Analytica Chimica Acta: Review

Analytica Chimica Acta xxx (xxxx) xxx
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Analytica Chimica Acta

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aca
Review
Recent progress in the applications of boron doped diamond

electrodes in electroanalysis of organic compounds and biomolecules
e A review
Simona Baluchova a, Ales Dan hel b, Hana Dejmkova a, Veronika Ostatna
b,
b, c, ** -Peckova
a, c , *
Miroslav Fojta , Karolina Schwarzova
a
Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of Analytical Chemistry, UNESCO Laboratory of Environmental Electrochemistry, Albertov 6, CZ-12843,
Prague 2, Czech Republic
b
Institute of Biophysics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Kralovopolska 135, CZ-61265, Brno, Czech Republic
c
Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Kamenice 753/5, CZ-62500, Brno, Czech Republic
h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t
Boron doped diamond as an elec-

trode material for electroanalysis
reviewed for the period of 2009
e2018.
Progress in electroanalysis of organic
compounds and biomacromolecules
reported.
Only bare BDD surfaces including
nanostructured architectures
considered.
Effect of boron doping level, surface
termination and proclivity to
adsorption discussed.
Comprehensive table with > 340
references summarizing characteris-
tics of voltammetric and ampero-
metric methods included.
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: This review summarizes progress in electroanalysis of organic compounds and biomacromolecules by
Received 31 January 2019 means of bare BDD-based electrodes for the period of 2009e2018. New trends, which have emerged in
Received in revised form the reported decade and which have improved their performance in batch voltammetric and ampero-
1 May 2019 metric methods and electrochemical detection in liquid flow techniques are commented. Importance of
Accepted 18 May 2019
BDD surface termination, effect of boron doping level, and utilization of adsorption of analytes on BDD
Available online xxx
surfaces enabling development of adsorptive voltammetric techniques are addressed. Further, possibil-
ities of simultaneous determination of analytes by means of voltammetric techniques utilizing compu-
Keywords: tational approaches and multiple-pulse amperometric detection are discussed. Strategies leading to
Biomolecules
enhancement of sensitivity such as nanostructuring of the BDD surface, fabrication of BDD-based
Boron doped diamond
* Corresponding author. Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of

Analytical Chemistry, UNESCO Laboratory of Environmental Electrochemistry,
Albertov 6, CZ-12843, Prague 2, Czech Republic.
** Corresponding author. Institute of Biophysics, Czech Academy of Sciences,
Kralovopolska 135, CZ-61265, Brno, Czech Republic.
E-mail addresses: fojta@ibp.cz (M. Fojta), kpeckova@natur.cuni.cz
(K. Schwarzova-Peckova).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2019.05.041
0003-2670/© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
et al., Recent progress in the applications of boron doped diamond electrodes in electroanalysis of organic
Please cite this article as: S. Baluchova
compounds and biomolecules e A review, Analytica Chimica Acta, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2019.05.041
2 et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta xxx (xxxx) xxx
S. Baluchova
Microelectrodes composite materials or new approaches in construction of microelectrodes and microelectrode arrays for
Non-enzymatic electroanalysis biosensing represent another area of interest. Attention is paid to possibilities in detection of amino
Organic compounds acids, peptides and proteins, nucleobases, nucleos(t)ides and DNA/RNA.
Surface treatment
© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2. New trends in electroanalysis of organic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.1. Surface termination of bare BDD materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.2. Adsorption of analytes on BDD surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.3. Effect of boron-doping level of BDD film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.4. Spectrum of analytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.5. Miniaturization and structuring of BDD-based sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.6. Approaches for simultaneous detection of analytes in batch voltammetric and liquid-flow arrangements by means of BDD electrodes . . . . 00
3. Electroanalysis of biomolecules and their components on BDD electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.1. Proteins, peptides and their constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2. Nucleic acids and their constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4. Conclusion and outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
List of abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
1. Introduction of organic analytes, in Ref. [34] devoted to detection of phenolic

compounds in plants or in Refs. [35,36] devoted to analysis of
Boron doped diamond (BDD) thin films have become a well- pharmaceuticals.
established tool in electrochemistry since their introduction in Herein, we comment on the state of art in the field of electro-
1992 [1]. Continuous fundamental research recognizes BDD as a analysis of various organic compounds and biomacromolecules and
biocompatible material with good electronic, chemical and me- their constituents by means of bare BDD-based electrodes
chanical properties, exhibiting semiconductivity to metallic-type including microelectrodes and microelectrode arrays, and BDD
conductivity depending on the boron-doping level and content of structured architectures with focus on progress in the last ten years
non-diamond carbon phase. For electroanalysis, the most impor- since the publication of [26,28] (further referred to as “reported
tant properties constitute a wide potential window in aqueous and decade”). The comprehensive Table 2, which overviews particular
mixed aqueous-organic solutions (ca ~3e3.5 V), low and stable studies and specifies the BDD electrode, its pretreatment and
background current, decreased proclivity to fouling in comparison optimized electroanalytical methodology including obtained limit
with other solid electrode materials and a possibility of in-situ of detection (LD) documents the variety of approaches developed
electrochemical activation. The potential of BDD-based materials for electroanalysis of environmental pollutants, dyes, agrochemi-
has been readily recognized in commercial sphere (overview of cals, pharmaceuticals, food components and additives, neuro-
suppliers in Table 1). This competitive supply enabled distribution transmitters, their metabolites and precursors in a variety of
of BDD-based materials to analytical research laboratories not matrices. Further, achievements in electroanalysis of proteins and
possessing reactors for their fabrication by microwave plasma or DNA/RNA and their constituents are commented.
hot filament chemical vapour deposition (MWCVD; HFCVD).
In the last fifteen years, compact reviews [2e6] and books
devoted to diamond electrochemistry, physics and applications 2. New trends in electroanalysis of organic compounds
[7e10], including diamond nanostructures and particles [11] have
been published. Moreover, outputs of the twenty five-year history Continuous research profiting from advantageous properties of
of BDD-related research (5860 publications according to Web of the BDD electrodes resulted in efforts to understand factors influ-
Knowledge database; Fig. 1) can be traced in a number of reviews encing potential positioning and intensity of signal of redox-active
devoted to the particular aspects, such as surface modifications organic compounds. This can be observed especially in the last
[12,13], electrosynthesis and anodic waste water treatment decade, as a number of studies have appeared to resolve the
[14e19], or electroanalytical applications including applications in interplay between electrochemical properties of BDD films and
biosensors [20e31] and in liquid-flow techniques employing BDD electrochemical behaviour of analytes on one side and surface and
electrodes for electrochemical detection [32]. bulk properties of BDD films on the other. These include surface
In 2009, we reviewed progress in electroanalysis of organic termination [7,48e52], sp2 carbon content [53,54], morphology
compounds and biomolecules and their constituents in (grain size, crystallographic orientation) and are basically deter-
Refs. [26,28]. Two years later, we published another review, with mined by conditions adjusted for the CVD procedure (e.g.,
emphasis on the miniaturized BDD electrodes and their arrays conductive support and its temperature, B/C ratio and C/H ratio in
(MEA) [29]. Naturally, topics related to electroanalytical applica- gas-mixture, its composition, pressure and total gas flow).
tions of BDD have appeared also in thematic reviews, e.g., in In electroanalysis, this interest resulted in broadening the
Ref. [33] dealing with simultaneous voltammetric determinations optimized parameters related to electroanalytical performance of
BDD electrodes and extension of the spectra of analytes and
et al. / Analytica Chimica Acta xxx (xxxx) xxx
S. Baluchova 3
Table 1
Commercial suppliers of BDD materials.
Supplier Characterization of provided BDD materials and electrodes and related equipment Ref.
Element Six (UK)a As-deposited BDD in wafer form for electrodes up to 138 mm in diameter, thickness 0.4e0.8 mm, boron doping [37]
level ~3$1020 cm3, resistivity 0.02e0.18 U cm; electrodes can be cut to a custom defined shape with a range of
surface finishes, metallization and bonding options
Windsor Scientific (UK), since 2019 Bio-Logic Boron doping level 0.1% (B/C 1000 ppm), resistivity 0.075 U cm; a) BDD in an inert Teflon body, 3 mm diameter, flat [38]
SAS (France) bottom part;
b) Individual pieces (both sides polished) 10 10.5 5 or 3 3 mm, thickness ~0.5 mm
NeoCoat a) Standard NeoCoat®-Electrodes on silicon: monocrystalline or polycrystalline Si, thickness 1e2 mm, boron doping [39]
(Switzerland)b level 100e10 000 ppm (3$1019e3$1021 cm3), resistivity 0.002e0.5 U cm; available different shapes (rectangle,
disc, square), sizes, one or both sides coated
b) Standard NeoCoat®-Electrodes on metal: Nb or Ta substrates, thickness 1 mm, boron doping level 2500 ppm,
resistivity 0.015 U cm, both sides coated
c) NeoCoat®-Analytics: (1) micro-electrodes chips sensors with standard size of 3 7 mm or upon request:
microdisc array (MDA, diameters in the range 2e10 mm) or interdigitated array (IDA, finger distance of less than
5 mm) of BDD electrodes. (2) SenSys Sensors: p-Si, thickness 0.5 mm, chip size 2.8 7 mm, number of
microelectrodes 50e500, microelectrode size 3e15 mm
d) NeoCoat®-RDE set: p-Si, thickness 1 mm, resistivity 0.10e0.15 U cm
Condias (Germany)c HFCVD BDD, plates, mesh, pins and combinations thereof, areas up to 100 50 cm2, standard substrate materials: [40]
Nb, Ta, Si, graphite, and conductive ceramics, BDD thickness >15 mm
sp3 Diamond Technologies (USA) Undoped or conductive HFCVD Si/BDD films (resistivity 0.05e10 U cm), wafer diameters (d) 50, 75, 100, 150, 200 [41]
and 300 mm, thickness 0.2e10.0 mm (thicker films available), grain size down to 10 nm; customized HFCVD BDD
coatings on large substrates and numerous substrate materials (graphite, Nb, Si, SiC, Ti, and W), customized boron
concentration
ESA Biosciencesd (USA) ESA Coulochem III detector with a choice of cell design: amperometric or coulometric cells with BDD electrode(s) [42]
Advanced Diamond Technology (USA) Nanocrystalline thin film BDD electrodes (UNCD®): [43]
polycrystalline diamond (UNCD Lightning25: conductive e boron-doped); substrate material Si, SiO2, thin metal
films as seed layers (Ti, Nb, Ta, W), sizes 10 10 mm up to 50 50 mm (other sizes available upon request),
resistivity 0.01e0.1 U cm
GL Sciences (Japan) Electrochemical detectors equipped with BDD electrode for HPLC instrumentation [44]
Fraunhofer CCD e Center for Coatings and a) BDD disk electrodes: a 2 mm polished BDD disk in a 6 cm long x 6 mm outer diameter PEEK housing (custom [45]
Diamond Technologies (USA) orders with other chemical resistant housings, including PTFE are possible); b) free-standing BDD plates
(10 10 mm or custom), as-grown, unpolished, thickness 0.4 mm; c) BDD MEAs, can be fabricated on various
substrates with several individual electrode diameters, center-to-center spacing and patterns; d) BDD optically
transparent electrodes, grown on quartz substrates
DropSens (Spain) Screen-printed BDD electrodes, deposited on ceramic substrate [46]
Antec Scientific (The Netherlands) Thin-layer flow cell equipped with BDD electrode (Magic Diamond™) for HPLC instrumentation [47]
a
Formerly De Beers Industrial Diamond.
b
Spin-off company of Swiss Center of Electronic and Microtechnology (CSEM), previously Adamant Technologies (AT).
c
Spin-off company of the Fraunhofer Institute for Thin Films and Surface Technology.
d
Acquisition of Thermo Fisher Scientific.
terminated) surfaces, frequently with an anodic cleaning step

