CE161P Lecture Print From Page 53

CE161P GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
01 Introduction to Soil Mechanics
INTRODUCTION Soil – For engineering purposes, soil is defined as the

uncemented aggregate of minerals and decayed organic
The behavior of every foundation depends primarily on matter (solid particles) with liquid and gas in the empty
the engineering characteristics of the underlying spaces between the solid particles.
deposits of soil or rock. Therefore, the foundation
engineer must be able to distinguish among the various
deposits of different character, to identify their principal
constituents, and to determine their physical properties. DESCRIPTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF SOILS
Principal Types of Soil
Definition of Soil and Rock
Rock – a natural aggregate of mineral grains connected

by strong and permanent cohesive forces.
Soil – a natural aggregate of mineral grains, with or

without constituents that can be separated by gentle
mechanical means such as agitation in water.
Geotechnical Engineering – a branch of civil

engineering in which technology is applied in the design The principal terms used by civil engineers to describe
and construction of structures involving geological soils are gravel, sand, silt and clay.
materials.
Gravel and sands are known as coarse-grained soils,
Soil Mechanics – a branch of soil physics and applied and silt and clays as fine-grained soils.
mechanics that describes the behavior of soils that are
subject to various loads. It is used to analyze Gravel – particles having a diameter greater than 4.75
deformations of and flow of fluids within natural and mm. If the diameter exceeds about 200 mm (8 in), the
man-made structures that are supported on or made of term boulder is usually applied.
soil, or structures that are buried in soils
Sand – particles having a diameter in between 4.75
mm to 75 micron. The grains are visible to the naked
eye, but are less than about 5 mm in size. This is
Why is soil mechanics important to engineering? usually modified as coarse, medium or fine.
A good understanding of soil behavior is necessary to Silt – particles having a diameter in between 75 micron
analyze and design support systems (foundations) for to 2 micron
infrastructures (e.g., roads and highways, pipelines,
bridges, tunnels, embankments), energy systems (e.g., Clay – particles having a diameter smaller than 2
hydroelectric power stations, wind turbines, solar micron. Predominantly an aggregate of microscopic and
supports, geothermal and nuclear plants) and submicroscopic flake-shaped crystalline minerals.
environmental systems (e.g., solid waste disposal,
reservoirs, water treatment and water distribution Particle Size Limits of Size Constituents, ASTM
systems, flood protection systems). The stability and Classification (in millimeters)
life of any of these systems depend on the stability,
Gravel Larger than 4.75
strength, and deformation of soils.
Coarse sand 4.75 to 2.00
Medium sand 2.00 to 0.425
Fine sand 0.425 to 0.075
Soil/Geotechnical Investigation – represents a Fines (combined silt and Smaller than 0.075
method of determining physical properties of soil at a clay)
construction site. This procedure is done with the aim of
establishing whether the soil is safe and solid for
construction.
CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 1

Difference between coarse-grained and fine- Gap graded soils – characterized by two or more
grained soils humps in the grading curve
Coarse-grained Fine-grained The average grain size of the soil is D50.
Coarse-grained soils are Fine-grained soils are

identified primarily on identified on the basis of
the basis of particle size its plasticity. Fine- Fine-grained soils
or grain size. Coarse- grained soils are also
The distinction between silt and clay cannot be based
grained soils are divided divided into two groups:
on particle size because the significant physical
into two groups: Sand Silt and Clay
properties of the two materials are related only
and Gravel
indirectly to the size of the particles. Furthermore,
There is no appreciable Strength changes with since both are microscopic, physical properties other
amount change in change in water content. than particle size must be used as criteria for field
strength characteristic identification.
by change in moisture
condition. 1. Dry strength – a measure of character and
quality of colloidal fraction of soil
Description of coarse- Description of fine- a. If breakage is easy, the sample is silt.
grained soil is done on grained soil is done on b. If breakage is difficult, the sample is
the basis of its gradation the basis of its dry clay with low to medium plasticity.
(well or poor), particle strength, dilatancy, c. If a breakage is impossible, the sample
shape (angular, sub- dispersion and plasticity. is a highly plastic clay.
angular, rounded or sub-
rounded) and 2. Dilatancy – the phenomenon exhibited by
mineralogical some fine-grained soils in which they become
components. more viscous or solid under pressure.
3. Plasticity – a property that enables a soil to

Coarse-grained soils deform without breaking/disintegrating.
a. Strength decreases as water content
A complete verbal description of a coarse-grained soil increases.
includes more than an estimate of the quantity of b. As the water content is reduced, the
material in each size range. The gradation, particle volume of the soil decreases and
shape, and mineralogical composition should also be becomes more plastic.
noted whenever possible.
Gradation – may be described as well-graded, fairly 4. Dispersion

well-graded, fairly uniform, uniform or gap-graded.
Dry strength test. A small piece of the soil is molded

and allowed to dry in the air. It is then broken and a
fragment about 1/8 in. in size is pressed between thumb
and forefinger. The effort required to break the
fragment provides a basis for describing the strength as
very low, low, medium, high or very high.
Poorly graded soils – most of the soil grains are the

same size
Dilatancy or shaking test. A small amount of soil is
Well graded soils – particle size are distributed over a mixed with water to very soft consistency in the palm of
wide range the hand. The back of the hand is then lightly tapped. If
the soil is silty, water rises quickly to its surface and

gives it a shiny or glistening appearance. Then if the
soil pat is deformed, in some instances by squeezing
and in others by stretching, the water flows back into it
and leaves the surface with a dull appearance. Usually,
the greater the proportion of clay in the sample, the
slower the reaction to the test. The reaction is described
as rapid, slow or none.
Plasticity test. At certain moisture content, a soil that

contains appreciable quantities of clay can be deformed
and remolded in the hand without disintegration. Thus, Dispersion test. A small quantity of the soil is
if a sample of moist soil can be manipulated between dispersed with water in a glass cylinder or test tube and
the palms of the hands and fingers and rolled out into a then allowed to settle. The coarser particles fall out first
long thin thread, it unquestionable contains a and the finest particles remain in suspension the
significant amount of clay. As moisture is lost during longest. Ordinarily, sands settle in 30 to 60 seconds.
continued manipulation, the soil approaches a Materials of silt size settles in 15 to 60 minutes,
nonplastic condition and becomes crumbly. Just before whereas that of clay size remains in suspension for at
the crumbly state is reached, a high plastic clay can be least several hours and usually for several days unless
rolled into a long thread, with a diameter of the particles of clay combine in groups of floccules.
approximately 1/8 in., which has sufficient strength to Organic silt – a fine-grained, more or less plastic soil
support its own weight. A silt, on the other hand, can containing mineral properties of silt and finely divided
seldom be rolled into a thread with a diameter as small particles of organic matter.
as 1/8 in. without severe cracking, and is completely
lacking in tensile strength unless small amounts of clay Organic clay – a clay soil that owes some of its
are present. The record of plasticity test should indicate significant properties to the presence of finely divided
not only whether a plastic thread can be formed, but organic matter.
also the toughness of the thread as it nears the
crumbling stage. This condition is describes as weak
and friable, medium or tough.
Identification of Fine-grained Soil Fractions from Manual Tests
Toughness of Time to settle in

Typical name Dry strength Dilatancy reaction
plastic thread dispersion test
Sandy silt None to very low Rapid Weak to friable 30 sec to 60 min
Silt Very low to low Rapid Weak to friable 15 to 60 min
Clayey silt Low to medium Rapid to slow Medium 15 min to several hours
Sandy clay Low to high Slow to none Medium 30 sec to several hours
Silty clay Medium to high Slow to none Medium 15 min to several hours
Clay High to very high None Tough Several hours to days
Organic silt Low to medium Slow Weak to friable 15 min to several hours
Organic clay Medium to very high None Tough Several hours to days

02 Physical Characteristics of Soils
INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS Particle-size distribution curve (Sieve analysis)
Index properties may be divided into two general types, Sieve analysis consists of shaking the soil sample
soil grain properties and soil aggregate properties. through a set of sieves that have progressively smaller
openings. These sieves are generally 200 mm in
Soil grain properties – properties of the individual diameter.
particles of which the soil is composed, without
reference to the manner in which these particles are To conduct a sieve analysis, the soil is first oven-dried
arranged in a soil deposit. and then all lumps must be broken into small particles.
The soil is then shaken through a stack of sieves with
 Size of grains openings of decreasing size from top to bottom. A pan is
 Mineralogical composition placed below the stack.
Soil aggregate properties – depend on the structure
and arrangement of the particles in the soil mass.
Sample Problem
The following example shows the calculation procedure

Size of Grains for sieve analysis.
The most important grain property of coarse-grained Cumulative
Percent
soils is the particle size distribution. This is determined Sieve Diameter
Mass mass
passing
Retained retained
by performing mechanical analysis. No. (mm)
(grams) above each
(percent
finer)
sieve
The results of a mechanical analysis are usually 4 4.76 5 5 99.37%
presented in the form of a particle-size distribution 8 2.38 45 50 93.71%
curve. The percentage P of material finer than a given 10 2.00 65 115 85.53%
size is plotted as the ordinate to a natural scale, and the 20 0.84 92 207 73.96%
corresponding particle diameter, D, in mm, is plotted as 40 0.42 152 359 54.84%
the abscissa to a logarithmic scale. 60 0.25 115 474 40.38%
80 0.180 212 686 13.71%
100 0.149 63 749 5.79%
200 0.074 32 781 1.76%
PAN 14 795 0.00%
TOTAL 795
Sieve No. 4:
Cumulative mass retained = 5 g
795 − 5
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 = × 100% = 99.37%
795
The two most commonly used by engineers are

designated as D10, the effective grain size, and Cu = Sieve No. 8
D60/D10, the uniformity coefficient.
Cumulative mass retained = 5+45 = 50 g
Effective size – diameter corresponding to P=10% on
the particle size plot. Hence, 10% of the particles are 795 − 50
finer and 90% are coarser than the effective size. 795

WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS OF SOIL Soil Parameters
AGGREGATE
Porosity, n – ratio of the volume of void to the total
The looseness or denseness of a soil sample may be volume of soil
determined quantitatively in the laboratory. Soils are
naturally complex, multiphase materials. It consists of 𝑉𝑣
𝑛=
solid particles and voids. 𝑉𝑣
Void ratio, e – ratio of the volume of void space to the

volume of solids
𝑉𝑣
𝑒=
𝑉𝑠
Water content, w – ratio of the weight of water to the

weight of solids
Phase Relationships 𝑊𝑤
𝑤= × 100%
The phase system may be expressed in SI units either 𝑊𝑠
in terms of mass-volume or weight-volume
relationships.
Degree of saturation, S – ratio of the volume of water
Phase Volume Mass Weight to the volume of void
Air Va Ma Wa
Water Vw Mw Ww 𝑉𝑤
𝑆= × 100%
Solids Vs Ms Ws 𝑉𝑣
The following relationships can be made from the phase Unit weight, 𝜸 - weight density or weight of a soil per
diagram shown: unit volume
Total weight of soil, W = Ww + Ws
𝑊
𝛾=
Volume of voids, Vv = Va + Vw 𝑉
Total volume, V = Vs + Vv
Dry unit weight – weight of a dry soil per unit volume
Basic Material Properties 𝑊𝑠

𝛾𝑑 =
𝑉
Density 𝜌=
𝑀
𝑉
Unit Weight 𝛾=
𝑊
= 𝜌𝑔 If the water content is known, the dry density of a moist
𝑉
sample can be computed as:
Specific Gravity 𝐺𝑠 =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
=
𝜌
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜌𝑤 100 𝑊 100𝛾
𝛾𝑑 = =
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝛾 (100 + 𝑤) 𝑉 100 + 𝑤
𝐺𝑠 = =
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝛾𝑤
In studies of the compaction of soils, it is sometimes

useful to compute the dry unit weight that would be
obtained if the volume of a sample were decreased by
exclusion of the air until the degree of saturation just
reached 100 per cent. This condition is designated as
zero air voids.

