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Physics Laboratory
OBJECTIVES:
THEORY:
Measurement of physical quantities is an important aspect one has to deal with in physics.
It is from measurements of quantities where one deduces or confirms basic physical laws. In
fact, this process of deducing or confirming conclusions from measured quantities is an
underlying tenet of all the sciences –physical, behavioral or social. Indeed, measurement is a
cornerstone of the scientific method.
Most physical measurements involve the reading of some scale. However, the finesse of
the graduation of the scale is limited and the width of the lines marking the boundaries is by no
means zero. This leads the observer to estimate the last digit of the measurement. Thus the
numbers resulting from measurements are to some extent uncertain. The level of uncertainty
depends on the apparatus used; the skill of the observer and the number of experiment
performed. The way the measured number is written or reported implies this level of uncertainty.
For example, in Figure 1 the length of the pencil using ruler B is between the 10 cm and
the 20mm mark. It is certain that the length of the pencil is greater than 10mm and less than 20
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mm. However, a portion of the length of the ruler is still unaccounted for. Thus, the observer has
to estimate the value, say to around 18 mm. the last digit, which is 8, is uncertain. On the other
hand, using ruler A, the reading may be 18.3 mm where the last digit 3 is an estimate. The place
value of the estimate reflects the accuracy of the instrument. Ruler A has an accuracy of up to
the tenth place of a millimeter (mm), whereas ruler B has an accuracy of just up to the unit’s
place of a millimeter (mm).
Ruler A (mm)
18.3 mm
Ruler B (mm)
18 mm
Figure 1: Length measurement of a pencil using two rulers with different graduation.
Significant Figures
The figures that can be obtained directly the measuring instrument followed by the first
estimated figure of the measurement are called significant figures. Although an estimate figure
is used, this figure is still significant because it gives meaningful information (although uncertain)
about the measured object. One and only one estimated or doubtful figure is retained and
regarded as significant in reading a physical measurement.
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Rules for Determining the Number of Significant Figures:
1. Values which are either exact numbers or numbers with perfect certainty contain an infinite
number of significant figures.
Numbers by definition often appear in calculations. Examples are the numbers two (2) and π in
the expression for the circumference of a circle (i.e., c = 2 π r). These numbers are assumed to
have an unlimited number of significant figures.
Exact numbers that appear in simple counting operations such as the number of trials, number
of vibrations, number of dots, and defined numbers such as 100 cm in one meter, 60 seconds
in one minute, 7 days a week, 12 months a year, are also assumed to have an unlimited number
of significant figures. Numbers measured with perfect certainty such as 7 pencils, 10 books, 50
students, etc. also can contain an infinite number of significant figures.
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6. Zeroes to the right of the decimal point and to the left of a non-zero digit are not significant
(for values without non-zero digits to the left of a decimal point). The zeros are just used to show
the place-value of the non-zero digits.
Examples: 0.00097 m (2) significant figures
0.000456 kg (3) significant figures
0.0281 s (3) significant figures
7. Zeroes to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of an understood decimal point are not
significant.
Examples: 538,000 cm (3) significant figures
720,000 g (2) significant figures
150 s (2) significant figures
Rules 6 and 7 can be easily addressed if the number is expressed in scientific notation, using
only significant figures in the number placed in the 14 argument (before the power of 10). To
illustrate, the examples in rule 6 and rule 7 are presented below in scientific notation, with the
number of significant figures indicated.
Values Scientific Notation Number of Significant Figures
Rule # 6
0.00097 9.7 x 10-4 2
0.000456 4.56 x 10-4 3
0.0281 2.81 x 10-2 3
Rule #7
538,000 5.38 x 105 3
720,000 7.2 x 105 2
150 1.5 x 102 2
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to keep only the correct number of significant figures. The following rules may be used for the
retention of significant figures in a computation.
a. 350,892 351,000
b. 86,524 86,500
c. 7.514 7.51
Examples:
a. 5.852 m
+ 3.25 m This is the least accurate measurement
+38.6 m It is accurate up to the tenth of a meter.
47.702 m ≈ 47.7 m Final answer rounded off up to the tenth of a meter.
Examples:
a. 10.340 cm x 1.51 cm = 15.6154 cm2 15.6cm2
(5 sf) (3 sf) (3 sf)
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The number 2 and π both contain an infinite number of significant figures whereas the
second term 53.70 has four. Thus the least number of significant figures among the factors
involved is four. In this case the number 2 and π should be rounded off to one more significant
figure than the least. The constant π should be rounded off to 3.1416 since the true value of π,
to ten digits is 3.141592654. This gives (2.0000)(3.1416)(2884) = 18120.7488 = 18120 mm 2.
The final answer is rounded off to the same number as the least number of significant figures.
Examples:
The micrometer caliper is an instrument used for very precise measurements of external
dimensions. The object to be measured is placed between the anvil and the spindle. The thimble
is then rotated to advance the spindle until the object is gripped gently between the two jaws of
the caliper. The ratchet is used to tighten up the grip by the same amount each time and thus
avoid using too much force.