preceding the cathodization. Further, mechanical polishing at
alumina slurry or silk cloth has been newly introduced; (ii) effect of
boron doping level has been investigated or at least stated for BDD
materials employed; (iii) adsorption of analytes and their associates
with surfactants has been utilized in adsorptive voltammetric
techniques, even using transfer techniques; (iv) role of sp2 carbon
phase in the electrochemical performance has been examined; (v)
frequency of studies dealing with reducible analytes has been
increased; (vi) increased attention has been paid to possibilities of
employment of voltammetric methods for simultaneous determi-
nation of multiple analytes, sometimes with employment of che-
mometric approaches in voltammetric techniques or with
multiple-pulse amperometric detection in liquid flow techniques;
Fig. 1. Number of publications in database Web of Knowledge issued from 1987 to
(vii) different strategies have been employed to enhance sensitivity
2018 related to boron-doped diamond (“boron doped diamond”: 5185 articles and selectivity of electroanalytical measurements with bare BDD
including 182 reviews, and 832 proceedings papers) and to application of boron doped materials, including structuring the BDD surface, construction of
diamond in electroanalysis (“boron doped diamond electro*” þ category: chemistry BDD MEAs and microelectrodes or even smaller-sized designs, and
analytical: 741 articles including 41 reviews, and 52 proceedings papers).
composite electrodes (screen printed, paste BDD electrodes).
electroanalytical methods used. The most important attributes in 2.1. Surface termination of bare BDD materials
the reported decade, previously not considered or representing a
marginal direction of BDD-related electroanalytical research are as In comparison with other carbon-based electrode materials,
follows: electron transfer at the heterogeneous surface of BDD is hindered
(i) Surface pretreatment has been identified as a crucial factor for many redox processes [55], leading to potential shifts of the
influencing electron transfer kinetics and increased number of corresponding signals closer to current onsets of both hydrogen or
studies has been performed on cathodically pretreated (i.e., H- oxygen evolution reactions (HER, OER), which limits the working
S. Baluchova
Table 2
Selected electroanalytical studies on bare BDD electrodes dealing with oxidizable and reducible (in italic script) organic compounds.
Analyte BDD electrode/ Electroanalytical method, LD Application, remarks Ref.

pre-treatment arrangement, conditionsX [mmol L1]
Neurotransmitters, their metabolites and precursors; interferents

Dopamine commercial Amp, 0.05 M PB pH 7 0.35 ED ¼ þ0.8 V [322]
BDDWS/PPT
Dopamine MWCVD BDD film/ Amp; 0.07 M PB pH 7, 1.5 e [223]
APT ED ¼ þ0.58 V (film), þ0.38 V 0.8 distinguishing DA
BDD nanograss (nanograss array) and UA signals
array/as-prepared
Dopamine MWCVD BDD/APT CV; 0.07 M PB pH 7 1.4 B/C 104 ppm [323]
Dopamine HFCVD BDDmE/as- FIA-FSCV; PBS pH 7.4 0.027 in vivo detection of [218]
prepared extracellular DA
Dopamine MWCVD BDD DPV; 0.1 M PBS pH 7.4 less than 0.100 determination in the [215]
NEA/APT presence of AA
3
Dopamine MWCVD UMEA/ CV; 0.1 M H2SO4 1.0$10 determination in the [324]
CPT presence of AA
Dopamine MWCVD BDDmE/ FSCV; PBS pH 7.4 not established B/C 20 000 ppm [220]
potential cycling
Dopamine, adenosine Thermo Scientific HPLC-CD; 45 mM (NH4)3PO4, 2.1$105, 1.2$103 determination in [244]
ESA model 5041 1.1 mM Na4P2O7, and 4% ACN, tissue-content
analytical cell with adjusted to pH 3 using H3PO4, samples from the
a BDD disk ED ¼ þ0.84 V (vs. Pd) frontal cortex and
electrode striatum of mice
Dopamine, ascorbic acid BDDCSEM/APT, SWV; 0.10 M HClO4 0.283, 0.968 simultaneously in [325]
8000 ppm synthetic
cerebrospinal fluid
and serum
Dopamine, ascorbic acid commercial BDD ChA; 0.1 M PB pH 7.4, 0.042, 7.5 simultaneously [213]
MEAAT/APT ED ¼ þ0.4 V (DA), þ1.3 V (AA)
Dopamine, cysteamine commercial FIA-MPA (wall-jet); 0.011, 0.013 river water and [263]
BDDNC/CPT 0.05 M H2SO4 bovine serum
Dopamine, pyridoxine (vitamin B6) EA-HFCVD porous DPV; 0.1 M PB pH 7 0.06, 0.21 simultaneously in [228]
BDD/as-prepared human serum
Dopamine, uric acid HFCVD BDD- LSV; 0.2 M PB pH 7 0.27, 2.1 simultaneously [221]
coated “black Si”
long-needle
electrode/as-
prepared
Dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine commercial HPLC-AD; 20 mM AcB-CB/ACN 1.31$103, 1.09$103, simultaneously in [326]
detector (ED703, (100/16, v/v) with 1 g L1 1.18$103 human urine
GL Sciences, sodium 1-octanesulfonate,
Japan)/APT ED ¼ þ0.8 V
Epinephrine commercial SWV; 0.5 M HClO4 0.21 human urine [327]
BDDWS/PPT
Epinephrine HFCVD porous FIA-AD (wall-jet); 0.2 M PB pH 0.50 synthetic serum [231]
BDD/as-prepared 7, ED ¼ þ0.30 V
Epinephrine, normetanephrine, commercial CZE-AD; 50 mM H3PO4 - Tris 1.7, 1.7, 0.4, 1.7, 0.4, 0.4, 0.3, 0.8, 2.1, 2.1, simultaneously in [328]
tryptophan, isoproterenol, BDDWS/as- (pH 3), ED ¼ þ1.0 V 1.3 human urine
homovanillic acid, vanillylmandelic prepared
acid, indoxyl sulfate, 5-
hydroxytryptamine, 4-hydroxy-3-
methoxybenzylamine, 3,4-
dihydroxybenzylamine, tryptamine
L-DOPA commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 3 0.8 seeds extracts of [258]
BDDWS/- velvet bean
L-DOPA Commercial ECD HPLC-ED; 20 mM AcB-CB:ACN 10 fmol human plasma [329]
(ED703, GL (100:5, v/v) with 1 g L1
Sciences, Japan) sodium 1-octanesulfonate,
ED ¼ þ1.0 V
Serotonin MWCVD BDDmE/ high-speed ChA; 150 mM NaCl, 0.013 serotonin transport [330]
as-prepared 5 mM KCl, 1.2 mM MgCl2, in primary
5 mM glucose, 10 mM HEPES, lymphocytes
and 2 mM CaCl2, pH 7.4,
ED ¼ þ0.8 V
Serotonin Commercial CV; 0.1 M NaCl with 5 mM 0.5 e [60]
BDDES/acid HEPES buffer
cleaning, O-
termination
Tryptophan BDD nanowires/ DPV; Na2PO4/NaOH (pH 11) 0.5 e [224]
APT
Tryptophan, tyrosine BDDCSEM/UV DPV; 0.1 M KCl (pH 7.4) 5, 5 simultaneously in [226]
irradiation 0.5, 0.2 human plasma
BDD nanowires/
UV irradiation
Vanillylmandelic acid, homovanillic acid DPV; 0.1 M PB pH 3 0.4, 0.6 e [63]
S. Baluchova 5
Table 2 (continued )

commercial
BDDWS/APT
Monocyclic and polycyclic (substituted) aromatic hydrocarbons; heterocycles
2-Aminobiphenyl, MWCVD BDD/APT HPLC-AD; 10 mM AcB pH thin-layer/wall-jet simultaneously in [331]
3-aminobiphenyl, 5:ACN:MeOH (40:30:30, v/v/ 1.6$101/2.1$102 model samples of
4-aminobiphenyl v); 7.5$102/2.3$102 tartrazine
ED (vs. SHE) ¼ þ1.44 V (thin- 1.1$102/2.0$102
layer), þ1.20 V (wall-jet)
2-Aminobiphenyl, MWCVD BDD/APT DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 7 DPV/HPLC model solutions of [75]
4-aminobiphenyl, HPLC-AD (wall-jet); -/0.060 Sunset Yellow
1-aminonaphthalene, ACN:0.01 M PB pH 3 (40:60, v/ -/0.039
2-aminonaphthalene v), ED ¼ þ1.0 V 0.89/0.021
0.44/0.018
1-Aminonaphthalene MWCVD BDD/APT DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 2 1.4 e [78]
1-Hydroxypyrene commercial HPLC-AD (wall-jet); MeOH: 0.087 human urine [332]
BDDWS/potential 0.05 M PB pH 5 (80:20, v/v),
pulses ED ¼ þ1.0 V
1-Nitropyrene, 1-aminopyrene commercial DPV; MeOH:0.04 M BRB pH 3 0.3, 0.06 e [74]
BDDWS/potential (70:30, v/v)
pulses
1-Nitropyrene, 1-aminopyrene, 1- commercial DPV; MeOH:0.04 M BRB pH 3 0.30, 0.06, 0.10 simultaneous [191]
hydroxypyrene BDDWS/potential (70:30, v/v) determination
pulses
2-(2-Hydroxyphenyl)-thiazole-4- commercial Amp; 50 mM PB pH 9 with 20% 0.012 ED ¼ þ0.7 V [333]
carbaldehyde BDDWS/PPT ACN
2-Aminoacetophenone N/A/PPT CV; PB pH 7 4860 exhaled air [334]
2-Aminobiphenyl MWCVD BDD/APT, DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 7 0.72, 0.48, 0.80, 0.48, and 0.21 [168]
B/C (ppm): 500,
1000, 2000, 4000,
and 8000
2-Aminobiphenyl, MWCVD BDD/APT HPLC-AD (thin-layer); 0.01 M 0.060, 0.096, 0.15 drinking and river [76]
3-aminobiphenyl, AcB pH 5:ACN:MeOH (40/30/ water
4-aminobiphenyl 30, v/v/v), ED ¼ þ1.2 V
2-Heptyl-3-hydroxy-4-quinolone commercial Amp; 15 mM H3PO4 adjusted 1.0$103 detection in cultures [89]
BDDWS/APT to pH 2 with 1 M HCl:ACN (1:1, of P. aeruginosa
v/v), ED ¼ þ0.8 V mutant strains
2-Heptyl-3-hydroxy-4-quinolone, 2- commercial DPV; 50 mM AcB pH 5 with 0.25, 0.25, 0.05 simultaneously in [335]
heptyl-4-hydroxyquinoline, pyocyanin BDDWS/PPT 20% ACN microbial
P. aeruginosa strain
2-Heptyl-3-hydroxy-4-quinolone, 2- commercial DPV; 50 mM AcB pH 5 with 1.07, 2.48, 1.74 bacterial cultures, [90]
heptyl-4-hydroxyquinoline, pyocyanin BDDWS/potential 20% ACN þ 1.0 mM CTAB cystic fibrosis
cycling sputum
1-Naphthol, 2-naphthol commercial DPV; 0.05 M H2SO4 0.05, 0.10 natural water, [336]
BDDNC/CPT synthetic urine
5-Nitroquinoline MWCVD BDD/APT DPV; 0.1 M AcB pH 5 0.20 or 0.50 e [101]
or CPT
Anthranilic acid, salicylic acid commercial LSV; 0.1 M PB pH 7 with 16% 3.79, 0.80 plant growth [337]
BDDWS/potential EtOH stimulants
cycling
Barakacin commercial DPV; 50 mM PB pH 2 with 20% 5$103 bovine feces, sputum [338]
BDDWS/PPT ACN of cystic fibrosis
patients
Benzo[a]pyrene commercial SW-AdSV; DMSO-0.1 M BRB 1.02$102 tap water [149]
BDDWS/APT pH 2 with 250 mM SDS,
Eacc ¼ þ0.1 V, tacc ¼ 120 s
Cocaine commercial BIA-SWV (wall-jet); 0.89 real cocaine samples [133]
BDDNC/CPT 0.1 M H2SO4
Cotinine commercial FIA-MPA (wall-jet); 0.1 M PB 0.06 saliva; reductive [178]
BDDNC/CPT pH 7 determination of
oxidation product
Ethylone commercial SWV; 0.5 M H2SO4 3.7 seized street drug [239]
BDDNC/CPT
Indole-3-acetic ccid commercial SWV; 0.1 M BRB pH 2 1.22 plant seeds [121]
BDDWS/APT
Isatin MWCVD BDD/as- FIA-AD (thin-layer); 0.1 M PB 0.10 ED ¼ þ1.1 V [339]
prepared pH 7.2
Isatin MWCVD BDD/- SWV; 0.1 M PBS pH 7.4 0.22 synthetic urine [212]
MWCVD BDD 0.04
MEA/-
Methamphetamine HFCVD BDD/CPT DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 10 0.05 human urine [340]
N-hydroxysuccinimide MWCVD BDD/as- LSV; 0.1 M NaHCO3 10.9 e [341]
prepared
Nicotine DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 8 0.3 [342]
(continued on next page)
S. Baluchova