Dry unit weight at zero air voids, Case b: When fully saturated (S=100%)
𝑊𝑠 𝜌𝑤 (𝐺𝑠 + 𝑒)
𝛾𝑧 = 𝜌𝑡 = 𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑡 =
𝑉𝑤 + 𝑉𝑠 1+𝑒
Case c: When the soil is dry (S=0)

Unit weight of solid constituents,
𝜌𝑤 𝐺𝑠
𝑊𝑠 𝜌𝑡 = 𝜌𝑑 =
𝛾𝑠 = 1+𝑒
𝑉𝑠
Case d: When the soil is submerged, the
density of the submerged soil is equal to
Specific gravity of solid constituents, the density of saturated soil reduced by
the density of water.
𝛾𝑠
𝐺𝑠 =
𝛾𝑤 Submerged density or buoyant density
For routine computations, the value of Gs for sands may 𝜌𝑤 (𝐺𝑠 + 𝑒) 𝜌𝑤 (𝐺𝑠 − 1)
be taken as 2.65. Tests on a large number of clay soils 𝜌𝑏 = (𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝜌𝑤 ) = − 𝜌𝑤 =
1+𝑒 1+𝑒
have indicated that the value of Gs usually falls in the
range from 2.5 to 2.9 with an average value of about 𝜌𝑏 = 𝜌𝑑 (1 + 𝑤)
2.7.
Saturated unit weight – weight of a saturated soil

per unit volume Density of Soil Aggregate
Effective unit weight – weight of soil solids in a The behavior of any soil is influenced to a considerable
submerged soil per unit volume extent by its relative looseness or denseness. The
relative density of a coarse-grained material is much
more significant than the void ratio alone.
Interrelationship between parameters Relative density – state of compactness of a natural
granular soil
1. Void ratio (e) and porosity (n)
The relative density can be expressed numerically by
𝑒
𝑛= the density index, Dr, defined as
1+𝑒
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒
𝐷𝑟 =
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑛
𝑒= where:
1−𝑛
emax = void ratio of the soil in its loosest state
emin = void ratio in the densest possible state
e = void ratio under in-situ condition
2. Void ratio (e), specific gravity (Gs) and Hence Dr =1.0 for a very dense soil and 0 for a very
saturation (S) loose soil.
𝑆𝑒 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠
3. Density and other parameters
Case a: When partially saturated (S<100%)
𝑀 𝑀𝑠 (1 + 𝑤) 𝐺𝑠 𝜌𝑤 (1 + 𝑤)
𝜌𝑡 = = =
𝑉 1+𝑒 1+𝑒
𝜌𝑤 (𝐺𝑠 + 𝑆𝑒)
𝜌𝑡 =
1+𝑒

STUCTURE AND CONSISTENCY OF SOIL Description of soil based on liquidity index
AGGREGATE
Liquidity
Description
Index parameters for fine-grained soils Index
LI < 0 Semisolid state – high
Plasticity index – defines the range of water content strength, brittle (sudden)
for which the soil behaves like a plastic material fracture is expected
0 < LI < 1 Plastic state – intermediate
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 strength, soil deforms like a
plastic material
LI > 1 Liquid state – low strength,
Shrinkage Index – the range of water content from soil deforms like a viscous fluid
the plastic limit to the shrinkage limit for which the soil
behaves as a semisolid
Description of Soil based on Plasticity Index
𝑆𝐼 = 𝑃𝐿 − 𝑆𝐿
PI Description
0 Nonplastic
Liquidity index – a measure of soil strength using the 1–5 Slightly plastic
Atterberg limits; gives a qualitative measure of 5 – 10 Low plasticity
strength 10 – 20 Medium plasticity
20 – 40 High plasticity
𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿 >40 Very high plasticity
𝐿𝐼 =
𝑃𝐼
Soil strength is lowest at the liquid state and highest at Consistency of Soil
the solid state.
Consistency is the tem used to describe the degree of
Consistency Index – a measure of consistency. firmness (e.g., soft, medium, firm, or hard) of soil.
Consistency is analogous to viscosity in liquids and
indicated internal resistance to forces that tend to The consistency of a cohesive soil is greatly affected by
deform the soil. the water content of the soil. A gradual increase of the
water content may transform a dry soil from solid state
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑤 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑤 to a semisolid state, to a plastic state, and after further
𝐶𝐼 = =
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐼 moisture increase, into a liquid state. The water content
at the corresponding junction points of these states are
known as the shrinkage limit, the plastic limit, and
Soil Indices the liquid limit, respectively.
Index Definition Correlation

Strength,
Plasticity 𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 – 𝑃𝐿 compressibility, ATTERBERG LIMITS
compactibility…
𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿 Compressibility and Atterberg limits are basic measures of the critical water
Liquidity 𝐿𝐼 = contents of a fine-grained soil: its shrinkage limit,
𝑃𝐼 stress rate
Shrinkage 𝑆𝐼 = 𝑃𝐿 − 𝑆𝐿 Shrinkage potential plastic limit and liquid limit.
Activity of 𝑃𝐼 Swell potential, and
𝐴𝑐 =
clay 𝜇 so forth
where:
𝜇 = percent of soil finer than 0.002 mm (clay size)
Activity Classification
𝐴𝑐 < 0.7 Inactive clay
0.7 < 𝐴𝑐 < 1.2 Normal clay
𝐴𝑐 > 1.2 Active clay

Laboratory tests 3. Shrinkage limit – water content at which a
soil changes from a solid to a semisolid state
1. Liquid limit – water content at which a soil without further change in volume
changes from plastic state to a liquid state
𝑚1 − 𝑚2 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝑛 𝑆𝐿 = − ∙ 𝜌𝑤
𝑁 𝑚2 𝑚2
𝐿𝐿 = 𝑤𝑁 ∙ ( )
25
4. Shrinkage Ratio
Flow index
𝑚2
𝑆𝑅 =
𝑤1 − 𝑤2 𝑉2 𝜌𝑤
𝐹𝐼 =
𝑁
log ( 2 )
𝑁1 5. Specific gravity of solids
1
Casagrande Cup Method 𝐺𝑠 =
1 𝑆𝐿
−
𝑆𝑅 100
SAMPLE PROBLEMS (Determination of the

Liquid, Plastic and Shrinkage Limits)
Problem 1
A liquid limit test, conducted on a soil sample in the cup

device, gave the following results:
Number of blows 10 19 23 27 40
Water content 60.0 45.2 39.8 36.5 25.2
Fall Cone Method
Two determination for the plastic limit gave water
contents of 20.3% and 20.8%. Determine:
a. the liquid limit and plastic limit

b. the plasticity index
c. the liquidity index if the natural water content
is 27.4%
d. the void ratio at the liquid limit if Gs = 2.7.
Solution:
To get the liquid limit, you must make a semi-

logarithmic plot of water content versus number of
blows. Use the data to make your plot, then extract the
2. Plastic limit – water content at which a soil
liquid limit (water content on the liquid state line
changes from a semisolid state to a plastic
corresponding to 25 blows). Two determination of the
state
plastic limit were made, and the differences in the
2∆𝑤 results were small. So use the average value of water
𝑃𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 − content as the plastic limit.
𝑀
log 2
𝑀1

Step 1: Plot the data. Step 4: Calculate PI.
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 − 38 − 20.6 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟒%
Step 5: Calculate LI.
𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿 27.4 − 20.6
𝐿𝐼 = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗
𝑃𝐼 17.4
Step 6: Calculate the void ratio.
Assume the soil is saturated at the liquid limit. For a

saturated soil, 𝑒 = 𝑤𝐺. Thus,
Step 2: Extract the liquid limit. 𝑒𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 × 𝐺𝑠 = 0.38 × 2.7 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟑
The water content on the liquid state line corresponding

to a terminal blow of 25 gives the liquid limit.
Step 7: Estimate the shrinkage limit
𝑳𝑳 = 𝟑𝟖%
𝐿𝐿 + 45.5 38 + 45.5
𝑆𝐿 = 46.4 ( ) − 43.5 = 46.4 ( ) − 43.5
𝑃𝐼 + 46.6 17.4 + 46.4
= 17.2%
Step 3: Calculate the plastic limit.
20.3 + 20.8
𝑃𝐿 = = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟔%
2 Step 8: Estimate type of failure
Brittle failure is not expected, as the soil is in a plastic

state (0 < 𝐿𝐼 < 1).
Problem 2
Given the laboratory results of the Atterberg Limits Test in the table below. Plot the water content versus the
cone penetration in the figure.
LIQUID LIMIT
Test Number 1 2 3 4
Cone penetration, mm 16 18 28 33
Weight of wet soil + container, g 35.62 36.91 41.26 45.70
Weight of dry soil + container, g 28.84 29.89 31.42 33.69
Weight of container, g 10.52 12.33 11.74 11.45
Weight of water, g
Weight of dry soil, g
Water content, %
PLASTIC LIMIT AND NATURAL WATER CONTENT
Natural Water
Plastic Limit
Content
Test Number 1 2 1 2
Weight of water, g
Weight of dry soil, g
Water content, %
Average, %

Solution:
LIQUID LIMIT
Test Number 1 2 3 4
Cone penetration, mm 16 18 28 33
Weight of water, g 6.78 7.02 9.84 12.01
Weight of dry soil, g 18.32 17.56 19.68 22.24
Water content, % 37% 40% 50% 54%
PLASTIC LIMIT AND NATURAL WATER CONTENT
Natural Water
Plastic Limit
Content
Test Number 1 2 1 2
Weight of water, g 4.42 4.60 2.38 2.81
Weight of dry soil, g 15.24 14.85 13.65 15.78
Water content, % 29% 31% 17.40% 17.80%
Average, % 30% 17.60%
LL is the moisture content corresponding to 20 mm cone penetration. From the graph shown, 𝑳𝑳 = 𝟒𝟐%.
From the table above, the plastic limit is the average of the moisture content of the two tests. 𝑷𝑳 = 𝟑𝟎%
𝑀𝐶𝑛 − 𝑃𝐿 17.60 − 30
𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝐿𝐼 = =
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 42 − 30
𝑳𝑰 = −𝟏. 𝟎𝟑𝟑

Problem 3
The following results were recorded in a shrinkage limit test using mercury. Determine the shrinkage limit.
Mass of container 17.5 grams

Mass of wet soil and container 78.1 grams
Mass of dish 130.0 grams
Mass of soil and displaced mercury 462.0 grams
Mass of dry soil and container 62.4 grams
Solution:
Step 1: Set up a table, or use a spreadsheet to carry out the calculations.
Mc Mass of container 17.5 grams

Mwc Mass of wet soil and container 78.1 grams
Md Mass of dish 130.0 grams
Mdm Mass of soil and displaced mercury 462.0 grams
ρm Density of mercury 13.6 g/cc
Mdc Mass of dry soil and container 62.4 grams
V1 Volume of wet soil 32.4 cc
V2 Volume of oven-dried soil 22.4 cc
M1 Mass of wet soil 60.6 grams
M2 Mass of dry soil 46.9 grams
𝑚1 − 𝑚2 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝑺𝑳 = − ∙ 𝜌𝑤 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟏%
𝑚2 𝑚2
SAMPLE PROBLEMS (Soil Phase Relationships) Problem 4
Problem 1 A clay sample has a unit weight of 20.06 kN/m3 with

moisture content of 8.2%. The saturated unit weight of
A specimen of moist clay has a mass of 183.4 grams. the sample is 21.58 kN/m3. Determine the porosity of
After oven drying, the mass is reduced to 157.7 grams. the soil.
What is the moisture content of the sample?
Problem 5
Problem 2
A 480 cc soil sample taken from the site weighs 850.5
A sample of moist soil has water content of 18% and grams. After oven drying, it weighed 594.4 grams. If the
moist unit weight of 17.3 kN/m3. The specific gravity of specific gravity of solids is 2.72, determine the void
solids is 2.65. Compute the degree of saturation of the ratio of the soil.
soil.
Problem 6
Problem 3
A sample of moist sand taken from the field was found
A sample has a moisture content of 30% and a degree of to have a moisture content of 14% and a porosity of
saturation of 45%. The solids have specific gravity of 38%. In a laboratory test that simulates field
2.61. Determine the dry unit weight of the soil, in conditions, it was found that at its densest state, its
kN/m3. void ratio is 40% and at its loosest state, its void ratio is
85%. Determine the relative density of the sand.

Problem 7 Problem 13
A clay sample has unit weight of 21.1 kN/m3 at A soil sample has a moisture content of 30% and degree
moisture content of 9.8%. When completely saturated of saturation of 45%. The solids have specific gravity of
with water, its unit weight is 22.58 kN/m3. Determine 2.61. Determine the dry unit weight of the soil, in
the porosity of the soil. kN/m3.
Saturated silty clay encountered in a deep excavation is A sample of dry sand having a unit weight of 16.50
found to have a water content of 28%. Determine the kN/m3 and a specific gravity of 2.70 is placed in the
unit weight of the clay in kN/m3. Assume Gs=2.7. rain. During the rain, the volume of the sample remains
constant but the degree of saturation increases to 40%.
Determine the following:
Problem 9 a. void ratio of the sample
A hand-carved sample of soft saturated clay weighs 350 b. unit weight of the sample after being in the
grams and has a volume of 200 cc. After oven drying, it rain
weighs 240 grams. Calculate the following: c. water content of the sample after being in the
rain
a. moisture content, in percent
b. specific gravity of solids
c. porosity Problem 15
The moist unit weights and degree of saturation of a

Problem 10 soil are given in the following table:
The moist unit weight of 0.2 ft3 of a soil is 23 lb. The 𝛾 (pcf) S (%)
moisture content and the specific gravity of soil solids 105.73 50
are determined in the laboratory to be 11% and 2.7, 112.67 75
respectively. Determine the following:
a. moist unit weight of the soil Determine the following:

b. dry unit weight of the soil
c. degree of saturation of the soil, in percent a. void ratio of the soil, in percent
b. specific gravity of the soil solids
c. porosity of the soil, in percent
Problem 11
The mass of a sample of saturated soil is 520 grams. Problem 16

The dry mass, after oven drying is 405 grams.
Assuming G=2.7, calculate the effective unit weight of For a sandy soil, emax=0.86, emin=0.43 and Gs=2.66.
the soil mass, in kN/m3. What is the required void ratio at Id=56%?
In its natural state, a moist soil has a volume of 9350 cc The saturated unit weight of a soil is 19.49 kN/m3, and
and weighs 18 kg. The oven dried weight of the soil is the specific gravity of the soil solids is 2.7. Determine
15.54 kg. Use Gs=2.67. Calculate the following: the following:
a. moisture content a. void ratio of the soil

b. void ratio b. dry unit weight of the soil
c. degree of saturation c. effective unit weight of the soil

SAMPLE PROBLEMS (Atterberg Limits) a. Calculate the liquid limit.
b. Calculate the plastic limit.
Problem 1 c. Determine the state of soil.
The following results were obtained from a liquid limit
test on a clay using the Casagrande cup device. The
natural water content of this clay is 38% and the plastic Problem 3
limit is 21%.
In a liquid limit test, using cone penetrometer, the
Number 6 12 20 28 32 following readings were recorded:
of blows
Water 52.5 47.1 42.3 38.6 37.5 Moisture content Cone penetration
content (%) (mm)
(%) 32.1 14.4
41.6 16.4
51.8 18.2
Determine the following: 64.2 21.1
72.6 22.3
a. liquid limit
b. plasticity index Plastic Limit test
c. liquidity index Weight of wet soil + container = 22.12 g
d. flow index Weight of dry soil + container = 21.42 g
Weight of container = 13.07 g
Problem 2 Natural Water Content test

