
affecting the well-being of people.
These conditions include (1) clean and safe water supply, (2) clean and safe ambient air, (3)
efficient and safe animal, human, and industrial waste disposal, (4) protection of food from
biological and chemical contaminants, and (5) adequate housing in clean and safe surroundings.

Sanitation means the prevention of human contact with wastes, for hygienic purposes. It also means
promoting health through the prevention of human contact with the hazards associated with the lack of
healthy food, clean water and healthful housing, the control of vectors (living organisms that transmit
diseases), and a clean environment. It focuses on management of waste produced by human activities.

There are different types of sanitation relating to particular situations, such as:

 Basic sanitation: refers to the management of human faeces at the household level. It means
access to a toilet or latrine.

 Onsite sanitation: the collection and treatment of waste at the place where it is deposited.

 Food sanitation: refers to the hygienic measures for ensuring food safety. Food hygiene is
similar to food sanitation.

 Housing sanitation: refers to safeguarding the home environment (the dwelling and its
immediate environment).

 Environmental sanitation: the control of environmental factors that form links in disease
transmission. This category includes solid waste management, water and wastewater
treatment, industrial waste treatment and noise and pollution control.

 Ecological sanitation: the concept of recycling the nutrients from human and animal wastes to
the environment.

Health indicators

 are quantifiable characteristics of a population which researchers use as supporting evidence for
describing the health of a population.

 Measure different aspects of the health of a population. Examples include life expectancy, infant
mortality, disability or chronic disease rates

Classification of indicators

 Mortality indicators
  Morbidity indicators

 Disability rates

 Nutritional indicators

 Health care delivery indicators

 Utilization rates

 Indicators of social and mental health

 Environment indicators

 Socio-economic indicators

 Health-policy indicators

 Indicators of quality of life

 Other indicators

Mortality indicators

 Crude death rate – is considered a fair indicator of the comparative health of people

- is defined as the number of deaths per 1000 population per year in a given community,
usually the mid-year population

 Infant mortality rate – the ratio of deaths under 1 yr of age in a given year to the total number
of live births in the same year, usually expressed as a rate per 1000 live births

Mortality indicators

 Under 5 mortality rate – defined as number of deaths occurring in the under- 5 age group per
1000 live births

 Maternal mortality ratio – ratio of number of deaths arising during pregnancy or puerperal
period per 100000 live births

 Disease specific death rate – is mortality rate which is computed for specific diseases

 Proportional mortality rate- is the proportion of all deaths attributed to the specific disease
 Morbidity indicators

 Incidence rate – the number of new events or new cases of a disease in a defined population,
within a specified period of time

 Prevalence rate – the total number of all individuals who have an attribute or disease at a
particular time divided by population at risk of having attribute or disease at this point of time