commercial tobacco products,

BDDWS/PPT anti-smoking
pharmaceuticals
Phenanthrenequinone dioxime commercial DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 3 0.22 human blood [257]
BDDWS/CPT
Uric acid HFCVD BDD film/ Amp; 0.1 M PBS pH 7.4 1.3 ED ¼ þ0.4 V (vs. SCE) [230]
as-prepared 3.2
HFCVD micro-
patterned BDD/as-
prepared
Uric acid HFCVD BDD/as- DPV; 0.1 mM NaOH 3.9, 3.2, and 2.1 e [175]
prepared
B/C (ppm): 3500,
5500 and 7500
Uric acid HFCVD BDD/- DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 2.25 7.7 human urine [343]
DNA, RNA and their constituents; modified nucleot(s)ides
7-Methylguanine commercial SWV; 0.1 M AcB pH 5 1.2 human urine [135]
BDDWS/PPT
0
4-nitrophenyl-triazole-labeled 2 - commercial CV; 0.2 M AcB pH 5 1.0 (for in- and ex-situ modes) e [193]
deoxycytidine and 7-deazaadenosine BDDWS/PPT
8-Oxoguanine BDDCSEM/CPT DPV; 0.1 M AcB pH 4.5 1.0 e [301]
Adenine HFCVD, B/C Amp; 0.1 M AcB pH 4.3, 5.0 (film), determination in the [229]
5000 ppm ED ¼ þ1.4 V (vs. SCE) 2.5 (nanorod forest) presence of AA and
BDD film/as- UA
prepared
BDD nanorod
forest/as-prepared
Adenine, guanine commercial DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 6 0.019, 0,037 human urine [305]
BDDWS/PPT
Adenine, guanine, caffeine MWCVD BDD/H- DPV; 0.05 M PB pH 4.5 3.1, 98, 6.25 e [344]
plasma
AMP, ADP, ATP MWCVD BDD/CPT CV; 0.2 M PB pH 4 3.0, 2.8, 2.0 e [319]
AMP, ADP, ATP N/A/- CE-AD; 0.1 M PB pH 7, 1.78, 0.56, 0.59 simultaneous [345]
ED ¼ þ0.95 V detection
AMP, GMP, CMP, TMP BDDCSEM/APT; CPT SWV; 0.1 M BRB pH 7 not established simultaneous [233]
detection
Guanine commercial CV; 0.5 M KOH (pH 14) 1.76 e [242]
BDDWS/PPT
Phenolic and polyphenolic compounds; quinones
2-Nitrophenol, commercial HPLC-AD (wall-jet); Red/Ox mode simultaneously in [182]
4-nitrophenol, BDDWS/potential Red mode: 0.05 M AcB pH 1.2/1.0 drinking and river
2,4-dinitrophenol cycling 4.7:MeOH (58:42, v/v), 0.8/1.5 water
ED ¼ 1.2 V 0.7/0.6
Ox mode: 0.05 M PB pH
6.75:MeOH (65:35, v/v),
ED ¼ þ1.3 V
17 flavonoids: BDDCSEM/CPT HPLC-AD (wall-jet); gradient not established simultaneously in [245]
delphinidin, epigallocatechin gallate, elution (H2OeMeOH fruit extracts
ferulic acid, hesperidin, hyperoside, eHCOOH), ED ¼ þ1.2 V
kuromanin, malvidin, morin, quercetin,
quercetin-3-O-glucopyranoside,
peonidin, peonidin-3-O-rutinoside,
pellargonidin, procyanidin A2, rutin,
resveratrol, catechin
17a-Ethinylestradiol commercial SWV; 0.1 M BRB pH 8 0.3 supply dam [346]
BDDAT/CPT
2-Amino-3-nitrophenol, commercial DPV; BRB:MeOH (90:10, v/v) DPV/HPLC hair dyes [183]
2-amino-4-nitrophenol, BDDAT/APT HPLC-AD (wall-jet); 0.04 M PB 0.5/0.31
2-amino-5-nitrophenol, pH 2:MeOH (65:35, v/v), 0.9/0.15
4-amino-2-nitrophenol, ED ¼ þ1.0 V 0.6/0.21
4-amino-3-nitrophenol 0.5/0.16
0.4/0.18
2-Nitrophenol, 4-nitrophenol, 2,4- commercial DPV; BRB pH 4 / 6 / 4 0.090, 0.030, 0.030 drinking and river [181]
dinitrophenol BDDWS/potential water
cycling
4-Chloro-3-methylphenol commercial LSV, DPV, SWV; 0.1 M PB pH 2 0.85, 0.46, 0.34 e [123]
BDDWS/APT LSV; 0.01 M NaOH with 0.36
commercial 20 mmol L1 CTAB
BDDWS/PPT
4-Chloro-3-methylphenol MWCVD BDD/APT, DPV; 0.1 M PB pH 2 0.25, 0.29, 0.11, 0.12, and 0.20 e [123]
B/C (ppm): 500,
1000, 2000, 4000
and 8000
Benzophenone-3 e [73]
S. Baluchova 7

commercial DPV; 0.01 M NaOH with 0.1

BDDWS/PPT 0.1 mM CTAB 1.5, 1.9, and 0.8
MWCVD BDD/APT, DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 12
B/C (ppm): 2000,
4000, and 8000
Bisphenol A commercial DPV; 0.5 M H2SO4 0.21 e [111]
BDDAT/CPT
Bisphenol A, bisphenol F, 4-ethylphenol, commercial CE-AD; 50 mM PB pH 10.5 with 0.3, 0.3, 0.3, 0.5 bottled water [347]
bisphenol A diglycidyl ether BDDWS/potential 3% ACN, ED ¼ þ1.4 V samples exposed to
cycling sunlight
Butylated hydroxyanisole, butylated BDDCSEM/CPT SWV; 10 mM KNO3 (pH 1.5 0.14, 0.25 simultaneously in [99]
hydroxytoluene adjusted with 1.0 M HNO3) margarine and
mayonnaise
Butylated hydroxyanisole, butylated BDDCSEM/CPT FIA-MPA (wall-jet); 10 mM 0.030, 0.40 simultaneously in [348]
hydroxytoluene KNO3 (pH 1.5 adjusted with mayonnaise
1 M HNO3) with 30% EtOH
Butylated hydroxyanisole commercial BIA-AD (wall-jet); 0.1 M HClO4 0.05 biodiesel [349]
BDDAT/CPT with 50% EtOH, ED ¼ þ1.0 V
Catechol MWCVD BDD film/ Amp; 0.07 M PB pH 7 2.8 ED ¼ þ0.6 V [227]
as-prepared 1.3 (film), þ1.1 V
MWCVD O-BDD (nanograss array)
nanograss array/
as-prepared
Catechol, resorcinol, hydroquinone commercial DPV; 0.05 M H2SO4 16.3, 19.2, 15.5 e [350]
BDDAT/APT
Estradiol commercial SWV; 0.10 M PB pH 12 1.6 also bisphenol A, [103]
BDDES/APT nonylphenol,
ethynylestradiol,
estrone, estriol
investigated
Estriol BDD film/CPT, SWV; 5.0 mM NaOH 0.17 PhF þ human urine [351]
8000 ppm
Estrone commercial DPV, SWV; 0.25 M H2SO4 0.20, 0.10 water matrices [352]
BDDAT/CPT
Estrone, 17-b-estradiol N/A/CPT HPLC-AD; 0.01 M PB pH 5:ACN 0.211, 0.196 human urine [353]
(72:28, v/v), ED ¼ þ1.2 V
Estrone, 17-b-estradiol, estriol commercial FIA-AD; 0.5 M H2SO4, 0.10, 0.10, 0.10 tap and river water [354]
BDDAT/CPT ED ¼ þ1.15 V
Hydroquinone commercial BIA-AD (wall-jet); 0.1 M H2SO4, 0.016 PhF [355]
Methylparaben, ethylparaben, BDD disk/CPT, HPLC-AD (thin layer); 25 mM N/A shampoos [356]
propylparaben 8000 ppm Na2HPO4 pH 7:ACN (40:60, v/
v), pulse mode
Phenol HFCVD BDD/H- SWV; 0.5 M H2SO4 0.85 e [357]
plasma
Phenol HFCVD BDD/CPT SWV; 0.5 M H2SO4 95.6 (E1), 87.1 (E2) e [358]
E1 ¼ cauli-flower
structure;
E2 ¼ flat surface
Pterostilbene commercial SW-AdSV; 0.1 M HNO3 with 4.3$103 dietary supplements [106]
BDDWS/CPT 0.2 mM CTAB, open-circuit,
tacc ¼ 30 s
Pyrogallol commercial LSV; 0.18 M H2SO4 0.85 biodiesel blends [359]
BDDWS/-
Quercetin MWCVD BDD/APT FIA-AD (wall-jet); 0.1 M 0.3 ED ¼ þ0.9 V [360]
HNO3:MeOH (1:1, v/v)
Resveratrol commercial SW-AdSV; 0.1 M HNO3 with 0.0276 dietary supplements [147]
BDDWS/CPT 0.1 mM HTAB, open-circuit,
tacc ¼ 60 s
Tetrabromobisphenol A HFCVD BDD/CPT CV; 0.1 M PB pH 8 0.027 river water [361]
Thymol commercial SWV; BRB pH 4.0 3.9 essential oil of Carum [362]
BDDWS/- copticum seeds
Total phenols (ferulic acid, pyrocatechol, MWCVD BDD/APT LSV; acidic media pH 2.0 not established teas, juices and [360]
sinapic acid, quercetin) wines
Wedelolactone N/A/PPT SWV; BRB pH 2.5 0.14 plant extract [363]
a-Tocopherol (vitamin E), MWCVD BDD/as- FIA-AD; 50 mM NaClO4 in 0.041 ED ¼ þ0.6 V [364]
ubiquinone (coenzyme Q10) prepared MeOH 0.017 ED ¼ þ0.5 V
FIA-AD; 50 mM NaClO4 in
MeOH:hexane (76.7:23.3, v/v)
Pharmaceuticals and therapeutics
8-Chlorotheophylline, caffeine, commercial BIA-MPA (wall-jet); 0.05 M 0.31, 0.49, 0.76 simultaneously in [365]
diphenhydramine BDDNC/CPT AcB pH 4.7 PhF
8-Chlorotheophylline, diphenhydramine 0.11, 0.15 [366]
S. Baluchova