Weight of wet soil + container = 17.53 g
The following data shows the result of the Liquid Limit Weight of dry soil + container = 14.84 g
and Plastic Limit tests. Weight of container = 7.84 g
Liquid Limit Compute the following:
Test No. 1 2 3 4
No. of 35 21 16 11 a. Liquid limit
blows b. Plastic limit
Weight of 22.46g 21.33g 21.29g 26.12g c. Natural water content
wet soil + d. Plasticity index
container e. Liquidity index
Weight of 19.44g 18.75g 18.78g 22.10g f. Consistency index
dry soil +
container
Weight of 12.76g 13.05g 13.21g 13.52g
container Problem 4
Plastic Limit A saturated soil has the following characteristics:

Test No. 1 2
Initial volume = 25 cm3
Weight of wet 22.10g 21.77g
soil + container Final volume = 16 cm3
Weight of dry 20.42g 20.19g Mass of wet soil = 45 g
soil + container Mass of dry soil = 31 g
Weight of 13.07g 13.18g
container
Determine the following:
Water content a. Shrinkage limit of the soil
Test No. 1 2 b. Shrinkage ratio
Weight of wet 22.10g 21.77g c. Specific gravity of soil solids
soil + container
Weight of dry 20.42g 20.19g
soil + container
Weight of 13.07g 13.18g
container

SOIL CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES position), performance (e.g., production
capability, flooding), and accompanying
Textural classification of soil is simple as it is based vegetation.
only on particle-size distribution. For engineering
purposes, it is often important to also consider
parameter that indicate soil strength. Two important
properties used for engineering-related problems are USDA Textural Classification
plastic limit and liquid limit. One of the most widely used soil classification system,
Liquid limit – moisture content at which soil begins to the USDA textural classification, is based solely on
behave as a liquid material and begins to flow grain size distribution. Because of its relative simplicity
compared with the other systems, the USDA method is
Plastic limit – moisture content at which soil begins to widely used around the world.
behave as a plastic material
In this classification, the soils are named after their
A classification scheme provides a method of identifying principal components, such as sandy clay, silty clay,
soils in a particular group that would likely exhibit silty loam and so on. This method is based on the
similar characteristics. Soil classification is used to following limits of a particle size:
specify a certain soil type that is best suited for a given
application. Also, it can be used to establish a soil  Sand – 2.0 to 0.05 mm in diameter
profile along a desired cross section of a soil mass.  Silt – 0.05 to 0.002 mm in diameter
 Clay – smaller than 0.002 mm in diameter
Soil classification systems can be divided into two main
groups, one for engineering purposes and another for This is further refines for a total of 12 classes. The
soil science. For engineering purposes, the following are classes are often displayed on what is known as the
the most used classification systems: USDA triangle.
 USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture)

Textural Classification
a. based on particle size distribution
b. commonly used because of its
simplicity
 USCS (Unified Soil Classification System)

a. based on particle size distribution,
liquid limit, soil plasticity and organic
matter concentrations
b. widely used by geotechnical engineers
 AASHTO (American Association of State

Highways and Transportation Officials) Soil
Classification System
a. based on particle size distribution and
soil plasticity
b. used mostly by state and country
highway departments
For soil science purposes, a variety of classification

systems have been created for diverse uses. Most of
them follow one of the following approaches: Sample Problem (USDA)
1. Natural system – based on soil morphology, A soil has the following particle-size distribution:
behavior or genesis
2. Technical system – relies on the most current  Gravel = 20%
practices and an understanding of the intended  Sand = 10%
use of soil or the present land-use regulations  Silt = 30%
3. Numerical system – based on statistical  Clay = 40%
analysis
Classify the soil according to USDA textural
4. Vernacular system – based on names that
classification system.
describe characteristics, such as physical
appearance (e.g., color, texture, landscape

Solution: The USCS uses symbols for the particle size groups.
These symbols and their representations are:
Modified percentages of sand, silt and clay:
 G – gravel
%𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 10
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 % 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 = = = 12.5%  S – sand
100 − %𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 100 − 20  M – silt
%𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑡 30  C – clay
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 % 𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑡 = = = 37.5%
100 − %𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 100 − 20
These symbols are combined with other symbols
%𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 40 expressing gradation characteristics:
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 % 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 = = = 50.0%
100 − %𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 100 − 20
 W – well graded
 P – poorly graded
and plasticity characteristics:
 H – high plasticity
 L – low plasticity
 O – presence of organic material
A typical classification of CL means a clay soil with low

plasticity, while SP means a poorly graded sand.
For proper classification according to this system, some

or all of the following information must be known:
1. Percent of gravel – that is, the fraction passing

the 76.2-mm sieve and retained on the No. 4
sieve (4.75-mm opening)
2. Percent of sand – that is, the fraction passing
the No. 4 sieve (4.75-mm opening) and retained
on the No. 200 sieve (0.075-mm opening)
3. Percent of silt and clay – that is, the fraction
USCS (Unified Soil Classification System)
finer than the No. 200 sieve (0.075-mm
It was originally developed by Casagrande (1948) for opening)
use in the airfield construction works. Unlike USDA 4. Uniformity coefficient (Cu) and the coefficient
and AASHTO systems, USCS incorporates organic soils of gradation (Cc)
as well as gravels. 5. Liquid limit and plasticity index of the portion
of soil passing the No. 40 sieve.
This system classifies soils into two broad categories:
The group symbols for coarse-grained gravelly soils are
1. Coarse-grained soils that are gravelly and GW, GP, GC, GC-GM, GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GM, and
sandy in nature with less than 50% passing GP-GC. Similarly, the group symbols for fine-grained
through the No. 200 sieve. The group start soils are CL, ML, OL, CH, MH, OH, CL-ML, and Pt.
with a prefix of G or S. G stands for gravel or
gravelly soil, and S for sand or sandy soil.
2. Fined-grained soils with 50% or more passing

through the No. 200 sieve. The group symbol
starts with prefixes of M, which stands for
inorganic silt, C for inorganic clay, or O for
organic silts and clays. The symbol Pt is used
for peat, much or other highly organic soils.

USCS flowchart for coarse-grained soils
USCS flowchart for fine-grained soils

Flowchart for classifying coarse-grained soils more than 50% retained on No. 200 sieve.
Flowchart for classifying inorganic fine-grained soils (50% or more fines)

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
Plasticity Chart

Particle-Size Distribution Curve (Sieve Analysis) Uniformity Coefficient, Cu
Sieve analysis consists of shaking the soil sample 𝐷60

through a set of sieves that have progressively smaller 𝐶𝑢 =
𝐷10
openings. These sieves are generally 200 mm in
diameter.
where D60 = diameter corresponding to 60% finer
To conduct a sieve analysis, the soil is first oven-dried
and then all lumps must be broken into small particles. 0.51
In sample problem 1, Cu = =3
The soil is then shaken through a stack of sieves with 0.17
openings of decreasing size from top to bottom. A pan is

placed below the stack.
Coefficient of Gradation or Coefficient of
Curvature, Cc
Sample Problem 1
(𝐷30 )2
𝐶𝑐 =
The following example shows the calculation procedure 𝐷60 × 𝐷10
for sieve analysis.
Percen where D30 = diameter corresponding to 30% finer

Cumulati
t
Mass ve mass 0.212
Siev Diamet passin In sample problem 1, 𝐶𝑐 = = 0.509
Retaine retained
e er g (0.51)(0.17)
d above
No. (mm) (perce
(grams) each
nt
sieve
finer) Sorting Coefficient, So
4 4.76 5 5 99.37%
8 2.38 45 50 93.71%
𝐷75
10 2.00 65 115 85.53% 𝑆𝑜 = √
𝐷25
20 0.84 92 207 73.96%
40 0.42 152 359 54.84%
60 0.25 115 474 40.38%
80 0.180 212 686 13.71% where: D75 = diameter corresponding to 75% finer
100 0.149 63 749 5.79% D25 = diameter corresponding to 25% finer
200 0.074 32 781 1.76%
PAN 14 795 0.00%
TOTAL 795
Particle distribution curve for the sample problem
Sieve No. 4:
Cumulative mass retained = 5 g
795 − 5
795
Sieve No. 8
Cumulative mass retained = 5+45 = 50 g
795 − 50
795
Effective Size, D10 – diameter in the curve

corresponding to 10% finer. The effective size of a The particle-size distribution curve shows not only the
granular soil is a good measure to estimate the range of particle sizes present in the soil, but also the
hydraulic conductivity and drainage through soil. type of distribution of various-size particles.
In sample problem 1, D10 = 0.17 mm

Poorly graded soils – most of the soil grains are the
same size
Well graded soils – particle size are distributed over a

wide range
Gap graded soils – characterized by two or more

humps in the grading curve
The average grain size of the soil is D50.
Solution:
Diameter Percent
Sieve No.
(mm) Passing (%)
4 4.76 90
8 2.38 64
10 2.00 58
20 0.84 35
40 0.42 22
60 0.25 15
100 0.149 10
200 0.074 4
Sample Problem (USCS)

a.) Effective size
The table below shows the laboratory results of the The effective size, D10, is the diameter of the
sieve analysis of a sample. Plot the grain size curve of particles of which 10% of the soil is finer. D10 is
the soil. Determine the following: an important value in regulating flow through
soils and can significantly influence the
a. Determine the nearest value to the effective
mechanical behavior of soils.
size.
b. Determine the nearest value to the coefficient 𝐷10 = 0.149 𝑚𝑚
of uniformity.
c. Classify the soil according to the Unified Soil The average grain size of the soil is D50.
Classification System.
Diameter Percent
Sieve No. b.) Coefficient of uniformity
(mm) Passing (%)
4 4.76 90
8 2.38 64
10 2.00 58
20 0.84 35
40 0.42 22
60 0.25 15
100 0.149 10
200 0.074 4

From the grain size curve shown, D60 = 2.2 the portion of the soil sample from which
mm. classification is made. However, the percentage
of such material is recorded.
𝐷60 2.2
𝐶𝑢 = = = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟖
𝐷10 0.149
Group Index
A group index (GI) value is appended in parentheses to

c.) USCS Classification
the main group to provide a measure of quality of a soil
as highway subgrade material. The group index is given
Percent gravel (retained in #4 sieve) = 100% –
as:
90% = 10%
From the graph, D30 = 0.63 mm. 𝐺𝐼 = (𝐹200 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(𝐿𝐿 − 40)] + 0.01(𝐹200
− 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)
(𝐷30 )2 0.632
𝐶𝑐 = = = 1.21
𝐷10 𝐷60 0.149(2.2)
where: F200 is percent passing No. 200 sieve. The GI is
Since Cu > 6, Cc is between 1 and 3, the soil is reported to the nearest whole number (e.g., 2.4 reported
SW (well graded sand). as 2; 2.5 reported as 3) and if GI<0, it is set to 0.
 If the equation yields a negative value for GI, it

is taken as 0.
AASHTO Soil Classification System  GI calculated form the equation is rounded off
to the nearest whole number.
The AASHTO system is used mostly by state and
 There is no upper limit for GI.
country highway departments. The AASHTO soil
 The GI of soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-
classification system is used to determine the
b, A-2-4, A-2-5 and A-3 is always zero.
suitability of soils for earthworks, embankments and
 When calculating the GI for soils that belong to
road bed materials.
groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use the partial GI for
The AASHTO system classifies soils into seven major PI, or
groups, A-1 through A-7. Soils classified under
categories A-1, A-2 and A-3 are granular materials of 𝐺𝐼 = 0.01(𝐹 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)
which 35% or less of the particles pass through the No.
200 sieve. Soils of which more than 35% of the particles
pass through the No. 200 sieve are classified using
categories A-4, A-5, A-6 and A-7. These soils are mostly
silt and clay-type materials. This classification system
is based on the following criteria:
1. Grain size
a. Gravel: fraction passing the 75-mm
sieve and retained on the No. 10 (2-
mm) U.S. sieve
b. Sand: fraction passing the No. 10 (2-
mm) U.S. sieve and retained on the
No. 200 (0.075-mm) U.S. sieve
2. Plasticity: The term silty is applied when the

fine fractions of the soil have a plasticity index
of 10 or less. The term clayey is applied when
the fine fractions have a plasticity index of 11
or more.
3. If cobbles and boulders (size larger than 75

mm) are encountered, they are excluded from

AASHTO Soil Classification System
*For A-7-5, PI ≤ LL – 30
*For A-7-6, PI > LL – 30
Liquid Limit and Plasticity Index Ranges for Silt-Clay Materials
For soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3, GI = 0. Also, when calculating GI for soils that belong to
groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use only term 2 in equation.

