CH 1 THE SOLID STATE

#) The three physical states of matter are recognized as solid, liquid and gas.

#) The matter exists as solid when the force of attraction is much stronger than
the separating force due to thermal energy. Because of stronger force of
attraction a solid has definite volume and definite shape.

#) Solids are classified as crystalline and amorphous. In crystalline solids the

constituent particles are systematically arranged and solid has long-range
order. A crystalline solid has sharp melting point,definite planes and edges and
is anisotropic in nature.

#) In an amorphous solid the arrangement of the constituent particle has short-

range order. Therfore, an amorphous solid is called super-cooled liquid. An
amorphous solid does not have a sharp melting point and is isotropic in nature.

#) On the basis of binding forces between the constituent particles the solids
have been classified as molecular,ionic,metallic and covalent solids. These
solids have different properties.

#)The regular arrangement of the constituent particles in three dimensional

space is called crystal lattice.

#) An array of the representative points of the particles in three dimensional

space is called space lattice.

#) Unit cell is the smallest portion of the crystal lattice which is characterized by
unit lengths a, b and c and interfacial angle a, b and y. By repeating unit cells in
space the entire crystal lattice can be reproduced. But if unit cell is broken it
will lose its characteristics.

#) Depending on the relative values of the unit lengths and interfacial angles,
the unit cells are classified into seven distinct types of primitive unit cells. The
seven types of primitive unit cells and thus seven types of crystal systems are :

a) Cubic. b) Tetragonal. c) Orthorhombic. d) Hexagonal

e) Rhombohedral. f) Monoclonic. g) Triclinic

#) On the basis of the geometrical positions of the particles in the unit cells
Bravias further classified some unit cells into centred unit cells as body centred,
face centred and end centred. Thus there are fourteen types of total unit cells
called fourteen Bravias lattices.

#) There are three types of cubic unit cells namely, primitive unit cell , body
centred unit cell and face centred unit cell.

* In a primitive unit cell only the corners are occupied by the particles.

*) In a body centred cubic unit cell each corner is occupied by particles and
there is one particle in the centre of the body of the unit cell.

*) In a face centred cubic unit cell each corner and each face is occupied by the
particles.

#) The number of particles contributed by a unit cell is called its rank. In cubic
unit cell each corner point contributes 1/8, point but each face contributes 1/2
and each point in the centre of the body belongs to the unit cell. Thus.

*) The rank of a primitive unit cell = 8 X 1/8 = 1.

*) The rank of a face centred unit cell = 8 X 1/8 + 6 X 1/2 = 1+ 3 = 4.

*) The rank of a body centred unit cell = 8 X 1/8 + 1 = 1+1= 2.

#) The spherically identical particles are efficiently packed into hexagonal close
packing(hcp) and face centred cubic close packing (fccp).

#)The number of particles which are in direct contact of a central particle of the
close packed structure is called the coordination number (CN). Thus.

Type of packing. CN

Simple cubic. 6

Body centred cubic. 8

Face centred cubic. 12

Hexagonal. 12
#) The space filled by the particles per unit volume of the unit cell in a close
packed structure is called efficiency of the unit cell. The efficiency of each one
of hcp and fccp is 74 % , the efficiency of bccp is 68 %, and the efficiency of
primitive cubic close packing is only 52 %.

#)Void is the unoccupied space between the particles in a close packed

structure. There are three types of voids namely, trigonal voids, tetrahedral
voids and octahedral voids.

#) The deviation from the regular aarangements of the particles in a crystal

lattice is called crystal imperfection or crystal defect. These defects are
classified mainly as point defects and lime defects.

#) Point defect is the deviation in the arrangement of the particles about a

point in the lattice, whereas imperfection in a row of the crystal lattice is called
line defect.

#) The main types of point defects are stoichiometric defects,

nonstoichiometric defects and impurity defects.

#) Stoichiometric defects do not alter the normal formula of the compound.

Such defects are further classified as vacancy defects and interstitial defects. In
ionic solids, stoichiometric defects are called as Frenkel defects and Schottky
defects.

#) Nonstoichiometric defects alter the normal formula of the compound. They

are grouped as metal excess defects and metal deficiency defects.

#) Impurity defects are caused by the presence of an impurity in the crystal. For
example, the presence of strontium chloride into the lattice of sodium chloride
is called impurity defect.

#) On the basis of the ability to conduct electric current the solids are classified
as conductors (usually metals), insulators (usually nonmetals) and
semiconductor (usually metalloids). The conductivity of a metal is very high
while the conductivity of insulator is insignificant and conductivity of a
semiconductor is moderate.

#) Doping is the process of a calculated quantity of an impurity to increase the

electrical conductivity of a semiconductor. Doping materials are classified as
donors (electron excess materials, for example, an element of group 15 say
phosphorus added to silicon) and acceptors (electron deficient materials, for
example, an element of group 13, say boron or aluminium). Semiconductor are
widely used in electronics industry.

#) Solids show magnetic properties like diamagnetism, paramagnetism,

ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism. The magnetic
properties of a solid arise due to orbital motion of electron and its spin.