commercial BIA-MPA (wall-jet); 0.05 M simultaneously in

BDDAT/CPT AcB pH 4.7 PhF
Acetaminophen HFCVD porous FIA-AD (wall-jet); 0.2 M PB pH 0.70 synthetic serum [231]
BDD/as-prepared 7, ED ¼ þ0.50 V
Acetaminophen, tramadol commercial FIA-MPA; 0.05 M H2SO4 0.03, 0.04 simultaneously in [53]
BDDNC/CPT PhF þ synthetic
biological fluids
Acetylsalicylic acid BDDCSEM/CPT, SWV; 0.01 M H2SO4 2.0 PhF [128]
8000 ppm
Acetylsalicylic acid, caffeine BDDCSEM/CPT, DPV; 0.1 M H2SO4 0.23, 0.16 simultaneously in [129]
8000 ppm PhF
Albendazole commercial DPV, SWV; 0.05 M H2SO4 0.0625, 0.162 PhF [94]
BDDAT/CPT
Aliskiren BDDCSEM/CPT, SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 8 0.025 PhF þ human urine [367]
8000 ppm
Alprazolam commercial DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 5 0.64 PhF [176]
BDDWS/CPT
Ambroxol commercial SW-AdSV; 0.1 M PB pH 2.5 0.010 PhF þ human urine [146]
BDDWS/APT with 0.4 mM SDS,
Amiloride, furosemide commercial BIA-MPA; 0.1 M BB pH 10 with 0.57, 2.84 simultaneously in [368]
BDDNC/CPT 30% MeOH PhF
Amitriptyline commercial DPV; 0.1 M H2SO4 0.52 PhF [369]
BDDAT/CPT
Amlodipine, atorvastatin commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 4 with 0.028, 0.383 simultaneously in [115]
BDDAT/APT 10% MeOH PhF
Amlodipine HFCVD BDD/CPT DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 5 0.07 human urine [370]
Amlodipine, amiloride, commercial SWV; 0.1 M AmB pH 9 0.30, 0.09, 0.08, 0.06 simultaneously in [83]
hydrochlorthiazide, atenolol BDDAT/APT PhF þ tap water
Amlodipine, atenolol commercial DPV; 0.1 M PB pH 7.0 0.16, 0.19 simultaneously in [85]
BDDAT/CPT PhF
Amlodipine, atenolol commercial BIA-MPA; 0.04 M BRB pH 2 0.074, 0.073 simultaneously in [371]
BDDNC/CPT PhF
Amlodipine, hydrochlorothiazide commercial SWV; BRB pH 2 0.060, 2.00 simultaneously in [372]
BDDNC/CPT synthetic urine
Amlodipine, valsartan commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 5 0.0764, 0.193 simultaneously in [373]
BDDAT/CPT PhF þ synthetic urine
Amlodipine, valsartan, commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 5 0.23, 6.20, 0.75 simultaneously in [374]
hydrochlorothiazide BDDAT/CPT PhF
Andrographolide commercial DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 12 0.75 oil extract from [375]
BDDWS/- Andrographis
paniculata
seeds þ human urine
Ascorbic acid BDD film/potential DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 4 1.1 PhF [376]
cycling, 8000 ppm
Ascorbic acid, caffeine BDDCSEM/CPT, DPV; 0.1 M H2SO4 19, 7 simultaneously in [377]
8000 ppm PhF
Atenolol BDDCSEM/CPT, DPV, SWV; 0.50 M NaNO3 (pH 1.3, 0.93 PhF [378]
8000 ppm 1.0 adjusted with conc. HNO3)
Baicalein commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 2 0.26 human urine [379]
BDDWS/PPT
Benidipine commercial DPV, SWV; 0.5 M H2SO4 with 0.64, 0.65 PhF [380]
BDDWS/PPT 50% ACN
Benzocaine screen-printed DPV, SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 4 0.08, 0.10 PhF þ human urine [381]
BDDDropsens/APT
Berberine commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 5 0.04 seed extract from [382]
BDDWS/as- Argemone
received mexicana þ human
urine
Bezafibrate commercial DPV, SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 2 0.37, 0.098 PhF [114]
BDDAT/CPT
Brimonidine commercial DPV, SWV; 0.1 M H2SO4 0.631, 0.128 PhF [201]
BDDWS/CPT
Bromazepam commercial DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 11 0.31 PhF [176]
BDDWS/CPT
Captopril BDDCSEM/CPT, SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 9 0.165 PhF [383]
8000 ppm
Captopril, hydrochlorothiazide commercial BIA-MPA; 0.1 M AcB pH 4.7 0.14, 0.27 simultaneously in [384]
BDDAT/CPT PhF
Carisoprodol, commercial DPV, SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 6 DPV/SWV simultaneously in [82]
acetaminophen, BDDAT/APT 1.84/3.11 PhF
caffeine 1.17/0.768
0.133/0.771
Cefalexin DPV; 0.2 M AcB pH 4.5 0.10 [385]
S. Baluchova 9

commercial PhF þ river

BDDWS/PPT water þ human
urine
Cetirizine commercial DPV; 0.1 M PB pH 7 0.016 PhF þ human urine [386]
BDDWS/CPT
Ciclopirox olamine commercial SWV; McIlvaine's buffer pH 7 6.66 PhF [387]
BDDWS/CPT
Ciprofloxacin commercial BIA-AD; 0.1 M BRB pH 10, 0.33 PhF þ milk [388]
Ciprofloxacin commercial DPV, SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 7 0.44, 2.46 synthetic urine; [109]
BDDAT/CPT study on the
interaction with
dsDNA
Ciprofloxacin HFCVD BDD/ SWV; 0.1 M AcB pH 5 0.05 human urine [389]
potential cycling
Codeine commercial DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 7 0.08 PhF þ human urine [390]
BDDWS/H-plasma
Codeine, acetaminophen commercial SWV; 0.2 M AcB pH 4 0.014, 0.018 simultaneously in [98]
BDDNC/CPT PhF þ synthetic
urine þ human
serum
Colchicine commercial DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 7.5 0.26 PhF þ human serum; [391]
BDDWS/CPT interaction with
dsDNA
Colchicine commercial FIA-MPA (wall-jet); 0.021 PhF þ human urine; [265]
BDDNC/CPT 0.3 M H2SO4 reductive
determination of
oxidation product
Coumarin commercial SWV; 0.1 M BRB pH 8 1.5 aqueous infusion of [203]
BDDAT/CPT Mikania glomerata
Cyanocobalamin commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 2 0.7 human urine [254]
BDDWS/CPT
4
Cyclovirobuxin D commercial ECD HPLC-AD (thin-layer); 0.1 M PB 4.9$10 PhF þ human blood [392]
(Thermo Fisher pH 2.8:ACN:H2O, gradient
Scientific, USA) elution, ED ¼ þ1.0 V
Diclofenac commercial FIA-MPA (wall-jet); 0.14 PhF [393]
BDDAT/CPT 0.1 M H2SO4
Diclofenac commercial CV, DPV, SWV; 0.1 M Na2SO4 0.6, 0.03, 0.06 tap water [394]
BDDWS/PPT ChA; 0.1 M Na2SO4, ED ¼ þ0.7 V 1.0
(vs. SCE)
Diclofenac BDDCSEM/CPT, SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 2 0.115 PhF þ synthetic urine [395]
8000 ppm
Doxofylline N/A/PPT SWV; BRB pH 3.8 13.1 PhF [396]
Enrofloxacin commercial SW-AdSV; 0.1 M HNO3 with 0.0159 PhF þ human urine [104]
BDDWS/APT 0.9 mM SDS, open-circuit,
tacc ¼ 60 s
Epirubicin commercial DPV, SWV; 0.1 M H2SO4 with 0.079, 0.134 PhF [397]
BDDWS/PPT 1 mM SDS
Ertapenem commercial DPV, SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 2 0.099, 0.103 PhF [398]
BDDWS/PPT
Erythromycin HFCVD BDD/as- SWV; 0.1 M AcB pH 5 1.1 tap water and [399]
prepared wastewater
Ethionamide commercial SWV; 0.1 M BRB pH 5 0.294 PhF þ human urine [204]
BDDAT/CPT
Ezetimibe commercial DPV, SWV; 0.1 M H2SO4 with 0.227, 0.245 PhF þ human serum [61]
BDDWS/PPT 20% ACN
Febuxostat commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 5 0.095 PhF [87]
BDDWS/APT
Flutamide commercial DPV, P1/P2/P3 PhF þ human [400]
BDDWS/PPT SWV; 0.83/0.42/0.69 urine þ water (tap,
0.1 M H2SO4 0.52/0.21/0.18 river and well)
Folic acid HFCVD BDD/CPT SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 5 0.03 PhF [401,402]
Fosamprenavir commercial DPV, SWV; 0.1 M H2SO4 0.217, 0.297 PhF þ human serum [403]
BDDWS/PPT and urine
Fulvestrant commercial DP-AdSV; 0.1 M H2SO4, 0.236 PhF þ human serum [404]
BDDWS/PPT Eacc ¼ þ1.1 V, tacc ¼ 150 s
Furosemide commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 4.5 0.30 PhF þ synthetic urine [405]
BDDNC/CPT
Ganciclovir HFCVD BDD/H- DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 2.5 0.2, 0.3 human serum [406]
plasma;
nanocrystalline,
microcrystalline
Hydrochlorothiazide, enalapril 0.50, 0.01 [407]
S. Baluchova