Comparison of USCS and AASHTO system
Comparison of AASHTO system with USCS (Das, 2009)
Comparison of USCS with the AASHTO system (Das, 2009)
Comparison of particle size scales (Soil Survey Division Staff 1993)

Sample Problem (AASHTO) Soil C
Classify the following soils by the AASHTO  Percent passing No. 200 = 6%<35%, it is A-1,
classification system. A-3 or A-2
 Percent passing No. 200=6%<50
Description Soil A Soil B Soil C  Percent passing No. 40=28%<30
Percent finer  Percent passing No. 10=48<50
then No. 10 83 100 48
 Thus the soil is A-1-a and GI=0.
sieve
Percent finer Thus, the soil is A-1-a(0).
than No. 40 48 92 28
sieve
Percent finer
than No. 200 20 86 6 Sample Problem (USCS, USDA, AASHTO)
sieve
Liquid limit 20 70 _____ The table below shows the laboratory results of the
Plasticity sieve analysis of a sample. Plot the grain size curve of
5 32 Nonplastic the soil. The soil has a liquid limit of 35% and a
index
plasticity index of 26%. Classify the soil according to:
Solution: a. USCS
b. USDA
To classify a soil, one must apply the test data from left c. AASHTO
to right. By process of elimination, the first group from
the left into which the test data fit is the correct Weight
Size (mm)
classification. Retained
0.25 18.96
Soil A 0.149 33.18
0.074 45.03
 Percent passing No. 200 = 20%<35%, the soil is 0.052 54.51
either A-1, A-3 or A-2. 0.02 42.66
 Percent passing No. 10 = 83%>50, it is not A-1- 0.01 11.85
a 0.004 4.74
 Percent passing No. 40 = 48<50 0.001 4.74
 Percent passing No. 200 = 20<25 Pan 21.33
Thus, the soil is A-1-b, with GI=0.

Solution:
Thus the soil is A-1-b (0).
Size Weight Accumulated Percent
(mm) Retained Weight Finer
0.25 18.96 18.96 92%
Soil B
0.149 33.18 52.14 78%
 Percent passing No. 200 = 85%>35%, the soil is 0.074 45.03 97.17 59%
either A-4, A-5, A-6 or A-7. 0.052 54.51 151.68 36%
 LL=70>40, it is not A-4 0.02 42.66 194.34 18%
 PI=30>10, it is not A-5 0.01 11.85 206.19 13%
 LL=70>40, it is not A-6 0.004 4.74 210.93 11%
0.001 4.74 215.67 9%
 LL – 30 = 40
Pan 21.33 237
 PI < LL – 30, the soil is A-7-5
Total 237.0
GI = (86 – 35) [0.2+0.005(70 – 40)] + 0.01(86 – 15)(32 –
10)
GI = 33.47, use 33
Therefore, the soil is A-7-5(33).

a.) USCS
Percent passing no. 200 sieve (0.074 mm) = 59% > 50%
Therefore the soil is FINE GRAINED.
LL = 35% < 50% (ML, CL or OL)
From the plasticity chart, with LL=35% and PI=26%,

the soil is CL.
From the chart shown, the soil is sandy loam.
c.) AASHTO
b.) USDA
Percent passing no. 200 sieve = 59% > 35%
Percent sand (2.0 mm to 0.05 mm in diameter) = 100 –
33 = 67%
Percent silt (0.05 mm to 0.002 mm) = 33 – 10 = 23%
Percent clay = 10%
The soil cannot be A-4 because its PI=26%>10%.
The soil cannot be A-5 because its LL=35%>41%.
The soil is A-6.

Solving for GI:
GI = (F200 – 35) [0.2+0.005(LL – 40)] + 0.01 (F200 – 15)

(PI – 10)
GI = (59 – 35) [0.2+0.005(35 – 40)] + 0.01(59 – 15) (26 –

10)
GI = 11.24
Thus, the soil is A-6(11).

ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER 𝑢
THROUGH SOILS ℎ= +𝑍
𝛾𝑤
The study of the flow of water through permeable soil
media is important in soil mechanics for estimating the
Open standpipes called piezometers are installed at
quantity of underground seepage under various
points A and B. The levels to which water rises in the
hydraulic conditions, for investigating problems
piezometer tubes situated at points A and B are known
involving the pumping of water for underground
as piezometric levels of points A and B, respectively. The
construction, and for making stability analyses of earth
pressure head at a point is the height of the vertical
dams and earth-retaining structures that are subjected
column of water in the piezometer installed at that
to seepage forces.
point.
Groundwater – water under gravity that fills the soil
The loss of head, ∆ℎ, can be expressed in a
pores
nondimensional form as:
Head (H) – mechanical energy per unit weight
∆ℎ
Hydraulic conductivity (coefficient of permeability, 𝑖=
𝐿
k) – proportionality constant used to determine the flow
velocity of water through soils
where:
Pore water pressure (u) – pressure of water within
the soil pores 𝑖 = ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐿 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
Bernoulli’s Equation
𝑢 𝑣2 The variation of the velocity 𝑣 with the hydraulic

ℎ= + +𝑍
𝛾𝑤 2𝑔 gradient 𝑖 is shown in the figure. It is divided into three
zones:
1. Laminar flow zone (Zone I)

2. Transition zone (Zone II)
3. Turbulent flow zone (Zone III)
The elevation head Z is the vertical distance of a given
point above or below a datum plane. The pressure head
is the water pressure, 𝑢, at that point divided by the
unit weight of water, 𝛾𝑤 .
In most soils, the flow of water through void spaces can

be considered laminar. Thus,
𝒗∝𝒊
If Bernoulli’s equation is applied to the flow of water In fractured rock, stones, gravels, and very coarse
through a porous soil medium, the term containing the sands, turbulent flow conditions may exist, and this
velocity head can be neglected because the seepage relationship may not be valid.
velocity is small, and the total head at any point can be
adequately represented by:

Darcy’s Law Typical values of hydraulic conductivity of saturated
soils:
In 1856, Darcy published a simple equation for the
discharge velocity of water through saturated soils, k
Soil type
which may be expressed as: 𝒄𝒎/𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒇𝒕/𝒎𝒊𝒏
Clean gravel 100 – 1.0 200 – 2.0
𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖 Coarse sand 1.0 – 0.01 2.0 – 0.02
Fine sand 0.01 – 0.001 0.02 – 0.002
Silty clay 0.001 – 0.0001 0.002 – 0.0002
where: Clay <0.000001 <0.000002
𝑣 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, which is the quantity of water
flowing in unit time through a unit gross cross-sectional The hydraulic conductivity of a soil is also related to the
area of soil at right angles to the direction of flow properties of the fluid flowing through it by the
equation:
𝑘 = ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, otherwise known as the
coefficient of permeability 𝛾𝑤
𝑘= 𝐾
This equation was based primarily on Darcy’s 𝜂
observations about the flow of water through clean
sands. The equation is valid for laminar flow conditions
and applicable for a wide range of soils. where:
𝜂 = 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑣
𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣𝑠 =
𝑛 𝐾 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
where:
ℎ
𝑖= = ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐿
𝑚
𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑜𝑟 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑠
𝑛 = 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
The flow of water is:
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
Hydraulic Conductivity
Hydraulic conductivity of soils depends on several

factors:
 fluid viscosity
 pore-size distribution
 void ratio
 roughness of mineral particles
 degree of soil saturation

DETERMINATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF Falling-Head Test
PERMEABILITY
Water from a standpipe flows through the soil. The
Constant-Head Test initial head difference ℎ1 at time 𝑡 = 0 is recorded, and
water is allowed to flow through the soil specimen such
In this type of laboratory setup, the water supply at the that the final head difference at time 𝑡 = 𝑡2 is ℎ2 .
inlet is adjusted in such a way that the difference of
head between the inlet and the outlet remains constant
during the test period. After a constant flow rate is
established, water is collected in a graduated flask for a
known duration.
𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
𝑘= ln ( )
𝐴(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) ℎ2
The total volume of water collected may be expressed
as:
where:
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣𝑡 = 𝐴(𝑘𝑖)𝑡
𝑎 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
ℎ1 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡1
where:
ℎ2 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡2
𝑄 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛
𝑡 = 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
ℎ
𝑄 = 𝐴 (𝑘 × ) 𝑡
𝐿
𝑄𝐿
𝑘=
𝐴ℎ𝑡

SAMPLE PROBLEMS (Coefficient of
Permeability)
Problem 1
A constant-head permeability test gives these values:
 L = 30 cm
 A = area of the specimen = 177 cm2
 Constant-head difference, h = 50 cm
 Water collected in a period of 5 min = 350 cm3
Answer: 𝑘 = 3.95 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Problem 2
For a falling-head permeability test, the following

values are given:
 Length of specimen = 8 in Answer: 𝑞 = 0.0789 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟/𝑚

 Area of soil specimen = 1.6 in2
 Area of standpipe = 0.06 in2
 Head difference at time 𝑡 = 0 = 20 𝑖𝑛 Problem 5
 Head difference at time 𝑡 = 180 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 12 𝑖𝑛
Find the flow rate in m3/sec/m length (at right angles to
Answer: 𝑘 = 8.52 × 10−4 𝑖𝑛/𝑠𝑒𝑐 the cross-section shown) through the permeable soil
layer shown in the figure given H=8m, H1=3m, h=4m,
L=50m, 𝛼 = 8°, and k=0.08cm/sec.
Problem 3
The hydraulic conductivity of a clayey soil is 3 ×

10−7 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐. The viscosity of water at 25℃ is 0.0911 ×
10−4 𝑔 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑐𝑚2 . Calculate the absolute permeability 𝐾
̅
of the soil.
Answer: 𝐾
̅ = 0.2733 × 10−11 𝑐𝑚2
Problem 4
A permeable soil later is underlain by an impervious

layer. With 𝑘 = 5.3 × 10−5 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 for the permeable later, Answer: 𝑞 = 0.19 × 10−3 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑚
calculate the rate of seepage through it in 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟/𝑚
width if 𝐻 = 3 and ∝= 8°.

Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified SAMPLE PROBLEMS (Equivalent coefficient of
Soil permeability)
For horizontal flow in stratified soil: Problem 1
A layered soil is shown in the figure. Given:
 𝐻1 = 2𝑚 𝑘1 = 10−4 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
 𝐻2 = 3𝑚 𝑘1 = 3.2 × 10−2 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
 𝐻3 = 4𝑚 𝑘1 = 4.1 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
Estimate the ratio of equivalent hydraulic conductivity,

𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞)
1 .
𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) = (𝑘𝐻1 𝐻1 + 𝑘𝐻2 𝐻2 + 𝑘𝐻3 𝐻3 … + 𝑘𝐻𝑛 𝐻𝑛 ) 𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞)
𝐻
Answer: 139.96
Problem 2
For vertical flow in stratified soil:
The figure shows three layers of soil in a tube that is
100𝑚𝑚 × 100𝑚𝑚 in cross section. Water is supplied to
maintain a constant-head difference of 300 mm across
the sample. The hydraulic conductivities in the
direction of flow through them are as follows:
Soil k (cm/sec)
A 10−2
B 3 × 10−3
C 4.9 × 10−4
𝐻
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) =
𝐻1 𝐻2 𝐻 𝐻
( ) + ( ) +( 3) + ⋯+( 𝑛)
𝑘𝑉1 𝑘𝑉2 𝑘𝑉3 𝑘𝑉𝑛
Find the rate of water supply, in 𝑐𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟.
Answer: 0.0809 cm3/sec or 291.24 cm3/hr

Problem 3 a. Total Flow
Given the stratified soil shown in the figure. The Solving for 𝑞1 : [𝑞1 = 𝑘1𝑒𝑞 𝑖 𝑎1 ]
properties of each soil are as follows:
3.9
𝑘1𝑒𝑞 = = 0.04681 𝑚/ℎ𝑟
Coefficient of permeability: 0.80 0.70 1.5 0.9
+ + +
6.25 5.75 4.5 3.6
 k1 = 6.25 cm/hr; k2 = 5.75 cm/hr; k3 = 4.50
cm/hr; k4 = 6.25 cm/hr; k5 = 8.15 cm/hr; k6 = 𝑎 = 0.3 × 1 = 0.3 𝑚2
3.60 cm/hr 𝑞1 = 0.04681(0.4615)(0.3) = 0.00648 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟
Thickness
 H = 1.20 m; H3 = 0.30 m; H4 = 0.50 m; H5 = Solving for 𝑞2 : [𝑞2 = 𝑘2𝑒𝑞 𝑖 𝑎2 ]

0.40 m
3.9
Length 𝑘2𝑒𝑞 =
0.80 0.70 1.5 0.9
= 0.05272 𝑚/ℎ𝑟
+ + +
6.25 5.75 6.25 3.6
 L1 = 0.8 m; L2 = 0.7 m; L3 = 1.5 m; L6 = 0.9 m
𝑎 = 0.5 × 1 = 0.5 𝑚2
𝑞1 = 0.05272(0.4615)(0.5) = 0.01217 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟
Solving for 𝑞3 : [𝑞3 = 𝑘3𝑒𝑞 𝑖 𝑎3 ]
3.9
𝑘3𝑒𝑞 = = 0.05704 𝑚/ℎ𝑟
0.80 0.70 1.5 0.9
+ + +
6.25 5.75 8.15 3.6
𝑎 = 0.4 × 1 = 0.4 𝑚2
𝑞1 = 0.05704(0.4615)(0.4) = 0.010529 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟
a. Determine the total flow per meter.

b. Determine the equivalent coefficient of
Total flow: 𝑞 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3
permeability.
𝒒 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟗𝟏𝟕𝟗 𝒎𝟑 /𝒉𝒓
Solution:
b. Equivalent coefficient of permeability for

all layers:
𝑞 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑖 𝑎
0.029179 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞 (0.4615)(1.2 × 1)
𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 0.05269 𝑚/ℎ𝑟
𝒌𝒆𝒒 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟔𝟗 𝒄𝒎/𝒉𝒓
𝐻0 = 0.8 + 0.7 + 1.5 + 0.9
𝐿 = 0.8 + 0.7 + 1.5 + 0.9 = 3.9 𝑚 Problem 4