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The main scale has 25 main divisions etched on the sleeve or barrel, which is located along the
trunk of the micrometer caliper. The distance between the lines is 1.0 mm. thus the maximum
reading possible is 25 mm. The lines just below the main divisions divide the upper lines such
that the distance between an upper line and an adjacent lower line is 0.5 mm.
1. Check the zero position of the caliper. A properly calibrated micrometer caliper must have the
main and auxiliary scales simultaneously giving a zero reading when the jaws (the anvil and the
spindle) of the caliper are completely closed. In case of error, add the correction (may be either
positive or negative) to every reading.
2. Place the body to be measured between the anvil and spindle. Rotate the thimble until the
object is gripped gently between the two jaws of the caliper. Turn the ratchet slowly until it clicks
several times. This prevents an error due to varying degrees of tightness of the jaws.
3. Read the main scale and the circular scale. Refer to the examples below.
Example # 1:
Example # 2:
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Example # 3:
The Vernier caliper consists of a fixed part with a main engraved scale and a movable
jaw with an engraved Vernier scale. The main scale is calibrated in inches on the upper part and
millimeters on the lower part. The lower calibration has a maximum of 200 divisions with each
division equal to one mm. The Vernier scale usually has 10 major divisions. The least count of
the caliper is the smallest value that can be read directly from a Vernier scale. For example, if
the least count indicated on the caliper is 0.05 mm and its Vernier scale has 20 divisions,
each division corresponds to a 0.05 mm. This means that the Vernier scale
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divides one division on the main scale into 20 subdivisions. When the jaws are closed the zero
line or index of the Vernier scale coincides with the zero line on the main scale. When the jaws
are opened, the fraction of the main scale division that the Vernier scale has moved is
determined by noting which Vernier divisions coincides with a main scale division.
The Vernier caliper measures lengths, outer and inner diameters, and internal depths with the
use of its outside jaws or calipers, inner calipers, and depth gauge respectively. To measure the
width of a small rectangular block, open the movable jaw and place between the outside jaws
the block to be measured. Close the jaws on the object and do the following steps to get the
reading:
1. Observe where the zero line or index of the Vernier scale falls on the main scale. For
example, Fig. 4 shows the zero line of Vernier scale just after the 21 mm mark of the main
scale. Thus the main scale reading is 21mm.
2. Note the line on the Vernier scale that coincides on the main scale. In Fig.4, the Vernier
division marked “1” coincides exactly with a line on the main scale.
This division is the second from the zero line. If the least count of the Vernier is 0.05 mm, this
means that two divisions correspond to 0.05 mm x 2, which is equal to 0.1 mm. So the scale
marked “1” in the Vernier coinciding with the main scale corresponds to a 0.1 mm reading.
3. Obtain the final reading by adding the main scale reading obtained in number 1 and Vernier
scale reading in number 2. That is:
REFERENCES
1. Physics Laboratory Experiments 4th Edition, Jerry D. Wilson @ 1994 D.C. Heath and
Company; Lexington, Massachusetts
2. Laboratory Manual in Conceptual Physics 2nd Edition, Bill W. Tillery @ 1995 Wm. C. Brown
Communications, Inc. Dubuque, IA
3. Laboratory Experiments in College Physics 7th Edition, Cicero H. Bernard, Chirold D. Epp @
1995, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York
4. Experiments in Physics 2nd Edition, Peter J. Nolan, and Raymond E. Bigliani @ 1995 Wm.
C. Brown Publishers; Dubuque, IA
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5. The Art of Experimental Physics, Daryl W. Preston and Eric R. Dietz @ 1991 John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. New York
6. http://www.scas.bcit.bc.ca/scas/physics/labman/m1-civ1.htm
APPARATUS/MATERIALS:
Rectangular Block, 25 centavo coin, PSU ID Card, Ruler, Vernier Caliper, Micrometer Caliper
PROCEDURE
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Laboratory Group # & Name: __________________________________________
Date Performed: __________________________________________
Course Code & Section: __________________________________________
Group Members: __________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
DATA SHEET:
Ruler
Vernier Caliper
Ruler
Vernier Caliper
Micrometer Caliper
Thickness
Thickness of
of three ID
one ID card
Instrument cards L (cm) W (cm) Perimeter
(measured)
(measured) (cm)
(cm)
(cm)
Ruler
Vernier Caliper
Micrometer Caliper * * *
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*Since the maximum length that the micrometer caliper can measure is only 2.5 cm, use the value
obtained using the Vernier caliper. Be sure to maintain the accuracy of each instrument as reflected by
your decimal places. Observe the correct number of significant figures in your calculations.
SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS:
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QUESTIONS: (Individual)
a. 4.0659 cm x 3.81 cm =
b. 378.2 m – 56 m =
a. A rectangular paperboard measures 8.7 cm long, 4.3 cm wide and 1.75mm thick.
Find the volume of the paperboard.
b. What is the volume of a cylinder whose radius measures 10.29 mm and has a height
of 6.28 cm?
4. Specify the measuring instrument (meter stick, Vernier caliper, and micrometer caliper) that
is appropriate in measuring the following:
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