commercial FIA-MPA (wall-jet); simultaneously in

BDDAT/CPT 0.05 M H2SO4 PhF
Hydrochlorothiazide, losartan commercial DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 9.5 1.2, 0.95 simultaneously in [81]
BDDAT/APT PhF
Hydrochlorothiazide, valsartan commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 5 0.639, 0.935 simultaneously in [116]
BDDAT/CPT PhF
Hydroxychloroquine commercial SWV; 0.1 M H2SO4 0.06 PhF þ synthetic urine [408]
BDDAT/CPT
Hydroxyzine BDDCSEM/CPT, DPV, SWV; 0.1 M HCl 0.84, 0.43 PhF [107]
8000 ppm
Chloramphenicol commercial SWV; 0.1 M PB pH 7.5 10 e [409]
BDDWS/PPT
Chlorpromazine commercial DPV; BRB pH 4 0.03 human urine [410]
BDDWS/-
Ibuprofen commercial DPV, SWV; 1 M HClO4 0.41, 0.93 PhF þ human urine [411]
BDDWS/PPT
Ibuprofen commercial DPV; 0.1 M H2SO4 with 10% 5.0 PhF [79]
BDDAT/APT EtOH
3
Imatinib commercial DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 2 6.3$10 human urine [412]
BDDWS/APT
Imipramine HFCVD BDD/ DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 9 0.5 PhF [413]
potential cycling
Imipramine BDDCSEM/CPT SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 7.4 0.044 PhF [414]
Indapamide commercial SWV; 0.01 M H2SO4 0.056 PhF þ synthetic [96]
BDDAT/CPT cerebrospinal
fluid þ tap water
Isotretinoin BDDCSEM/CPT, DPV; 0.1 M PB pH 7 0.53 PhF [415]
8000 ppm
Ivermectin commercial FIA-AD (wall-jet); 0.5 M H2SO4 0.30 PhF þ synthetic urine [249]
BDDNC/CPT with 30% EtOH, ED ¼ þ1.40 V
Ketoconazole commercial SWV; 0.2 M AmB pH 9.4 0.083 PhF [387]
BDDWS/CPT
Lamotrigine MWCVD mBDD/ ChA; 0.1 M PB pH 7.4 0.029 e [416]
CPT
Lercanidipine commercial SWV; 0.5 mM H2SO4 with 40% 0.147 PhF þ human serum [417]
BDDWS/PPT ACN
Leucovorin HFCVD BDD/APT DPV; 0.4 M BRB pH 3 0.067, 0.36, 0.12, 0.090, 0.10, and 0.42 PhF [171]
B/C (ppm): 1000,
2000, 4000, 8000,
10 000, and 20 000
Leucovorin commercial DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 3 0.015 PhF [418]
BDDWS/APT
Levamisole commercial FIA-AD (wall-jet); 0.5 M H2SO4, 1$103 PhF þ synthetic urine [249]
BDDNC/APT ED ¼ þ1.90 V
Levodropropizine commercial DPV, SWV; 0.2 M PB pH 3.5 1.79$103, 0.013 PhF [419]
BDDWS/PPT with 10% MeOH
Levofloxacin commercial BIA-AD (wall-jet); 0.04 M BRB 0.10 e [420]
BDDAT/APT pH 5, ED ¼ þ1.3 V
Levofloxacin BDDCSEM/potential CV, SWV; 1.4 mM Na2SO4 (pH 10.01, 2.88 human [421]
cycling 5.5) serum þ synthethic
urine
Levomepromazine commercial DPV, SWV; 0.1 M HClO4 0.292, 0.128 PhF [422]
BDDWS/PPT
Loratadine commercial SWV; 0.50 M HClO4 0.78 PhF [423]
BDDAT/CPT
Lornoxicam commercial DPV, SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 2 0.17, 0.16 PhF þ human serum [424]
BDDWS/PPT with 20% ACN
Melatonin commercial CV; 1 M KCl, 10% CMC and 90% 10.3 dietary supplements [425]
BDDWS/PPT CaHPO4
Melatonin commercial SW-AdSV; 0.1 M BRB pH 3, 0.11 PhF þ human urine [144]
BDDWS/APT Eacc ¼ þ0.5 V, tacc ¼ 60 s
Melatonin, pyridoxine commercial SWV; 0.1 M BRB pH 2 0.60, 6.6 simultaneously in [426]
BDDWS/CPT dietary supplements
Mesalazine commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 7 0.70 PhF þ human urine [427]
BDDWS/CPT
Methotrexate commercial DPV; 0.05 M H2SO4 0.01 PhF þ human urine [428]
BDDWS/potential
cycling
Metoclopramide commercial DPV; BRB pH 6 0.039 PhF [429]
BDDAT/potential FIA-AD (wall-jet); BRB pH 6, 4.50$103
pulses ED ¼ þ1.3 V
Metoprolol, hydrochlorothiazide commercial DPV; 0.1 M LaB pH 4 0.077, 0.376 simultaneously in [430]
BDDAT/CPT PhF þ human urine
Metronidazole 0.065 PhF [187]
S. Baluchova 11

BDDCSEM/potential SWV; 0.3 M Na2SO4 adjusted to

cycling pH 11 by NaOH
Mirtazapine commercial DPV, SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 8 0.023, 0.005 PhF [431]
BDDWS/PPT with 10% MeOH
N-Acetyl-L-cysteine MW-PACVD BDD/ CV; 0.1 M PB pH 9 50 PhF [432]
PPT FIA-AD (thin-layer); 0.1 M PB 0.01
pH 9, ED ¼ þ0.85 V
Naphazoline commercial BIA-SWV; 0.05 M AcB pH 4.7 0.040 PhF [433]
BDDNC/CPT
Nebivolol commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 8 0.032 PhF [434]
BDDWS/PPT
Nifedipine, atenolol commercial DPV; 0.1 M TRIS buffer pH 8 0.61, 0.10 simultaneously in [84]
BDDAT/APT PhF
Nitrazepam, clonazepam, diazepam BDDCSEM/CPT, HPLC-AD (thin-layer), pulse 1.78, 1.90, 7.02 PhF [190]
8000 ppm mode; 0.10 M PB pH 3.5:ACN
(65:35, v/v)
Nitrofurantoin HFCVD BDD/CPT, SWV; 0.1 M BRB pH 4 2.69$102 and 8.15$103 PhF [174]
10 000 ppm and
20 000 ppm
Ofloxacin commercial SWV; 0.1 M PB pH 2 with 1 mM 0.0176 PhF þ human urine [435]
BDDWS/APT SDS
Omeprazole commercial LSV, SWV; 0.1 M PB pH 10 0.33, 0.091 PhF þ human urine [86]
BDDWS/APT
Oxacillin commercial DPV; 0.2 M AcB pH 4.5 27.2 PhF þ human urine [436]
BDDWS/PPT
Oxcarbazepine commercial FIA-MPA (wall-jet); 0.1 M AcB 0.42 PhF þ human urine; [261]
BDDNC/CPT pH 4 reductive
determination of
oxidation product
Paracetamol, ascorbic acid commercial DPV; 0.1 M Na2SO4 pH 7 1.50, 1.31 PhF [437]
BDDWS/PPT
Paracetamol, caffeine BDDCSEM/CPT, DPV; 0.2 M AcB pH 4.5 0.49, 0.035 PhF [438]
8000 ppm
Paracetamol, caffeine acetylsalicylic acid commercial BIA-MPA; 0.1 M H2SO4 1.59, 0.41, 1.28 simultaneously in [259]
BDDNC/APT PhF
Paracetamol, caffeine, acetylsalicylic acid commercial SW-AdSV; 0.1 M PB pH 2.5, 3.90, 1.43, 7.27 simultaneously in [439]
BDDWS/CPT open-circuit, tacc ¼ 30 s PhF
Paracetamol, caffeine, orphenadrine BDDCSEM/CPT, SWV; 0.5 M H2SO4 0.23, 0.096, 0.084 simultaneously in [440]
8000 ppm PhF
Paracetamol, ibuprofen commercial DPV; 0.1 M H2SO4 with 10% 7.1, 3.8 simultaneously in [80]
BDDAT/CPT EtOH PhF
Paracetamol, ibuprofen, caffeine commercial FIA-MPA (wall-jet); 0.1 M 0.15, 0.13, 0.16 simultaneously in [266]
BDDAT/CPT HNO3 with 5% EtOH PhF
Paracetamol, nimesulide commercial BIA-MPA; 0.1 M H2SO4:EtOH 1.94, 0.96 simultaneously in [188]
BDDAT/CPT (70:30, v/v) PhF
Paroxetine N/A SW-AdSV; 0.1 M H2SO4, 6.95$103 PhF [143]
Penicillin V commercial DPV; AcB pH 4 0.25 PhF þ human urine [441]
BDDWS/-
Phenazopyridine, sulfamethoxazole, commercial BIA-MPA; 0.05 M PB pH 0.23, 0.79, 0.52 simultaneously in [442]
trimethoprim BDDNC/CPT 7:MeOH (70:30, v/v) PhF
Pheniramine, naphazoline, commercial BIA-MPA (wall-jet); 0.04 M 0.64, 0.11, 0.47 simultaneously in [443]
chlorpheniramine BDDNC/CPT BRB pH 10 PhF
Phentolamine commercial SWV; BRB pH 2.5, (þSDS) 2.52, (3.80) e [444]
BDDWS/APT
3
Phentolamine commercial SWV; BRB pH 2.5 with 0.24 mM 2.52$10 human plasma [145]
BDDWS/APT SLS
Pindolol BDDCSEM/CPT, SWV, DPV; 0.2 M PB pH 6 0.043, 0.026 PhF þ synthetic urine [105]
8000 ppm and serum
Piribedil N/A/PPT DPV; 0.1 M AcB pH 3.7 with 0.0195 PhF [445]
20% MeOH
Prazosin commercial FIA-MPA (wall-jet); 0.1 M PB 0.5 PhF þ human urine; [264]
BDDNC/CPT pH 4 reductive
determination of
oxidation product
Promazine commercial DPV, SWV; 0.1 M HClO4 0.294, 0.129 PhF [422]
BDDWS/PPT
Propofol RD BDDNC/ CV; 10 mM PB pH 7.4 2.49 ± 0.90 human serum [446]
potential cycling
Propranolol BDDCSEM/CPT, DPV, SWV; 0.1 M H2SO4 0.19, 0.18 PhF [378]
8000 ppm
Propylthiouracil commercial DPV, SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 2 0.90, 0.92 PhF [110]
BDDAT/CPT
S. Baluchova

Propyphenazone, paracetamol, caffeine commercial SWV; 0.1 M H2SO4 0.039, 0.033, 0.031 simultaneously in [447]
BDDNC/CPT PhF
Propyphenazone, paracetamol, caffeine commercial BIA-SWV (wall-jet); 0.868, 1.98, 1.54 simultaneously in [447]
BDDNC/CPT 0.1 M H2SO4 PhF
Prothipendyl commercial DPV, SWV; 0.1 M HClO4 0.386, 0.160 PhF [422]
BDDWS/PPT
Pyridoxine (vitamin B6) commercial DPV; BRB pH 6 3.76 PhF þ human urine [251]
BDDWS/CPT
Ramipril, hydrochlorothiazide commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 2 0.027, 0.018 simultaneously in [113]
BDDAT/CPT PhF
Rapamycin commercial DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 3 0.22 human urine and [448]
BDDWS/- serum
3
Riboflavin (vitamin B2) commercial SWV; BRB pH 2 3.7$10 PhF þ human urine [255]
BDDWS/PPT
Riluzole commercial DPV, SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 3 0.028, 0.167 PhF þ human serum [449]
BDDWS/PPT
Rosuvastatin calcium BDDCSEM/CPT, SWV; 0.1 M H2SO4 1.04 PhF þ human urine [108]
8000 ppm and serum
3
Rutin commercial SW-AdSV; 0.1 M BRB pH 4, 2.78$10 dietary supplements [450]
Scopolamine BDDCSEM/CPT, DPV, SWV; 0.5 M H2SO4 0.90, 0.84 PhF [451]
8000 ppm
Sertindole commercial DPV, SWV; 0.2 M AcB pH 3.5 0.24, 0.22 PhF þ human serum [452]
BDDWS/PPT with 30% ACN
Sildenafil, vardenafil, N-desmethyl Coulochem III HPLC-CD; 20 mM NaH2PO4 6.3$103, 6.1$103, 8.7$103, 4.3$103 human plasma [453]
sildenafil, N-desethyl vardenafil (model 5020, ESA, with 40 mM NaClO4:ACN
USA) (70:30, v/v), pH 3.5,
ED ¼ þ1.52 V (vs. Pd/H2)
Sildenafil BDDCSEM/CPT, DPV; 0.1 M H2SO4 0.64 PhF [454]
8000 ppm
Sildenafil BDDCSEM/CPT, FIA-MPA (wall-jet); 0.038 PhF [455]
8000 ppm, 0.1 M H2SO4
cleaning
pulse þ1 V
Sulfaguanidine, sulfadiazine, N/A HPLC-AD (thin-layer); 0.1 M PB 1.6$102, 7.6$103, 7.9$103, 5.0$103, shrimp samples [456]
sulfamethazine, sulfamonomethoxine, pH 3:ACN:EtOH (80:15:5, v/v/ 4.7$103, 6.4$103, 6.3$103
sulfamethoxazole, sulfadimethoxine, v), ED ¼ þ1.2 V
sulfaquinoxaline
Sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim BDDCSEM/CPT, DPV; 0.2 M BRB pH 7 0.0144, 0.0135 simultaneously in [118]
8000 ppm PhF
Sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim BDDCSEM/CPT, multicommutation stopped- 0.065, 0.063 simultaneously in [457]
8000 ppm flow system-DPV; 0.2 M BRB PhF
pH 7
Sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim BDDCSEM/APT, HPLC-AD (thin-layer); 0.099, 0.052 bovine milk [458]
8000 ppm 0.05 M PB pH 5:ACN (82:18, v/
v), ED ¼ þ1.25 V
Tadalafil commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 4 0.042 PhF [459]
BDDAT/CPT
Tenofovir commercial SWV; 0.1 M BRB pH 4 0.56 interaction with [460]
BDDWS/PPT ssDNA and dsDNA
Terbinafine commercial DPV, SWV; BRB pH 6.1 0.236, 0.164 PhF [62]
BDDWS/CPT
Theophylline HFCVD BDD/ DPV, SWV; 1 M H2SO4 0.91, 1.45 PhF þ human urine [461]
potential cycling
Thioridazine commercial DPV; BRB pH 6 0.12 human urine [410]
BDDWS/-
Ticlopidine commercial DPV, SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 5 0.66, 0.84 PhF þ human urine [95]
BDDAT/CPT
Tolterodine tartrate commercial DPV, SWV; BRB pH 11 0.04, 0.13 PhF [462]
BDDWS/PPT
Trifluoperazine commercial DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 6 0.6 human urine [362]
BDDWS/CPT
Valacyclovir commercial DPV; 0.2 M PB pH 4 0.0764 PhF þ human urine [463]
BDDWS/PPT SWV; 0.2 M PB pH 6 0.193 and serum
Valacyclovir commercial DPV; 0.2 M PB pH 3 0.10 PhF þ human [137]
BDDWS/PPT DPV; 0.2 M H2SO4 þ 1 mM SDS 0.021 urine þ synthetic
gastric fluid
Varenicline commercial SWV; BRB pH 3.5 0.15 human plasma [202]
BDDWS/APT
Verapamil commercial FIA-MPA (wall-jet); 0.16 PhF þ human urine; [464]
BDDNC/CPT 0.1 M H2SO4 reductive
determination of
oxidation product
Warfarin 0.10/0.16 PhF [260]
S. Baluchova 13