ℎ 1.8
𝑖= = = 0.4615 A canal is cut into a soil with a stratigraphy shown in
𝐿 3.9 the figure. Assume flow takes place laterally and
𝐻0 vertically through the sides of the canal and vertically
𝑘𝑒𝑞 = below the canal. The values of 𝑘 = 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘𝑧 in each layer
𝐻
∑( )
𝑘 are given.
a. What is the equivalent permeability in the

horizontal direction through the sides of the
canal, in cm/day?

b. What is the equivalent permeability in the Problem 5
vertical directions through the sides of the
canal, in cm/day? A confined aquifer underlies an unconfined aquifer as
c. Determine the equivalent permeability in the shown in the figure. Given the following: D1 = 59 m, D2
vertical directions below the bottom of the = 41 m, H1 = 45 m, H2 = 33 m, k1 = 35 m/day, k2 = 27
canal, in cm/day. m/day, L = 2 km.
a. Calculate the equivalent coefficient of

permeability in horizontal direction.
b. Calculate the hydraulic gradient.
c. Calculate the flow of water from one stream to
another per meter width.
Solution:
a.) Equivalent permeability in horizontal direction Solution:

through sides of the canal (H0 = 3 m)
a.) 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝐻 = ∑ 𝑘ℎ
1 𝑘𝑒𝑞 (33 + 45) = 33(45) + 27(33)
𝑘𝑥(𝑒𝑞) = [1(2.3 × 10−5 ) + 1.5(5.2 × 10−6 )
3 𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 31.615 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
+ 0.5(2 × 10−6 )]
ℎ 18
𝑘𝑥(𝑒𝑞) = 10.6 × 10−6 𝑐𝑚/𝑠 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟒 𝒄𝒎/𝒅𝒂𝒚 b.) 𝑖 = = = 0.009
𝐿 2000
c.) 𝑄 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑖𝐴
b.) Equivalent permeability in horizontal direction 59 + 41
𝐴 = ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 × 1 = (1) = 50 𝑚2
through sides of the canal (H0 = 3 m) 2
𝑄 = 31.615(0.009)(50) = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟐𝟐𝟕 𝒎𝟑 /𝒅𝒂𝒚
3
𝑘𝑧(𝑒𝑞) =
1 1.5 0.5
+ +
2.3 × 10−5 5.2 × 10−6 2 × 10−6
10−6 𝑐𝑚
𝑘𝑧(𝑒𝑞) = 5.16 × = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟓𝟖𝟐𝟒 𝒄𝒎/𝒅𝒂𝒚
𝑠
c.) Equivalent permeability in vertical direction

though the bottom of the canal
𝐻𝑜 = 1.5 + 1.2 + 3 = 5.7 𝑚
5.7
𝑘𝑧(𝑒𝑞) =
1.5 1.2 3
+ +
2 × 10−6 0.3 × 10−4 0.8 × 10−3
𝑘𝑧(𝑒𝑞) = 7.18 × 10−6 𝑐𝑚/𝑠 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟓𝟐 𝒄𝒎/𝒅𝒂𝒚

SOILS INVESTIGATIONS contingencies. The first component is generally more
extensive and is conducted in phases. These phases are
A soils investigation is an essential part of the design as follows:
and construction of a proposed structural system
(buildings, dams, roads and highways, etc.) Soils are
identified, observed, and recovered during a soils
investigation of a proposed site. Usually soils Phase I. This phase is sometimes called “desk study.”
investigations are conducted only on a fraction of It involves collection of available information such as
a proposed site because it would be prohibitively a site plan; type, size, and importance of the structure;
expensive to conduct an extensive investigation of a loading conditions; previous geotechnical reports;
whole site. maps, including topographic maps, aerial photographs,
still photographs, satellite imagery, and geologic
maps; and newspaper clippings.
Phase II. Preliminary reconnaissance or a site visit to

provide a general picture of the topography
and geology of the site. It is necessary that you take
with you on the site visit all the information
gathered in Phase I to compare with the current
Soil profile at a construction site (McCammon and conditions of the site. Your site visit notes should
Golder, 1970) include the following:
 Photographs of the site and its neighborhood.

 Access to the site for workers and equipment.
Purposes of a soils investigation  Sketches of all fences, utility posts, driveways,
walkways, drainage systems, and so on.
A soils investigation program is necessary to provide
 Utility services that are available, such as
information for design and construction, environmental
water and electricity.
assessment, and project due diligence (due diligence is
 Sketches of topography including all existing
the process of evaluating a prospective project to
structures, cuts, fills, ground depression,
facilitate business decisions by the owner). The
purposes of a soils investigation are: ponds,
and so on.
1. To evaluate the general suitability of the site  The state of any existing building at the site or
for the proposed project. nearby. Your notes should include exterior and
2. To enable an adequate and economical design interior cracks, any noticeable tilt, type of
to be made. construction (e.g., brick or framed stucco
3. To disclose and make provision for difficulties building), evidence of frost damage, molds, and
that may arise during construction due to any exceptional features.
ground and other local conditions.  Geological features from any exposed area such
as a road cut.
 Occasionally, a few boreholes may be dug to
explore the site.
Phases of a soils investigation
The scope of a soils investigation depends on the type,

size, and importance of the structure; the client; Phase III. Detailed soils exploration. The objectives of
the engineer’s familiarity with the soils at the site; and a detailed soils exploration are:
local building codes. Structures that are sensitive
to settlement such as machine foundations and high-  To determine the geological structure, which
use buildings usually require a more thorough soils should include the thickness, sequence, and
investigation than a foundation for a house. extent
of the soil strata.
A soils investigation has three components. The first  To determine the groundwater conditions.
component is done prior to design. The second  To obtain disturbed and undisturbed samples
component is done during the design process. The third for laboratory tests.
component is done during construction.  To conduct in situ tests.
The second and third components are needed for

Phase IV. Laboratory testing. The objectives of hydrological and environmental conditions. Popular
laboratory tests are: methods are:
 To classify the soils. 1. Ground-penetrating radar. GPR, also called

 To determine soil strength, failure stresses and georadar, is a high-resolution, high-frequency
strains, stress–strain response, permeability, (10 MHz to 1000 MHz) electromagnetic wave
compactibility, and settlement parameters. Not technique for imaging soils and ground
all of these may be required for a project. structures. An antenna is used to transmit and
recover radar pulses generated by a pulse
generator. The returned pulse is then
processed to produce images of the soil prof le.
Phase V. Write a report. The report must contain a
The key geotechnical uses are soil prof le
clear description of the soils at the site, methods
imaging and location of buried objects. GPR
of exploration, soil stratigraphy, in situ and laboratory
produces continuous-resolution images of the
test methods and results, and the location
soil prof le with very little soil disturbance.
of the groundwater. You should include information on
GPR is not suitable for highly conductive (.15
and/or explanations of any unusual soil,
milliohms/m) wet clays and silts. GPR
water-bearing stratum, and any soil and groundwater
resolution decreases with depth.
conditions such as frost susceptibility or
waterlogged areas that may be troublesome during
2. Seismic surveys. Seismic investigations utilize
construction.
the fact that surface waves travel with
different velocities through different materials.
The subsurface interfaces are determined by
Soils Exploration Program recording the magnitude and travel time of the
seismic waves, essentially compression waves
A soils exploration program usually involves test pits
(P waves), at a point some distance from the
and/or soil borings (boreholes). During the site
source of the wave. The velocity of propagation
visit (Phase II), you should work out most of the soils
is the most important parameter in the
exploration program. A detailed soils exploration
application of seismic methods. The densities
consists of:
and elastic properties of the geological
1. Determining the need for and extent of materials control the velocity of propagation.
geophysical exploration. When a seismic wave encounters a boundary
2. Preliminary location of each borehole and/or between two elastic media, the wave energy is
test pit. transmitted by reflection, refraction, and
3. Numbering of the boreholes or test pits. diffraction. Seismic reflection and refraction
4. Planned depth of each borehole or test pit. are used in geotechnical site characterization.
5. Methods and procedures for advancing the
boreholes. 3. Electrical resistivity. Electrical resistivity
6. Sampling instructions for at least the f rst measurements can be used for identification
borehole. The sampling instructions must and quantification of depth of groundwater,
include the detection of clays, and measurement of
number of samples and possible locations. groundwater conductivity. Soil resistivity,
Changes in the sampling instructions often measured in ohm-centimeters (ohm-cm), varies
occur after with moisture content and temperature
the first borehole. changes. In general, an increase in soil
7. Determining the need for and types of in situ moisture results in a reduction in soil
tests. resistivity. The pore fluid provides the only
8. Requirements for groundwater observations. electrical path in sands, while both the pore
fluid and the surface charged particles provide
electrical paths in clays. Resistivities of wet
fine-grained soils are generally much lower
Soil Exploration Methods
than those of wet coarse-grained soils. The
The soils at a site can be explored using one or more of difference in resistivity between a soil in a dry
the following methods: and in a saturated condition may be several
orders of magnitude.
Geophysical methods – nondestructive techniques used
to provide spatial information on soils, rocks and

4. Other geophysical methods of geotechnical Shape: Angular, sub angular, sub rounded, rounded,
engineering interests flaky.
a. Gamma density, or gamma-gamma,
measures electron density and can be Weathering: Fresh, decomposed, weathered.
used to estimate Carbonate: Effervesces with acid. Add a small amount
the total soil density or porosity. of hydrochloric acid and check if soil effervesces. If it
b. Neutron porosity measures hydrogen does, it contains carbonate.
density. It is used for porosity
estimation below the Smell: Organic soils give off a strong odor that
groundwater level. intensifies with heat. Nonorganic soils have a subtle
c. Sonic-VDL measures the seismic odor with the addition of water.
velocity. It is useful to measure soil
stiffnesses and to Feel: Use feel to distinguish between sand, silts, and
detect bedrock elevation. clays.
d. Microgravity is used to detect changes
 Sand has a gritty feel.
in subsurface densities and is
 Silt has a rough feel similar to fine sandpaper.
particularly good at detecting cavities.
 Clay feels smooth and greasy. It sticks to
A gravimeter is used at discrete points
fingers and is powdery when dry.
on the earth’s surface to detect small
changes in gravity. These changes are Consistency: Very stiff: Finger pressure barely dents
called gravity anomalies and are soil, but it cracks under significant pressure.
related to density changes.
 Stiff: Finger pressure dents soil.
 Firm: Soil can be molded using strong finger
pressure.
Soil Identification in the Field
 Soft: Easily molded by finger.
In the field, the predominant soil types based on texture  Very soft: Soil flows between fingers when fist
are identified by inspection. Gravels and sands is closed
are gritty and the individual particles are visible. Silts
Dilatancy: Place a small amount of the soil in your palm
easily crumble, and water migrates to the surface
and shake horizontally. Then strike it with the
on application of pressure. Clays fail this water
other hand. If the surface is slurry and water appears,
migration test since water flows very slowly through
the soil probably has a large amount of silt.
clays. Clays feel smooth, greasy, and sticky to the touch
when wet but are very hard and strong when dry. Packing: Coarse-grained soils are described as:
Common descriptive terms and methods of
identification are as follows:  Very loose: collapses with slight disturbance;
open structure
Color: Color is not directly related to engineering  Loose: collapses upon disturbance; open
properties of soils, but is related to soil mineralogy structure
and texture.  Medium dense: indents when pushed firmly
 Dense: barely deforms when pushed by feet or
 Gray and bluish: unoxidized soils
by stomping
 White and cream: calcareous soils
 Very dense: impossible to depress with
 Red and yellow: oxidized soils
stomping
 Black and dark brown: soils containing organic
matter
Moisture: Appearance due to water is described as wet,

dry, or moist.
Structure:
 Homogeneous: Color and texture feel the same

throughout.
 Nonhomogeneous: Color and texture vary.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Soil Exploration Methods

Number and Depths of Boreholes due to the heaviest foundation load is less than
10%, whichever is greater.
In most cases, the number and depths of borings are  In very stiff clays and dense, coarse-grained
governed by experience based on the geological soils, borings should penetrate 5 m to 6 m to
character of the ground, the importance of the prove
structure, the structural loads, and the availability of that the thickness of the stratum is adequate.
equipment. Building codes and regulatory bodies  Borings should penetrate at least 3 m into
provide guidelines on the minimum number and depths rock.
of borings. The number of boreholes should be adequate  Borings must penetrate below any fills or very
to detect variations of the soils at the site. If the soft deposits below the proposed structure.
locations of the loads on the footprint of the structure  The minimum depth of boreholes should be 6 m
are known (this is often not the case), you should unless bedrock or very dense material is
consider drilling at least one borehole at the location of encountered.
the heaviest load. As a guide, a minimum of three
boreholes should be drilled for a building area of about Guidelines for the minimum number of boreholes for
250 m2 (2500 ft2) and about five for a building area of buildings and subdivisions based on area
about 1000 m2 (10,000 ft2).
Some general guidance on the depth of boreholes is

provided in the following:
 In compressible soils such as clays, the borings

should penetrate to at least between 1 and 3
times the
width of the proposed foundation below the
depth of embedment or until the stress
increment
Guidelines for the minimum number or frequency and depths of boreholes for common geostructures