commercial BIA/FIA-MPA (wall-jet);

BDDNC/CPT 0.1 M PB pH 7 with 10% EtOH
Yohimbine commercial DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 7 0.13 natural aphrodisiacs [465]
BDDWS/CPT
Yohimbine commercial FIA-AD (thin-layer); 0.04 M 0.15 dietary supplements [465]
BDDWS/CPT BRB pH 7, ED ¼ þ1.20 V
Ziprasidone commercial DPV, SWV; 0.2 M AcB pH 5.5 0.075, 0.048 PhF þ human serum [466]
BDDWS/PPT
Zolmitriptan commercial DPV, SWV; 0.2 M PB pH 3 0.073, 0.263 PhF þ human serum [467]
BDDWS/PPT
a-Lipoic acid commercial DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 3 0.088 human urine [256]
BDDWS/- Amp; 0.04 M BRB pH 3, 0.06
ED ¼ þ0.9 V
a-Lipoic acid, lipoamide MWCVD BDD/as- HPLC-AD (thin-layer); 0.015, 0.018 dietary supplements [468]
prepared ACN:0.05 M PB pH 2.5 (1:1, v/
v), ED ¼ þ1.05 V
Food and/or beverage components and additives
5-O-caffeoylquinic acid, vanillin, caffeine commercial SW-AdSV; 0.1 M HNO3, open- 0.40, 0.38, 0.15 simultaneously in [119]
BDDWS/CPT circuit, tacc ¼ 60 s foods and beverages
Aspartame, acesulfame-K commercial DPV; 0.30 M H2SO4 1.60, 280 simultaneously in [469]
BDDNC/APT food products
Caffeine commercial DPV; 0.4 M HClO4 0.15 beverages [470]
BDDWS/potential
cycling
Caffeine N/A/- DPV; 0.5 M H2SO4 0.1 e [471]
Caffeine, chlorogenic acid commercial SW-AdSV; 0.1 M BRB pH 1, 0.551, 1.26 beverages [126]
BDDWS/APT open-circuit, tacc ¼ 60 s
Capsaicin commercial SW-AdSV; 0.1 M BRB pH 1 with 0.034 pepper products [136]
BDDWS/PPT 0.8 mM SDS, open-circuit,
tacc ¼ 90 s
Chlorogenic acid commercial SW-AdTSV; BRB pH 3, 0.14 coffee products [142]
Ethoxyquin, ethoxyquin dimer electrochemical LC-AD (thin-layer); 0.1 M FB 0.23, 0.23 pear skin and salmon [472]
flow cell (FlexCell, pH 3.5:ACN, gradient mode,
NL) ED ¼ þ1.0 V
Harmaline commercial DPV, SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 5 0.08, 0.2 natural food [473]
BDDWS/CPT products
Indigo carmine BDDCSEM/CPT, SWV; 0.3 M H2SO4 0.058 tap and sea water [474]
8000 ppm
Indigo carmine, allura red commercial FIA-MPA (wall-jet and thin- 0.040, 0.007 candy [120]
BDDNC/CPT layer combination);
0.30 M H2SO4
Indole, 3-methylindole MWCVD BDD/ SWV; 0.3 M KCl 0.03, 0.05 contaminated pork [236]
potential pulses fat
N-nitrosodimethylamine N/A/CPT SWV; 0.1 M PB pH 2.2 9.45$104 broccoli, spinach, [475]
cabbage
Niacin (vitamin B3) commercial FIA-MPA (wall-jet); 0.20 M HCl 0.79 coffee samples [250]
BDDWS/-
3
Nobiletin Commercial ECD CLC-ECD; H2O:ACN:H3PO4 6.71$10 rat plasma [476]
(703, GL Science, (65:35:0.5, v/v/v)
Japan)/-
Phlorizin commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 6 0.23 apple root extracts, [477]
BDDWS/CPT urine samples
2 2
Tartrazine (TT), BDDCSEM/CPT, DPV; 0.10 M H2SO4 6.27$10 (TT) and 1.31$10 (SY) simultaneously in [117]
sunset yellow (SY), 8000 ppm 0.143 (BB) and 2.56$102 (SY) food products
brilliant blue (BB)
Tartrazine (TT), BDDCSEM/CPT, FIA-MPA; 0.1 M H2SO4 2.5 (TT) and 0.80 (SY) simultaneously in [100]
sunset yellow (SY), 8000 ppm 3.5 (BB) and 0.85 (SY) food products
brilliant blue (BB)
Theobromine screen-printed DPV, SWV; 0.1 M H2SO4 0.42, 0.51 chocolate products [478]
BDDDropsens/as-
received
Vanillin commercial SW-AdSV; 0.1 M PB pH 2.5, 0.16 pudding powder [122]
BDDWS/APT open-circuit, tacc ¼ 60 s
Vanillin, caffeine commercial SW-AdSV; 0.1 M PB pH 2.5, 1.54, 0.366 simultaneously in [141]
BDDWS/APT open-circuit, tacc ¼ 60 s foods and beverages
Xylitol BDDCSEM/CPT, SWV; 0.1 M PB pH 7 1.3 mouthwash [97]
8000 ppm
Pesticides
Aldicarb, carbaryl, carbofuran, methomyl, commercial SWV; 0.1 M Na2SO4 not established classification in [240]
propoxur BDDWS/CPT commercial PPs
Atrazine commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 3 0.010 river water [57]
BDDWS/PPT
S. Baluchova

Bentazone commercial SWV, DPV; BRB pH 4 1.2, 0.5 river water [479]
BDDWS/CPT
Bromacil commercial DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 2 1.26 river water [88]
BDDWS/APT
Carbendazim, carbaryl BDDCSEM/CPT, SWV; 0.1 M BRB pH 6 2.1, 1.5 simultaneously in [480]
8000 ppm Mikania glomerata
infusions
Carbendazim, fenamiphos BDDCSEM/CPT, SWV; 0.1 M BRB pH 5 1.6, 4.1 simultaneously in [237]
8000 ppm lemon juice
Clomazone commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 2 0.21 river water [481]
BDDWS/-
Dimethomorph BDDCSEM/CPT, SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 3 0.311 fresh grapes and red [482]
8000 ppm wine
Dimoxystrobin commercial BIA-AD; 0.04 M BRB pH 10, 0.38 natural water [483]
BDDAT/CPT ED ¼ þ1.9 V matrices
Diquat HFCVD BDD/CPT SWV; 0.05 M Na2B4O7 1.6$104 fresh food [197]
Diuron, tebuthiuron, 2,4- commercial DPV; 0.1 M H2SO4 0.035, 0.34, 0.12 simultaneously in [112]
dichlorophenoxyacetic acid BDDAT/CPT lake and well water
Fenfuram commercial SWV; 0.35 M H2SO4 6.26 natural water, [484]
BDDWS/PPT triticale seeds
Fenthion BDD film/-, B/C SWV; 0.1 M Na2HPO4 (pH 4) 0.080 Passiflora alata [485]
8000 ppm tinctures
Formetanate BDDCSEM/CPT, SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 7 0.37 fruits [486]
8000 ppm
Imidacloprid BDDCSEM/potential SWV; 0.05 M Na2SO4 (pH 7) 8.60 plum juice [189]
cycling, 3500 ppm
Kresoxim-methyl commercial SWV; 0.05 M AcB pH 4 0.26 grape juices [166]
BDDAT/CPT
Linuron commercial DPV, SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 2 0.18, 0.12 natural water [487]
BDDAT/CPT DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 2 8.8$103 effect of [B] content [169]
HFCVD BDD/CPT; and CH4/H2 ratio
4000 ppm, 2% investigated
CH4/H2
Mancozeb commercial BIA-PAD; PB pH 9 0.514 insecticide [488]
BDDNC/CPT
Maneb commercial DPV; 0.04 BRB pH 5 0.024 river water [252]
BDDWS/CPT
Metamitron commercial LSV, DPV, SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 1.4, 1.2, 0.98 PP þ river water [131]
BDDWS/PPT 2
Methiocarb commercial DPV; 0.1 M H2SO4 with 10% 0.67 PP [489]
BDDWS/as- MeOH
received
Methomyl N/A SWV, DPV; 0.1 M BRB pH 2 19, 1.2 PP þ river and tap [134]
water
Methyl parathion MWCVD BDD/as- DPV; PB pH 5.9 6.27 e [185]
prepared
Oxycarboxin commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 4 1.6 river water [490]
BDDWS/potential
cycling
Paraquat commercial SWV; 0.05 M AmB pH 9 1.5$103 river and sea water [198]
BDDWS/PPT
Paraquat commercial SWV; 0.1 M KCl adjusted to pH 0.070 human saliva, tap [199]
BDDNC/CPT 9 with 0.5 M NaOH and river water
Pethoxamid commercial SWV; BRB pH 4 1.37 PP þ river water [491]
BDDWS/CPT
Picloram commercial DPV; 1 M H2SO4 0.07 tap and natural [492]
BDDWS/H-plasma water, human urine
Picloram HFCVD BDD/CPT DPV; 1 M H2SO4 1.64 river water [493]
Picoxystrobin commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 4 0.2 natural water [130]
BDDAT/CPT BIA-MPA; 0.04 M BRB pH 1.6
4:ACN (3:2, v/v)
Pirimicarb commercial DPV; 1 mM PB pH 7 with 20% 1.24 tap and weir water [238]
BDDNC/CPT ACN
Propoxur commercial DPV; 1 mM AcB pH 5 with 20% 0.50 PP þ tap water [494]
BDDNC/CPT ACN
Pyraclostrobin commercial SWV; 0.05 M AcB pH 4 0.25 natural water, grape [495]
BDDAT/CPT juice
Terbutryn commercial DPV; 0.04 M BRB pH 2 0.18 drinking and river [200]
BDDWS/potential water
cycling
Triclopyr commercial DPV, SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 2 0.82, 1.85 PP þ river [496]
BDDWS/CPT water þ human
urine
Trifloxystrobin 0.14 [132]
S. Baluchova 15

commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 4 with orange juice,

BDDAT/CPT 30% ACN mineral, tap and
natural water
Ziram commercial FIA-AD (thin layer); 0.04 M 2.7$103 river water [253]
BDDWS/CPT BRB pH 4, ED ¼ þ0.55 V
Others
2,4,6-trinitrotoluene MWCVD BDD/ SWV; 0.5 M KCl with 5% ACN, 0.044 sea water [497]
oxidized in boiling pH 7 (adjusted by PB)
acid, 2000 ppm
25BeNBOMe, 25CeNBOMe, 25IeNBOMe, commercial SWV; 0.1 M AcB pH 4 with 10% 0.1, 0.05, 0.06, 0.08 blotting paper [262,498]
2CeB BDDNC/CPT MeOH samples
Cholesterol commercial BDD HPLC-AD; ACN with 10 mM 8.0$103 mmol L1 various meats [246]
(Fchem Co., Japan) LiClO4, ED ¼ þ2.2 V
Ergosterol commercial SWV; ACN with 0.1 M TBAHFP 0.7 fungi extract [499]
BDDWS/CPT
Glucose HFCVD BDD/as- LSV; 0.2 M NaOH 25 human blood [500,501]
prepared
Glucose BDD nanorod Amp; 0.1 M NaOH, ED ¼ þ0.7 V 0.2 in the presence of AA [229]
forest/as-prepared (vs. SCE) and UA
Glucose MWCVD BDD/as- LSV; 0.1 M NaOH not established in the presence of AA [502]
prepared and UA
Glucose MWCVD BDD/as- Amp; 0.1 M NaOH, 40, 18, 64 in the presence of AA [173]
prepared: ED ¼ þ0.65 V (vs. SCE) and UA
B/C (ppm): 8000,
10 000, 30 000
Glucose BDD short and LSV; 0.1 M NaOH 60 (long NWs) e [225]
long nanowires/ 2000 (short NWs)
as-prepared
Glucose commercial LSV; 0.10 M NaOH 420, 1000, 380, 260 e [503]
BDDES:
no pre-treatment,
APT, CPT,
APT þ CPT
Glycerol commercial CV, DPV, SWV, ChA, BSA; 0.1 M 149, 356, 1 100, 19, 11 ED ¼ þ0.63 V (vs. [504]
BDDWS/potential NaOH SCE)
cycling
Glutathione, glutathione disulfide commercial BDD HPLC-AD, 25 mM PB (þ 66.25, 0.16 validated for [243]
cell (ESA octanesulfonic acid):ACN determination in
Biosciences) (94:6, v/v); ED ¼ þ1.475 V mouse and rat liver
Oxytocin MWCVD mBDD/ FIA-ChA; Tris buffer pH 7.4, 0.05 in the presence of [293]
APT ED ¼ þ1.0 V vasopressin
Ricin BDDCSEM/CPT, SW-AdSV; 0.1 M H2SO4, open- 6.2$104 castor seed cultivars [299]
8000 ppm circuit, tacc ¼ 120 s
Glucose, galactose, xylose, fucose, MWCVD BDD/- FIA-AD (thin-layer); 100 mM 2.9$102, 2.8$102, 3.2$102, 1.6$102, [248]
fructose, sorbitol, xylitol, glycerol, KH2PO4 (pH 4.5), ED ¼ þ1.95 V 7.2$103, 2.8$103, 3.8$103, 6.9$103,
ethylene glycol, maltose, sucrose, 8.7$103, 1.6$103, 1.5$103, 1.6$103,
raffinose, maltohexaose, 9.8$104, 5.0$104, 3.3$104, 5.0$104,
maltoheptaose, cyclomaltohexaose, 2.2$104
cyclomaltoheptaose
Tryptophan, indole commercial DPV; 0.2 M TBAH/ACN 0.42, 0.50 simultaneous [289]
BDDWS/PPT monitoring during
the bacterial growth
X
detection potential vs. Ag/AgCl reference electrode if not stated otherwise.
potential window. This is well documented in studies comparing radicals, products of one electron transfer from water as the first
performance of BDD and other carbonaceous materials [56e63]. step of OER in the region of water instability (eq. (1)) [64,65]. Water
Importantly, in reported decade the BDD surface termination has molecules decomposition is accomplished by applying highly
been recognized as a crucial factor influencing heterogeneous positive potentials (~> þ2.0 V) or high anodic current densities for a
electron transfer (HET) processes as well as adsorbability of organic few seconds to minutes.
compounds, thus basically determining performance of BDD elec-
trodes in electroanalytical measurements. H2 OðBDDÞ/HO ðBDDÞ þ Hþ þ e (1)
The type (chemistry) of surface termination results from the
Quasi-free HO radicals are confined to the BDD surface and the
type (procedure) of electrochemical and/or mechanical pre-
subsequent reactions include their reactions with each other and/
treatment(s) of the BDD films. Two main electrochemical strategies,
or reactions with intermediates, e.g., H2O2 and O2H radicals
optionally performable in-situ, involve (i) anodic pretreatment
including further electron transfers leading to O2 (described in
(APT) or (ii) cathodic pretreatment (CPT) of the bare BDD surface.
detail in Refs. [66,67]). As a consequence of the interaction of the
Relatively newly (iii) mechanical pretreatment by polishing (PPT) of
mentioned radicals with BDD surface, stabilization of the former
the BDD surfaces has been introduced.
occurs with prevalence of formation of ether bonds, ketonic, alco-
Ad (i): Anodic pretreatment relies on incorporation of oxygen
holic and/or carboxylic groups [50,51]. The O-termination has vast
atoms in the BDD surface mostly via carbon reaction with HO
influence on physicochemical properties of the surface. Polarity of
S. Baluchova
the CdþΟd bonds causes lowering of the energy levels of the direct oxidation is high due to instability of the products, i.e. radical
valence (EVB) and conduction bands (ECB) and positive electron af- species, which cannot be stabilized by p-resonance as in the case of
finity values. Nevertheless, oxygen-termination does not result in a phenols [91]. In general, catalytic approaches are used for their
measurable surface conductivity, in contrast to H-termination [52], oxidation because they enable oxygen transfer, usually from water
reported even for undoped diamond [68,69]. molecule on the alcohol adsorbed at electrode surface [92,93].
Ad (ii): The H-termination can be achieved using high negative It has been reported for a number of compounds that on H-BDD,
potentials (~<2.0 V; in the region of HER) or negative current increase of voltammetric peak currents is observed after cathodic
densities. The current densities up to 2.5 A cm2, or potentials conversion from O-terminated BDD, sometimes accompanied by
generating such high densities, as high as 35 V have been re- potential shifts to less positive values for the oxidation signals
ported [48,49,70,71]. Such current densities represent transfer of [94e99] and to less negative values for the reduction signals
several thousand electrons per second and per carbon atom on the [100e102]. For some compounds this effect is rather negligible,
surface. Some reports speculate that surfaces undergoing such while for others the H-termination enables detection of com-
intensive pretreatment are re-hydrogenated similarly as when pounds possessing poorly developed signals on the O-terminated
exposed to hydrogen plasma or hydrogen dose during the CVD surface. The current increase reported for differential pulse tech-
procedure [71]. Since the cathodic pretreatment results in presence niques reflects faster charge transfer kinetics on H-BDD than on O-
of hydrogen at the surface, it is more hydrophobic than the O- BDD due to enhanced surface conductivity of the former one and
terminated one, possessing noticeable surface conductivity [5]. enhanced hindrance of electron transfer at the partially negative O-
Ad (iii): The possibility of polishing the BDD surface has been BDD surface. While for some compounds indistinctive peak po-
utilized already in 2002, when reversible electron transfer for Fe2þ/ tential shifts and maximally doubled signal currents (in DPV, SWV)
Fe3þ redox couple of the heme unit of cytochrome c has been re- have been reported (e.g., estradiol [103], enrofloxacin [104], pin-
ported [72]. Nevertheless, expansion of this approach can be dolol [105], pterostilbene [106], hydroxyzine [107], rosuvastatin
observed only in the last ten years. Properties of polished BDD [108], ciprofloxacin [109], propylthiouracil [110], bisphenol A [111],
surface differ significantly from the anodically pretreated one. Re- tebuthiuron [112], ramipril and hydrochlorothiazide [113]), for
sults from XPS show that the main sp3 CeC peak attributed to the C others, including xylitol [97], bezafibrate [114], butylated hydroxy
present in the diamond bulk shifts slightly to a lower binding en- anisole and butylated hydroxytoluene [99], amlodipine and ator-
ergy at polished surface, indicating charging effects or a change in vastatin [115], albendazole [94], valsartan [116], ticlopidine [95],
valence band position for the anodized surface. Presence of CeOeC, indapamide [96], paracetamol and codeine [98], and reducible
CeOH, and C¼O groups, but absence of COOH groups and sub- compounds tartrazine [117] and 5-nitroquinoline [101] distinctive
stantially lower concentrations of these oxygen functionalities with changes have arisen. These differences are well documented for
respect to anodized surface were proved for the alumina-polished sulfamethoxazole (SMX) and trimethoprim [118] where the
surface [52]. Thus, faster electrode response has been reported for magnitude of the peak height obtained by DPV for SMX on H-BDD
polished surfaces since the present functional groups are not suf- was approximately 20-times higher than on O-BDD and simulta-
ficient to hinder HET, as demonstrated, e.g., for some inner-sphere neously, a peak shift of ca 50 mV was reported, while trimethoprim
redox mediators as [Fe(CN)6]3/4 (ref. [52,73]). exhibits only doubling of current signal and no signal potential
In the previous decade, prevalence of studies was devoted to shift. Clear evidence of different effects of surface termination is
oxidizable compounds at O-terminated surfaces [26,28]. This given in Fig. 2 for vanillin, caffeine and 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid
choice results from a wide potential window in the positive po- (CQA), one of the chlorogenic acids. They exhibit well developed
tentials region (slightly wider than on H-terminated), and the peaks on both, O-terminated and H-terminated BDD surfaces in pH
possibility of in-situ anodic pretreatment/activation of the BDD 2.0 and 5.0 and for all compounds, H-termination leads to higher
surface without any additional steps. Nevertheless, in the reported responses, which is however not so significant in the case of
decade optimized procedures refer rather to H-terminated surface caffeine. Differences in peak potential values are observed: While
obtained by CPT than to O-terminated one. It seems that O-BDD is the positioning of caffeine peak is pH and pretreatment indepen-
still preferred for compounds which tend to polymerize during dent, positive peak potential shift of ca 0.25 V is observed for CQA in
oxidation process and thus foul the electrode surface. Massive both media upon converting O- to H-termination, but such effect
attack of HO radicals produced in the potential region of water occurs for vanillin only in media of pH 2.0. Thus, acidic media and
decomposition (eq. (1)) ensures efficient (re)activation of the BDD H-termination were used for optimization of the SW-AdSV pro-
due to complete oxidation of the passivating film. This approach is cedure as they enable separation of voltammetric peaks of all
preferred, e.g., for aromatic amines forming nitrene radical cations studied compounds [119].
capable of consequent reactions leading to formation of structures In general, it is difficult to predict molecular structure motives
ranging from dimers to polymeric structures fouling the electrode for which the cathodic pretreatment will be advantageous. A high
surface [74e78]. For compounds oxidizable close to or on the onset number of studies demonstrating the favourableness of cathodic
of supporting electrolyte solution, anodic pretreatment is a logical pretreatment was published by the Brazilian group headed by O.
choice as the oxidation of BDD surface is a very fast process and Fatibello-Filho. With a certain probability, increase of the current
readily occurs when HO radicals are produced. Hence, this option signal can be expected for reducible compounds, typically azo dyes
was chosen for oxidation of compounds with oxidation potentials [100,117,120]. Further, for anionic species as carboxylates
typically higher than þ1.2 V, e.g., for the pharmaceuticals ibuprofen [87,104,119,121], phenolates [122,123] or compounds involving
[79,80], losartan [81], carisoprodol [82], atenolol [83e85], omep- both of these groups [63] faster electron transfer was reported on
razole [86], and febuxostat [87], herbicide bromacil [88] or 2- H-BDD, compared to O-BDD. At the latter surface, the respective
heptyl-4-quinolone [89,90], a precursor of a signal molecule in oxidation peaks were observed at more positive potentials while
pathogenic bacteria. For most of these compounds, transfer of a reduction peaks at more negative potentials, indicating both pro-
single electron from nitrogen in an aliphatic chain or in a hetero- cesses to be more difficult at O-BDD compared to H-BDD surfaces.