Soil Sampling pumping groundwater from wells and drawdown during
construction), and geological conditions.
The objective of soil sampling is to obtain soils of
satisfactory size with minimum disturbance for The water-bearing soils below the groundwater level
observations and laboratory tests. Soil samples are are called an aquifer. Aquifers can be unconfined or
usually obtained by attaching an open-ended, thin- confined. In an unconfined aquifer, the groundwater
walled tube—called a Shelby tube or, simply, a level is free to fluctuate up and down, depending on the
sampling tube—to drill rods and forcing it down into availability of water. During winter and spring, the
the soil. groundwater level usually rises. In drier months, the
groundwater level drops.
The tube is carefully withdrawn, hopefully with the soil
inside it. Soil disturbances occur from several sources
during sampling, such as friction between the soil and
the sampling tube, the wall thickness of the sampling Soil Laboratory Tests
tube, the sharpness of the cutting edge, and the care Samples are normally taken from the field for
and handling of the sample tube during transportation. laboratory tests to characterize the physical and
To minimize friction, the sampling tube should be mechanical (strength and deformation) properties.
pushed instead of driven into the ground. These parameters are used to design foundations and to
determine the use of soils as a construction material.
Disturbed samples such as from a standard sampler
Groundwater conditions are usually used for visual inspection and for tests to
determine the physical properties such as plasticity
and grain size and shape. Undisturbed samples such as
from a thin-walled sampler are used for both
physical and mechanical properties. Test results,
especially those that relate to the mechanical
properties, are strongly affected by sampling, handling,
transportation, and sample preparation disturbances.
Care must therefore be exercised to protect the intact
condition of the soil samples. Wax is often used to coat
the soil samples to prevent moisture losses.
Types of In Situ or Field Tests
Over the years, several in situ testing devices have

emerged to characterize the soil and to measure
strength and deformation properties. The most popular
devices are:
1. Vane shear test (VST)

2. Standard penetration test (SPT)
3. Cone penetrometer test (CPT)
4. Pressure meter test (PMT)
If you dig a hole into a soil mass that has all the voids 5. Flat plate dilatometer (DMT)
filled with water (fully saturated), you will observe
water in the hole up to a certain level. This water level
is called groundwater level or groundwater table. The
top of the groundwater level is under atmospheric
pressure and is sometimes called the free surface. We
will denote groundwater level by the symbol ▼. Many
construction failures, court battles, and construction
cost overruns are due to the nonidentification or
nondisclosure of groundwater conditions at a site. The
water table invariably fluctuates depending on
environmental conditions (e.g., rainfall patterns, winter
rains, monsoons, drought), human activities (e.g.,

03 Stresses, Strains and Elastic Deformations of Soils
STRESSES AND STRAINS Sample Problem
To analyze problems (such as compressibility of soils, A soil profile is shown in the figure. Calculate the total
bearing capacity of foundations, stability of stress, pore water pressure and effective stress at
embankments and lateral pressure on earth-retaining points A, B and C.
structures), we need to know the nature of the
distribution of stress along a given cross section of the
soil profile.
Stresses in Saturated Soil without Seepage
Answer:
A: total stress = 0; pore water pressure = 0; effective

stress = 0
B: total stress = 99 kPa; pore water pressure = 0;

effective stress = 99 kPa
C: total stress = 329.25 kPa; pore water pressure =

127.53 kPa; effective stress = 221.72 kPa
Effective Stress, 𝝈′ - contact pressure between grains
of a soil mass, also known as intergranular pressure. It
decreases the void ratio and increases the frictional
resistance of a soil mass.
Pore Water Pressure, 𝒖 – also known as neutral

stress. It is the pressure induced into the water in the
pores of a soil mass. It increases the volume or
decreases the frictional resistance of a soil mass.
Total Stress, 𝝈 – sum of the effective and pore water

stress.
𝜎 = 𝜎′ + 𝑢

Stresses in Saturated Soil with Upward Seepage Stresses in Saturated Soil with Downward
Seepage
The hydraulic gradient caused by the downward

ℎ
seepage equals 𝑖 = .
𝐻2
Sample Problem
Consider the upward flow of water through a layer of

sand in a tank as shown in the figure. For the sand, the
following are given:
 void ratio, 𝑒 = 0.52

 specific gravity of solids = 2.67
a. Calculate the total stress, pore water pressure

and effective stress at points A and B.
b. What is the upward seepage force per unit
Sample Problem volume of soil?
A 20-ft thick layer of stiff saturated clay is underlain by
a layer of sand. The sand is under artesian pressure.
Calculate the maximum depth of cut H that can be
made in the clay.
Answer: H = 13.76 ft

Answer: Approximate Range of Capillary Rise in Soils
Pore Range of capillary rise

Total Effective Soil Type
Point water 𝒎 𝒇𝒕
stress stress
pressure Coarse sand 0.1 – 0.2 0.3 – 0.6
A 27.46 24.03 3.43 Fine sand 0.3 – 1.2 1–4
B 48.05 41.2 6.85 Silt 0.75 – 7.5 2.5 – 25
Clay 7.5 – 2.3 25 – 75
Seepage force = 7.36 kN/m3
Effective Stress in the Zone of Capillary Rise
The pore water pressure u at a point in the layer of soil

Capillary Rise in Soils fully saturated by capillary rise is equal to −𝛾𝑤 ℎ.
If partial saturation is caused by capillary action, it can

be approximated as:
𝑆
𝑢 = −( )𝛾 ℎ
100 𝑤
The height of rise of water in the capillary tube can be

given by summing the forces in the vertical direction.
4𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
ℎ𝑐 =
𝑑𝛾𝑤
where:
𝑇 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒/𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)
𝛼 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
𝛾𝑤 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
For pure water and clean glass, 𝛼 = 0.
4𝑇
ℎ𝑐 =
𝑑𝛾𝑤

SAMPLE PROBLEMS (Stresses in Soils) Problem 2
Problem 1 A soil deposit is shown in the figure. The ground water

table, initially at the ground surface, was lowered to a
A soil profile is shown in the figure. Given H1 = 6ft, H2 depth of 25 ft below the ground. After such lowering,
= 3 ft, H3 = 6ft. Plot the variation of 𝜎, 𝑢, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎′ with the degree of saturation of the sand above water table
depth. was lowered to 20%.
a. What is the vertical effective pressure at the

midheight of the clay layer before lowering of
the water table, in psf?
b. What is the vertical effective pressure at the
midheight of the clay layer after lowering of
the water table, in psf?
c. What is the vertical effective pressure when
there is no water in the sand layer, in psf?
Answer:
Solution:
a.) 𝜎 ′ = (135 − 62.4)(50) + (120 − 62.4)(12.5) =

𝟒𝟑𝟓𝟎 𝒑𝒔𝒇
b.) After lowering the water table:

Solving for moist unit weight (20% saturated)
𝛾𝑚 = 116 + 0.2(135 − 116) = 119.8 𝑝𝑐𝑓
𝜎 ′ = (119.8)(25) + (135 − 62.4)(25) + (120

− 62.4)(12.5 = 𝟓𝟓𝟑𝟎 𝒑𝒔𝒇
c.) 𝜎 ′ = (119.8)(50) + (120 − 62.4)(12.5) =

𝟔𝟕𝟏𝟎 𝒑𝒔𝒇

SOIL STRENGTH Mohr’s Circle
Soils are essentially frictional materials. They are

composed of individual particles that can slide and roll
relative to one another. In soil mechanics, it is generally
assumed that the particles are not cemented.
One consequence of the frictional nature is that the

strength depends on the effective stresses in the soil. As
the effective stresses increase with depth, so in general
will the strength.
The strength will also depend on whether the soil

deformation occurs under fully drained conditions,
constant volume (undrained) conditions, or with some
intermediate state of drainage.
NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES ON A PLANE
𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥
𝜎𝑛 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2
𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥
𝜏𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
2
2𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃 =
𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥
The normal stresses that act on the principal planes are

referred to as principal stresses.
Major Principal Stress
𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥 2
𝜎𝑛 = 𝜎1 = + √[ ] + 𝜏 2 𝑥𝑦
2 2
Minor Principal Stress
𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥 2
𝜎𝑛 = 𝜎3 = − √[ ] + 𝜏 2 𝑥𝑦
2 2

The stresses on a plane oriented at an angle θ from the SAMPLE PROBLEMS (Soil Stresses)
major principal stress plane are:
Problem 1
A soil element shown in the figure is subjected to the

𝜎1 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 − 𝜎3 following stresses:
𝜎𝑛 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
2 2
𝜎𝑥 = 120 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝜎𝑦 = 300 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝜏 = 40 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝜃 = 20°
𝜎1 − 𝜎3
𝜏𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 Calculate the normal and shear stress on plane AB in
2
kPa.
Radius:
𝜎1 − 𝜎3
𝑅=
2
Center:
𝜎1 + 𝜎3
( , 0)
2
Answer:
𝜎𝐴𝐵 = 253.23 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝜏𝐴𝐵 = 88.49 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Problem 2 SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL
For the stressed soil element shown in the figure. The shear strength of a soil mass is the internal
resistance per unit area that the soil mass can offer to
a. Calculate the major principal stress. resist failure and sliding along any plane inside it.
b. Calculate the minor principal stress.
c. Calculate the normal and shear stress on the The shear strength of soil may be attributed to three
plane AE. basic components:
1. Frictional resistance to sliding between solid

particles.
2. Cohesion and adhesion between particles.
3. Interlocking and bridging of solid particles to
resist deformation.
Significance of Shear Strength
 The safety of any geotechnical structure is

dependent on the strength of the soil.
 If the soil fails, the structure founded on it can
collapse.
Answer:  Understanding shear strength is the basis to
analyze soil stability problems such as:
a. 187.08 psi
o Lateral pressure on earth retaining
b. 52.92 psi
structures
c. 60 psi; 30 psi
o Slope stability
o Bearing capacity
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
Mohr (1900) presented a theory for rupture in materials

that contended that a material fails because a critical
combination of normal stress and shearing stress and
not from either maximum normal or shear stress alone.
Thus, a failure plane can be expressed as function of

normal and shearing stress as follows:
𝜏𝑓 = 𝑓(𝜎)
For most soil mechanics problems, it is sufficient to

approximate the shear stress on the failure plane as a
linear function of the normal stress. This relationship is
known as Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. This linear
function can be written as:
𝜏𝑓 = 𝑐 + 𝜎 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅

where:
𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜑 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜑 = 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝜏𝑓 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
The effective stress 𝜎′ is carried by the soil solids. The

Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, express in terms of (a) Inclination of failure plane in soil with major
effective stress, will be of the form: principal plane
𝜏𝑓 = 𝑐′ + 𝜎′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅′
Typical Values of Drained Angle of Friction for Sands

and Silts
(b) Mohr’s circle and failure envelope
Inclination of the Plane of Failure Caused by

Shear
The significance of the equation above can be explained

by referring to the following figure, which shows an
elemental soil mass. Let the effective stress and the
shear stress on the plane ab be 𝜎 ′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏, respectively. If
the magnitudes of 𝜎 ′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏 on plane ab such that they
plot as point A in figure b, shear failure will not occur
along the plane. If the effective normal stress and the
shear stress on plane ab plot as point B (which falls on
the failure envelope), shear failure will occur along that
plate. A state of stress on a plane represented by point
C cannot exist, because it plots above the failure
envelope, and shear failure in a soil would have
occurred already.

∅′
𝜃 = 45 +
2 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛
∅′ ∅′
𝜎′1 = 𝜎′3 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45 + ) + 2𝑐 ′ tan (45 + )
2 2 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛
Laboratory Test for Determination of Shear It is important to note that, in dry sand, 𝜎 = 𝜎′ and 𝑐 ′ =
Strength Parameters 0.
There are several laboratory methods now available to 𝜏𝑓 = 𝜎 ′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑′

determine the shear strength parameters of various soil
specimens in the laboratory. These are:
 Direct shear test 𝜏𝑓

𝜑 ′ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
 Triaxial test 𝜎′
 Direct simple shear test
 Plane strain triaxial test
 Torsional ring shear test 𝜏𝑢𝑙𝑡
𝜑′𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝜎′
The direct shear test and the triaxial test are the two
most commonly used technique in determining the
shear strength parameters.
DIRECT SHEAR TEST
The equipment consists of a metal shear box in which

the soil specimen is placed. The soil specimens may be
square or circular in plan. The size of the specimens
generally used is about 51mm x 51mm or 102mm x
102mm across and about 25mm high. The box is split
horizontally into halves. Normal force on the specimen
is applied from the top of the shear box. The normal
stress on the specimens can be as great as 1050 kN/m2.
Shear force is applied by moving one-half of the box
relative to the other to cause failure in the soil
specimen.

TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST (Single Test) Cohesionless Soil
The following equations can be derived from the figure:

In this test, a soil specimen about 36 mm in diameter
and 76 mm (3 in.) long generally is used. The specimen
is encased by a thin rubber membrane and placed 𝜏 = 𝜎𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ = 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
inside a plastic cylindrical chamber that usually is filled
with water or glycerin. The specimen is subjected to a (𝜎1 − 𝜎3 )
𝑅= = 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
confining pressure by compression of the fluid in the 2
chamber. (Note: Air is sometimes used as a compression
𝜎1 − 𝜎3
medium.) To cause shear failure in the specimen, one 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ =
𝜎1 + 𝜎3
must apply axial stress (sometimes called deviator
stress) through a vertical loading ram. This stress can ∅
be applied in one of two ways: 𝜃 = 45° +
2
1. Application of dead weights or hydraulic
pressure in equal increments until the
specimen fails.
2. Application of axial deformation at a constant
rate by means of geared or hydraulic loading Cohesive Soil
press. This is strain-controlled test.
𝜏 = 𝑐 + 𝜎𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ = 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃

where: TRIAXIAL TEST (Series)
𝜎1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜎2 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜏 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
∅ = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 that the failure plane makes with the major

principal plane
DRAINED AND UNDRAINED TRIAXIAL TEST

The following equations can be derived from the figure.
For drained triaxial test, 𝜎′1 and , 𝜎′3 are as taken as
the effective principal stresses. For undrained triaxial 𝜎1 − 𝜎3
test, 𝜎1 and 𝜎3 are taken as the total principal stresses. 𝑅1 =
2
𝜎′1 − 𝜎′3
𝑅2 =
2
𝜎1 + 𝜎3
𝐶1 =
2
𝜎′1 + 𝜎′3
𝐶2 =
2
𝑅2 − 𝑅1
𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ =
𝐶2 − 𝐶1
𝑐 = 𝑥 ′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅
where: 𝑅1
𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 − 𝐶1 and 𝑥 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
∅𝐷 = 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝑐 = 𝑅1 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ − (𝐶1 − 𝑅1 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅) 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅
∅𝑈 = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝑐 = 𝑅2 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ − (𝐶2 − 𝑅2 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅) 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅

UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST The shear stresses obtained from the tests are plotted
(UNIAXIAL) against the normal stresses. From the figure, 𝑐 ′ = 0, ∅ =
32°.
𝜎1
𝐶𝑢 = 𝑅 =
2
𝑞𝑢 = 2𝐶𝑢
Problem 2
where:
Direct shear tests were performed on a dry, sandy soil.
𝑞𝑢 = 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ The specimen is 50 mm in diameter and 25 mm in
height. Test results were as follows:
SAMPLE PROBLEMS (Shear strength of soil) Test No. Normal Force, N Shear Force, N
1 243 124
Problem 1 2 268 137
3 352 179
Direct shear tests were performed on a dry, sandy soil. 4 412 210
The size of the specimen was 50 𝑚𝑚 × 50 𝑚𝑚 × 19 𝑚𝑚.
Test results are as follows:
Determine the cohesion and angle of internal friction.
Shear Shear
Normal Normal force stress Answer: 𝑐 = 0, ∅ = 27°
Test
force stress at at
No.
(N) (kN/m2) failure failure
(N) (kN/m2)
Problem 3
1 89 35.6 53.4 21.4
2 133 53.2 81.4 32.6 A 7-m thick soil has water table 3 m below the ground
3 311 124.4 187.3 74.9 surface. The soil above the water table has degree of
4 445 178.0 267.3 106.9 saturation of 45%, void ratio of the soil is 0.4 and the
solids have specific gravity of 2.70. Tests show that the
soil have angle of internal friction of 32° and a cohesion
Solution:
of 14.6 kPa. What is the potential shear strength on a
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 horizontal plane at a depth of 2 m below the ground
𝜎=
(1000)(0.05 𝑚)(0.05 𝑚) surface?
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 Answer: 39.82 kPa

𝜏𝑓 =
(1000)(0.05 𝑚)(0.05 𝑚)
Problem 4
In a triaxial test, a specimen of saturated (normally

consolidated) clay was consolidated under a chamber of
confining pressure of 90 kPa. The axial stress on the
specimen was then increased allowing the drainage
from the specimen. The specimen fails when the

deviator stress is 60 kPa. The pore water pressure at Answer: (a) 24.316°, (b) 159.5 kPa, (c) 425 kPa
that time was 40 kPa. What is the consolidated drained
friction angle?
Answer: 22.024° Problem 8
A consolidated undrained (CU) compression test was

conducted on a saturated clay soil by isotropically
Problem 5 consolidating the soil using a cell pressure of 150 kPa
and then incrementally applying loads on the plunger
A triaxial test on a saturated soil has the following while keeping the cell pressure constant. Failure was
properties: observed when the stress exerted by the plunger
(deviator stress) was 160 kPa and the pore water
Cell pressure Deviator Pore pressure
(kPa) stress (kPa) (kPa) pressure recorded was 54 kPa.
200 119 142.5 a. Determine the undrained shear strength of the
400 143 275.5
clay.
600 178 396
b. Determine the undrained friction angle.
c. Determine the drained friction angle.
a. Determine the drained angle of internal
Answer: (a) 20.354°, (b) 80 kPa, (c) 27.03°
friction of the soil.
b. Determine the cohesion of the soil in drained
condition.
Problem 9
Answer: (a) 8.737°; (b) c = 42.22 kPa
A cohesionless soil sample is subjected to a triaxial test.
The critical state friction angle of the soil is 28° and the
normal effective stress at failure is 200 kPa.
Problem 6
a. Determine the critical state shear stress.
A sample of moist sand was subjected to a series of
b. Determine the plunger stress.
triaxial tests. The soil fails under the following stresses.
c. Determine the cell pressure.
Plunger stress,
Cell pressure, σ3 Answer: (a) 106.34 kPa, (b) 240.88 kPa, (c) 136.1 kPa
σd
Sample
14 kPa 20 kPa
1
Sample Problem 10
25 kPa 31 kPa
2
An unconfined compression test was carried out on a
saturated clay sample. The maximum load the clay
What is the angle of internal friction of the soil, in sustained was 127 N and the vertical displacement is
degrees? 0.8 mm. The size of the sample was 38 mm diameter
and 76 mm long.
Answer: 19.47°
a. Calculate the axial strain of the soil sample.
b. Calculate the major principal stress at failure.
Problem 7 c. Calculate the undrained shear strength of the
soil sample.
The results of a consolidated-drained triaxial test
conducted on normally consolidated clay, are as follows: Answer: (a) 0.010526 mm/mm, (b) 110.814 kPa, (c) 0
 Chamber confining stress = 250 kPa

 Deviator stress at failure = 350 kPa
a. Calculate the angle of friction of the soil

sample.
b. Calculate the shear stress on the failure plane.
c. Calculate the effective normal stress on the
plane of maximum shear.

04 Compressibility of Soil
COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOIL SETTLEMENT FROM ONE DIMENSIONAL

PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION
A stress increase caused by the construction of
foundations or other loads compresses soil layers. The Basic Settlement Formula
compression is caused by:
1. deformation of soil particles

2. relocations of soil particles
3. expulsion of water or air from the void spaces
In general, the soil settlement caused by the loads may

be divided into three broad categories:
1. Elastic settlement (or immediate

settlement) – caused by the elastic
𝐻(𝑒0 − 𝑒 ′ ) ∆𝑒
deformation of dry soil and of moist and ∆𝐻 = =𝐻
1 + 𝑒0 1 + 𝑒0
saturated soils without any change in the
moisture content.
2. Primary consolidation settlement – result where:

of a volume change in saturated cohesive soils
𝐻 = 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚
because of expulsion of the water that occupies
the void spaces. 𝑒0 = 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
3. Secondary consolidation settlement – 𝑒 ′ = 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
observed in saturated soils and is the result of
the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics. It is an
additional form of compression that occurs at a CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
constant effective stress.
One-dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test
The total settlement of a foundation can be given as: The one-dimensional consolidation testing procedure
was first suggested by Terzaghi. This test is performed
in a consolidometer (sometimes referred to as an
𝑆𝑇 = 𝑆𝑐 + 𝑆𝑠 + 𝑆𝑒 oedometer).
where:
𝑆𝑇 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑆𝑐 = 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑆𝑠 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑆𝑒 = 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

Stage I: Initial compression, which is caused mostly by where:
preloading.
𝐶𝑠 = 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
Stage II: Primary consolidation, during which excess
pore water pressure gradually is transferred into 𝜎′𝑐 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
effective stress because of the expulsion of pore water.
Stage III: Secondary consolidation, which occurs after Overconsolidation Ratio, OCR
completer dissipation of the excess pore water pressure,
when some deformation of the specimen takes place
𝜎′𝑐
because of the plastic readjustment of soil fabric. 𝑂𝐶𝑅 =
𝜎′𝑜
Normally Consolidated Soil – a soil that has never

𝜎 ′ 𝑐 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (Past maximum vertical
experiences a vertical effective stress that was greater
effective stress)
than its present vertical effective stress
𝜎′𝑜 = 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (Current vertical
Overconsolidated Soil – a soil that has experienced a
effective stress)
vertical effective stress that was greater than its
present vertical effective stress If OCR = 1, the soil is normally consolidated.
Primary consolidation settlement of normally Compression Index (Cc)

consolidated fine-grained soils
The compression index for the calculation of field
𝐶𝑐 𝐻 𝜎′𝑓 settlement caused by consolidation can be determined
∆𝐻 = log ( ) by graphic construction after one obtains the laboratory
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎′0
test results for void ration and pressure.
𝐶𝑐 = 0.007(𝐿𝐿 − 7)  remolded
where: 𝐶𝑐 = 0.009(𝐿𝐿 − 10)  undisturbed
𝐻 = 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝐶𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 Swell Index (Cs)
𝑒0 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 The swell index is appreciable smaller in magnitude

than the compression index and generally can be
𝜎′0 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 determine from laboratory tests. In most cases,
𝜎′𝑓 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 1 1
𝐶𝑠 = 𝑡𝑜 𝐶
5 10 𝑐
Primary consolidation settlement of

overconsolidated fine-grained soils Typical values of the LL, PL, virgin CI, and swell index
for some natural soils are given in the table below:
When (𝜎′𝑓 ≤ 𝜎′𝑐 )
𝐶𝑠 𝐻 𝜎′𝑓
∆𝐻 = log ( )
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎′0
When (𝜎′𝑓 > 𝜎′𝑐 )
𝐶𝑠 𝐻 𝜎′𝑐 𝐶𝑐 𝐻 𝜎′𝑓
∆𝐻 = log ( ) + log ( )
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎′𝑜 1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎′𝑐

Settlement from Secondary Consolidation 5. The flow of water is in one direction only (that
is, in the direction of compression).
𝑡2 6. Darcy’s law is valid.
∆𝐻𝑠 = 𝐶′𝛼 𝐻 log ( )
𝑡1
Rate of outflow of water – Rate of inflow of water = Rate

𝐶𝛼 of volume change
𝐶′𝛼 =
1 + 𝑒𝑝
During consolidation, the rate of change in the volume
of the soil element is equal to the rate of change in the
volume of voids.
∆𝑒 ∆𝑒
𝐶𝛼 = =
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑡2 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑡1 log (𝑡2 ) 𝑐𝑣 𝑡
𝑡1 𝑇𝑣 = = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
(𝐻𝑑𝑟 )2
where: where:
𝐶𝛼 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝐻𝑑𝑟 =one-half the thickness of the drainage layer if
∆𝑒 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 drainage occurs at the top and bottom of the layer (two-
way drainage)
𝑡1 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐻𝑑𝑟 =thickness of the drainage if drainage occurs at the
𝑡2 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, top or bottom only (one-way layer)
where settlement is required
𝑒𝑝 = 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

ELASTIC SETTLEMENT
𝐻 = 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟
Elastic, or immediate settlement of foundations, occurs
directly after the application of a load without a change
in the moisture content of the soil. The magnitude of
Calculation of consolidation settlement under a the contact settlement will depend on the flexibility of
foundation the foundation and the type of material on which it is
resting.
∆𝜎𝑡 + 4∆𝜎𝑚 + ∆𝜎𝑏
∆𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑒 = The relationships for determining the increase in stress
6
(which causes elastic settlement) due to the application
of line load, strip load, embankment load, circular load,
and rectangular load were based on the following
where:
assumptions:
∆𝜎𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟
 The load is applied at the ground surface.
∆𝜎𝑚 = 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟  The loaded area is flexible.
 The soil medium is homogeneous, elastic,
∆𝜎𝑏 = 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 isotropic and extends to a great depth.
TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION In general, foundations are not flexible and are
embedded at a certain depth below the ground surface.
Terzaghi (1925) proposed the first theory to consider
the rate of one-dimensional consolidation for saturated Elastic settlement profile and contact pressure in clay:
clay soils. The mathematical derivations are based on
the following six assumptions:
1. The clay-water system is homogeneous.

2. Saturation is complete.
3. Compressibility of water is negligible.
4. Compressibility of soil grains is negligible (but (a) Flexible foundation
soil grains rearrange).

Solution:
𝐻(𝑒0 −𝑒 ′ )
Settlement, ∆𝐻 = ; H=6m, e0=1.1
1+𝑒0
(b) Rigid foundation
Elastic settlement profile and contact pressure in sand:
(a) Flexible foundation

Answer: 151.4 mm
Sample Problem 2
(b) Rigid foundation
A 2-m clay layer (e=0.92, G=2.72, Cc=1/3) is overlain
with 3-m thick sand layer (e=0.5, G=2.62, w=0). The
water table is 1.5 m below the ground (sand) surface. If
Sample Problem 1 a 3-m thick land fill (𝛾 = 17.3 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 ) is placed over the
existing ground surface, compute the consolidation
The soil profile shown in the figure is to carry a
settlement of the clay layer.
surcharge of 60 kPa applied at the ground surface. The
result of laboratory consolidation test conducted on a
specimen collected from the middle of the clay layer is
also shown. Calculate the settlement in the field caused
by primary consolidation due to surcharge.
Answer: 106.7 mm

Sample Problem 3 Sample Problem 4
A soil profile is shown in the figure. If a uniformly A soil profile is shown in the figure. Laboratory
distributed load, ∆𝜎, is applied at the ground surface, consolidation tests were conducted on a specimen
what is the settlement of the clay layer caused by collected from the middle of the clay layer. The field
primary consolidation if: consolidation curve interpolated from the laboratory
test results is shown in the figure. Calculate the
a. The clay is normally consolidated. settlement in the field caused by primary consolidation
b. The preconsolidation pressure (𝜎′𝑐 ) = for a surcharge of 48 kN/m2 applied at the ground
190 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 surface.
c. 𝜎′𝑐 = 170 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
1
Use 𝐶𝑠 = 𝐶𝑐 .
6
Answer: 262 mm
Answer:
a. 213 mm
b. 36 mm
c. 46.8 mm

Sample Problem 5 a. The clay is normally consolidated.
b. The preconsolidation pressure is 210 kPa.
Given in the figure is the borehole log in a project site. c. The preconsolidation pressure is 150 kPa.
The proposed building will exert a net stress of 12
Newtons per square centimeter. Answer:
a. 200 mm
b. 40 mm
c. 152.8 mm
Sample Problem 7
For a normally consolidated clay layer in the field, the

following values are given:
 Thickness of clay layer = 8.5 ft

 Void ratio (𝑒𝑜 ) = 0.8
 Compression index (𝐶𝑐 ) = 0.28
 Average effective pressure on the clay layer
(𝜎 ′ 𝑜 ) = 2650 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 2
𝑙𝑏
a. Determine the buoyant unit weight of the clay.  ∆𝜎 ′ = 970
𝑓𝑡 2
b. Determine the effective vertical stress at the  Secondary compression index (𝐶𝛼 ) = 0.02
mid-height of the clay layer.
c. Determine the average settlement of the What is the total consolidation settlement of the clay
normally consolidated clay layer. Use layer five years after the completion of primary
compression index Cc=0.009(LL – 10) consolidation settlement? (Note: Time for completion of
primary settlement = 1.5 years)
Answer:
Answer: 2.74 in
a. 8.278 kN/m3
b. 180.42 kPa
c. 23.2 cm
Sample Problem 8
The time required for 50% consolidation of a 25-mm-

Sample Problem 6 thick clay layer (drained at both top and bottom) in the
laboratory is 2 min, 2 sec. How long (in days) will it
A soil profile is shown in the figure. A uniformly take for a 3-m-thick clay layer of the same clay in the
distributed load, 50 kPa, is applied at the ground field under the same pressure increment to reach 50%
surface. Assume Cs = 1/5 Cc. consolidation? In the field, there is a rock layer at the
bottom of the clay.
Answer: 93.33 days
Determine the settlement of the clay layer caused by

primary consolidation if:

05 Bearing Capacity of Soils and Settlement of Shallow Foundations
A properly designed foundation transfers the load Foundation – lowest part of a structure. It is a
throughout the soil without overstressing the soil. structure that transmits loads to the underlying soils.
Overstressing the soil can result in either excessive
settlement or shear failure of the soil, both of which Footing – a foundation consisting of small slab for
cause damage to the structure. transmitting the structural load to the underlying soil.
Footings can be individual slabs supporting single
A geotechnical engineer must ensure that a foundation columns or combined to support two or more columns,
satisfies the following two stability conditions: or be a long strip of concrete slab supporting a load-
bearing wall, or a mat.
1. The foundation must not collapse or become
unstable under any conceivable loading. This is Embedment depth (𝑫𝒇 ) – depth below the ground
called ultimate limit state. surface where the base of the foundation rests.
2. Settlement of the structure must be within
tolerable limits so as not to impair the design Shallow foundation – one in which the ration of the
functions of the structure. This is called embedment depth to the minimum plan dimension,
serviceability limit state. which is usually the width (B), is 𝐷𝑓/𝐵 ≤ 2.5.
Ultimate bearing capacity – maximum pressure that

the soil can support.
Ultimate net bearing capacity (𝒒𝒖 ) – maximum

pressure that the soil can support above its current
overburden pressure.
Ultimate gross bearing capacity (𝒒𝒖𝒍𝒕 ) – sum of the

ultimate net bearing capacity and the overburden
pressure above the footing base.
Allowable bearing capacity or safe bearing

capacity (𝒒𝒂 ) – working pressure that would ensure a
margin of safety against collapse of the structure from
shear failure. The allowable bearing capacity is usually
a fraction of the ultimate net bearing capacity.
Factor of safety or safety factor (FS) – ratio of the

ultimate net bearing capacity to the allowable net
bearing capacity or to the applied maximum net vertical
stress. In geotechnical engineering, a factor of safety
between 2 and 5 is used to calculate the allowable
bearing capacity.
Ultimate limit state – defines a limiting stress or

force that should not be exceeded by any conceivable or
anticipated loading during the design life of a
foundation or any geotechnical system.
Serviceability limit state – defines a limiting

deformation or settlement of a foundation, which, if
exceeded, will impair the function of the structure that
it supports.

Types of shallow footing: Bearing Capacity Analysis
Bearing capacity analysis is the method used to

determine the ability of the soil to support the required
load in a safe manner without gross distortion resulting
from objectionable settlement. The ultimate bearing
capacity (𝑞𝑢 ) is defined as that pressure causing a
shear failure of the supporting soil lying immediately
below and adjacent to the footing. Generally, three
modes of failure have been identified:
1. General shear failure – continuous failure

surface develops between the edge of the
footing and the ground surface.
2. Local shear failure – a condition where

significant compression of the soil occurs but
only slight heave occurs at the ground surface.
3. Punching shear failure – a condition that

occurs where there is relatively high
compression of the soil underlying the footing
with neither heaving at the ground surface nor
tilting of the foundation.

BEARING CAPACITY EQUATIONS Long footings or Strip footings
In general, the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil is

given by: 𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5 𝛾𝑒 𝐵𝑁𝛾
𝑞𝑢 = 𝐾𝑐 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝐾𝑞 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 𝐾𝛾 𝛾𝑒 𝐵𝑁𝛾

Square footings
where: 𝑞𝑢 = 1.3 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.4 𝛾𝑒 𝐵𝑁𝛾
𝑞𝑢 = 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 Circular footings

𝛾𝑒 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑐𝑓
𝐵 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡
𝑞𝑢 = 1.3 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.3 𝛾𝑒 𝐵𝑁𝛾
𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑠𝑓
𝑁𝛾 = 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑁𝑐 = 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑁𝑞 = 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 Rectangular footings
𝑞 = 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠)
𝐾𝑐 , 𝐾𝑞 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 0.3𝐵 0.2𝐵
𝑞𝑢 = (1 + ) 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 0.5 (1 − ) 𝛾𝑒 𝐵𝑁𝛾
𝐿 𝐿
Terzaghi’s Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

Bearing Capacity Factors:
According to Terzaghi, a foundation may be defined as a
shallow foundation if the depth 𝐷𝑓 is less than or equal ∅
𝑁𝑞 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45 + )𝑒 𝜋𝑡𝑎𝑛∅
to its width, 𝐵. He also assumed that, for ultimate soil- 2
bearing capacity calculations, the weight of the soil
𝑁𝑐 = (𝑁𝑞 − 1)𝑐𝑜𝑡∅
above the base of the footing may be replaced by a
uniform surcharge, 𝑞 = 𝛾𝐷𝑓 . 𝑁𝛾 = 2(𝑁𝑞 + 1)𝑡𝑎𝑛∅
Terzaghi’s bearing capacity equations are based on the

following assumptions:
Local Shear Failure Ultimate Bearing Capacities
 Depth of foundation is less than or equal to its (For loose sand and soft clay)
width
 No sliding occurs between foundation and soil 2
𝑐′ = 𝑐
(rough foundation) 3
 Soil beneath foundation is homogeneous semi- 2
infinite mass 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅′ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅
3
 Mohr-Coulomb model for soil
 General shear failure mode is the governing
mode (but not the only mode)
Gross Allowable Bearing Capacity
 No soil consolidation occurs
 Foundation is very rigid relative to the soil 𝑞𝑢
𝑞𝑎 =
 Soil above bottom of foundation has no shear 𝐹𝑆
strength; only a surcharge load against the
overturning load
 Applied load is compressive and applied Net Allowable Bearing Capacity
vertically to the centroid of the foundation
𝑞𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑡)
 No applied moments present 𝑞𝑎(𝑛𝑒𝑡) =
𝐹𝑆

TERZAGHI’S BEARING CAPACITY FACTORS

EFFECT OF GROUNDWATER TABLE Case III. When the groundwater table is at depth D
below the bottom of the foundation, 𝑞 = 𝛾𝐷𝑓 . The
Three different conditions can arise regarding the
magnitude of 𝛾 in the third term of the bearing capacity
location of the groundwater table with respect to the
equations should be replaced by 𝛾𝑎𝑣 .
bottom of the foundation.
Case I. If the groundwater table is located at a distance

D above the bottom of the foundation, the magnitude of
q in the second term of the bearing capacity equation
should be calculated as:
𝑞 = 𝛾(𝐷𝑓 − 𝐷) + 𝛾′𝐷
1
𝛾𝑎𝑣 = [𝛾𝐷 + 𝛾 ′ (𝐵 − 𝐷)]
𝐵
(𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐷 ≤ 𝐵)
𝛾𝑎𝑣 = 𝛾
(𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐷 > 𝐵)
Case II. If the groundwater table coincides with the

bottom of the foundation, the magnitude of q is equal to
𝛾𝐷𝑓 . However, the unit weight, 𝛾, in the third term of
the bearing capacity equations should be replaced by 𝛾′.

Sample Problem 1
A square foundation is 1.5 × 1.5 𝑚 in plan. The soil

supporting the foundation has a friction angle ∅′ = 20°,
and 𝑐 ′ = 15.2 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 . The unit weight of soil, 𝛾, is
17.8 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 . Determine the allowable gross load on the
foundation with a factor of safety (Fs) of 4. Assume that
the depth of the foundation (Df) is 1 meter and that
general shear failure occurs in soil.
Answer: 292.5 kN
Sample Problem 2
a. Determine the gross foundation pressure.
A square foundation is shown in the figure. The footing b. Determine the overburden pressure.
will carry a gross mass of 30,000 kg. Using a factor of c. Determine the ultimate beating capacity of the
safety of 3, determine the size of the footing – that is, soil.
the size of B. d. Assuming local shear failure, determine the
ultimate bearing capacity of the soil.
Answer: a) 580 kPa; b) 18.11 kPa; c) 1242 kPa; d)

555.81 kPa
Sample Problem 4
A circular footing 2.5 m in diameter is shown in the

figure. Assume general shear failure and use a factor
safety of 3. Determine the following:
a. the gross allowable beating capacity

b. the net allowable bearing capacity
c. the safe load that the footing can carry
Answer: 𝑩 ≅ 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓 𝒎
Sample Problem 3
A footing 1 meter square carries a total load, including

its own weight, of 59,130 𝑘𝑔. The base of the footing is
at a depth of 1 m below the ground surface. The soil
strata at the site consist of a layer of stiff saturated clay
27.5 m thick overlying dense sand. The average density
of the clay is 1846 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 . Given is Terzaghi’s ultimate
bearing capacity for square footings:
𝑞𝑢 = 1.3𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 + 0.40𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾
Answer: a) 1004.9 kPa; b) 995.9 kPa; c) 4888.8 kN

Sample Problem 5
A rectangular footing is to support two square columns

each 12” x 12” and spaced 12 feet on centers. One
column carries a load of 40 kips and the other carries a
load of 50 kips. The footing is 2 ft thick and its length
should extend beyond the center of the column carrying
the 40-kip load. The base of the footing is 5 ft below the
ground surface. Assume specific gravity og concrete and
soil above the footing to be 2.4 and 1.78, respectively.
Determine the length of the footing if the allowable soil
bearing capacity is 2000 psf.
Answer: L = 18.34 feet

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CE161P GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

01 Introduction to Soil Mechanics

INTRODUCTION Soil – For engineering purposes, soil is defined as the

Principal Types of Soil

Definition of Soil and Rock

Rock – a natural aggregate of mineral grains connected

Soil – a natural aggregate of mineral grains, with or

Geotechnical Engineering – a branch of civil

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 1

Coarse-grained Fine-grained The average grain size of the soil is D50.

Coarse-grained soils are Fine-grained soils are

3. Plasticity – a property that enables a soil to

Gradation – may be described as well-graded, fairly 4. Dispersion

Dry strength test. A small piece of the soil is molded

Poorly graded soils – most of the soil grains are the

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 2

Plasticity test. At certain moisture content, a soil that

Identification of Fine-grained Soil Fractions from Manual Tests

Toughness of Time to settle in

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 3

02 Physical Characteristics of Soils

INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOILS Particle-size distribution curve (Sieve analysis)

The following example shows the calculation procedure

Cumulative mass retained = 5 g

The two most commonly used by engineers are

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 4

Void ratio, e – ratio of the volume of void space to the

Water content, w – ratio of the weight of water to the

Basic Material Properties 𝑊𝑠

In studies of the compaction of soils, it is sometimes

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 5

Case c: When the soil is dry (S=0)

Saturated unit weight – weight of a saturated soil

emin = void ratio in the densest possible state

e = void ratio under in-situ condition

3. Density and other parameters

Case a: When partially saturated (S<100%)

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 6

Index Definition Correlation

𝜇 = percent of soil finer than 0.002 mm (clay size)

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 7

SAMPLE PROBLEMS (Determination of the

A liquid limit test, conducted on a soil sample in the cup

a. the liquid limit and plastic limit

To get the liquid limit, you must make a semi-

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 8

Step 5: Calculate LI.

Assume the soil is saturated at the liquid limit. For a

Step 2: Extract the liquid limit. 𝑒𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 × 𝐺𝑠 = 0.38 × 2.7 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟑

The water content on the liquid state line corresponding

Brittle failure is not expected, as the soil is in a plastic

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 9

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 10

Mass of container 17.5 grams

Step 1: Set up a table, or use a spreadsheet to carry out the calculations.

Mc Mass of container 17.5 grams

SAMPLE PROBLEMS (Soil Phase Relationships) Problem 4

Problem 1 A clay sample has a unit weight of 20.06 kN/m3 with

CE161P Geotechnical Engineering | 2Q1819 | Engr. Chennie Carissa Caja | 11

The moist unit weights and degree of saturation of a

a. moist unit weight of the soil Determine the following:

The mass of a sample of saturated soil is 520 grams. Problem 16

a. moisture content a. void ratio of the soil