cycle and formation of a radical/carbocation undergoing further Ascorbic acid showing such behaviour has been applied as reliable
reaction seems to be a reasonable oxidation pathway. The reported redox probe for the surface termination changes [70,124,125]. A
electrochemical oxidation of aliphatic hydroxyl groups proposed in general explanation for these effects is based on electrostatic
Refs. [81,85] is rather improbable as an activation energy for their repulsion of the anions from the partially negatively charged O-
S. Baluchova 17
Fig. 2. SW stripping voltammograms of solution containing a mixture of 10 mg mL1 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid (5-CQA), 1 mg mL1 vanillin (VAN) and 2.5 mg mL1 caffeine (CAF) in BR
buffer at pH 2.0 (left) and pH 5.0 (right) obtained using an anodically or cathodically pretreated BDD electrode. tacc ¼ 60 s at open circuit condition. Reprinted with permission from
Ref. [119].
BDD surface, resulting in the observed slow electron transfer ki- trifloxystrobin [132], cocaine [133], tebuthiuron [112] or methomyl
netics and significantly lower signal heights, compared to those [134] can be mentioned. To conclude, CPT should be applied just
obtained at the uncharged H-BDD. On the other hand, opposite before the particular electrochemical measurement and the signal
effects have been also reported for some other compounds such as of the analyte has to be located within the potential window not
CQA and caffeine in acidic media, i.e., positive shift of oxidation interfering with anodic onset of background current to ensure H-
peaks and decrease of current magnitude upon converting O-BDD termination. Empirically, the stability is confirmed by reproduc-
to H-BDD [126]. While for caffeine these results are in concordance ibility of potentials and currents of signals provided by particular
with the earlier study mentioned above [119], for CQA they are analytes.
contradictory, presumably as a result of questionable H-termina- For studies performed at polished surfaces, commercial BDDWS
tion of the surface in Ref. [126]. Additional questions arise when the [38] electrode has been used almost exclusively because its con-
effect of surface termination on voltammetric signals of cationic struction includes flat inlaid BDD disk enabling polishing similarly
species are evaluated. In case of enrofloxacin [104] and amlodipine as in the case of other solid electrodes. The original doubts about
[115], O-BDD surface was preferred for their determination because possible removal of the BDD film from the support during polishing
of better developed peaks, compared to H-BDD. This effect has been [126] seem to be overcome by a number of studies applying PPT
explained by attractive electrostatic forces between predominantly (overall 57 from Table 2). When considering PPT, one has to bear in
cationic forms of these compounds in chosen media and the mind that changes in the electrochemical behaviour of redox active
negatively charged O-BDD surface. Oxidation potential of amlodi- compounds are related mostly to mechanical removal of sp2 carbon
pine at the O-BDD was less positive, compared to corresponding present on the BDD surface bearing oxygen functionalities (namely
signal at the H-BDD; however, enrofloxacin was oxidized at the Cdþ ¼ Οd bonds in carbonyl and carboxyl groups), and possibly to
same potential at both electrodes. Nevertheless, other organic removal of other carbon-oxygen functionalities, which are present
cations of ticlopidine [95], codeine [98], pindolol [105], hydroxy- as covalently bound monolayer (in contrast to anodically polarized
zine [107], rosuvastatin [108], and propylthiouracil [110] yielded BDD films on which the carbon-oxygen species may be even pre-
better developed oxidation signals at the H-BDD. Thus, it seems sent in an adsorbed layer [52]). Thus, these surface changes lead to
that the interaction of a species with the electrode surface (gov- the improvement of HET and are reflected by signal increase and
erned by hydrophobic and electrostatic contributions) is generally shift in 0 V direction, similarly as when changing O-termination to
of smaller importance than the feasibility of electron transfer across H-termination. Such positive effect of polishing of BDD surface has
the surface functionalities. As previously mentioned, electron been reported, e.g., for CQA (oxidizable catechol moiety to o-ben-
transfer at BDD is inhibited when oxygen-containing groups are zoquinone) and caffeine (oxidation of the C8 e N9 bond of purine
present but enhanced on the H-terminated surface exhibiting even skeleton) [126]. In addition, electrochemical behaviour of 7-
substantial surface conductivity. methylguanine was studied at BDD electrode after PPT, CPT and
The following problems regarding the H-termination (in)sta- APT [135]. Despite the fact that all tested pretreatment procedures
bility should be borne in mind: (i) H-terminated surface is highly provided similar results regarding peak current intensity, PPT was
unstable when exposed to HO radicals produced by anodic chosen as optimal because it led to the lowest background currents
decomposition of water (eq. (1)). Thus, any potential setting and a slight shift of peak potential in negative direction was
approaching this decomposition has to be avoided to prevent observed as well. However, in most studies in which PPT was
conversion to O-termination; (ii) H-termination is also unstable employed, no comparison with electrochemical activation pro-
when exposed to air for longer periods [127] due to oxidation of the cedures is provided, hence the degree of parallelism between pol-
surface by atmospheric oxygen or by other species (HCO
3 , OH ) ished and H-terminated BDD surface after applying CPT has to be
contained in a thin layer of water naturally formed on the surface of further investigated. Moreover, another type of studies uses PPT
solids exposed to air [68,69]. Hence, studies reporting too positive because of strong adsorption of the analysed species on the BDD
oxidative signals (in the range of potentials from þ1.8 V to þ2.1 V) surface (e.g., associates of organic compounds with surfactants)
on allegedly H-terminated surfaces should be treated with caution, [73,123,136,137].
as these potentials are in the region of onset of background current Clearly, surface termination is the crucial factor influencing
due to HO formation. As example, detection of acetylsalicylic acid electrochemical behaviour of organic compounds on BDD surfaces.
[128,129], xylitol [97], picoxystrobin [130], metamitron [131], Unfortunately, the majority of published electroanalytical studies
S. Baluchova
do not include XPS characterization of the BDD surfaces to proof acidic solutions where they occur in non-ionized form. Based on
(and quantify) the presence or absence of CeC, CeH, CeO and C¼O scan rate dependencies, redox processes controlled by diffusion
bonds. Choice of the pretreatment mode is mostly based on solely with adsorption contribution have been identified. A clear evidence
empirical evaluation on peak heights and potentials of the studied of importance of surface termination on the capability of adsorp-
compounds and their repeatability. Effectiveness of the pretreat- tion on the BDD surface was reported for estradiol. Adsorption was
ment procedure and presence of the surface functionalities thus are observed on the H-terminated surface after exposure to hydrogen
in fact questionable. Recently, an increased effort can be traced to plasma, but not on O-terminated surface where diffusion-
improve the understanding of the interplay among conditions used controlled oxidation was confirmed [103]. Vanillin was deter-
for the pretreatment, characterization of surface functionalities and mined simultaneously with caffeine in various commercially
their stability, and electrochemical responses of organic species. available food and beverage products on O-terminated surface by
Effectiveness of CPT leading to surface re-hydrogenation depends square wave adsorptive stripping voltammetry (SW-AdSV) using
on the pH of the used electrolyte as well as on the applied potential open circuit accumulation for maximum time of 60 s [122,141].
- the more negative potentials are applied in acidic environments, Square wave adsorptive transfer stripping voltammetry (SW-
the more effective surface hydrogenation is attained [124]. Similar AdTSV) and polishing of BDD surface was used for determination of
results were obtained when anodic polarization of BDD surface was antioxidant capacity in coffee samples based on oxidation peaks of
studied [138]. It has been demonstrated that application of po- the present phenolic compounds e CQA, caffeic acid, and gallic acid
tentials less positive than þ1.6 V results in negligible functionali- [142]. However, H-terminated surface is also capable of adsorption
zation by oxygen-containing groups. The stronger conditions for of CQA, vanillin, and caffeine; a SW-AdTSV method with LDs in the
anodic activation are applied, the more effective is conversion from 107 mol L1 concentration range was proposed [119], as already
H-terminated to oxidized BDD surface. Interestingly, it seems that mentioned (Fig. 2). Other compounds capable of adsorption pre-
the surface does not have to be fully hydrogenated to attain fast sumably on O-BDD surface are antidepressant drug paroxetine with
electron transfer (e.g., reversible HET for [Fe(CN)6]3/4) and, oxidizable alkoxybenzene moiety [143], and hormone melatonin
conversely, a threshold for the total relative fraction of oxidation with oxidizable indole heterocycle [144].
(with a significant contribution from CeO bonds) exist above which Ad (ii): A series of papers was published utilizing enhancement
HET is markedly hindered [52,70]. Moreover, in case of APT also of current response of the analytes in the presence of cationic and
crystallographic orientation of BDD grains is another important anionic surfactants. In general, the electrode pretreatment usually
factor to be taken in consideration as different facets (100, 110, 111) involves polishing step to efficiently remove adsorbed aggregates,
are not equally prone to anodic oxidation [138]. Other studies are sometimes followed by anodic or cathodic pretreatment. This ne-
needed to clarify the relationship between conditions used for cessity of mechanical manipulation is a substantial drawback of
pretreatment, composition and stability of surface functionalities approaches utilizing adsorption. On the other hand, the analyte-
and adsorbability and response of organic species. surfactant interaction or even transfer of the adsorbed species
from the matrix to pure supporting electrolytes can considerably
2.2. Adsorption of analytes on BDD surfaces increase the selectivity of the method.
Aromatic and other amines and compounds with nitrogen
Originally, bare BDD surface was regarded as inert to adsorption heterocycles are being detected in the presence of anionic surfac-
due to the H-terminated hydrophobic surface, which was consid- tants in acidic media (sodium lauryl sulfate þ phentolamine [145];
ered as one of the main advantages of BDD electrodes for a long sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) þ ambroxol [146] or capsaicin [136]).
period [23,56]. Nevertheless, with extended knowledge of the On contrary, for phenolic compounds and aromatic diols, formation
importance of surface termination for electrochemical processes at of aggregates with cationic surfactants in basic media is being
surface-solution interface, in the last seven years the attention has utilized (resveratrol þ hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide
been also paid to adsorption studies and utilization of this feature, (HTAB) [147], pterostilbene þ cetyltrimethylammonium bromide
especially in batch voltammetric methods. They have been devel- (CTAB) [106], benzophenone-3 þ CTAB in the reductive [148] and
oped for organic compounds employing (i) adsorption of the ana- oxidative [73] detection modes). In some cases, even the possibility
lyte itself, or (ii) adsorption of surfactants interacting with organic of adsorptive transfer voltammetric methods was reported, as in
analytes, thus mediating their accumulation on the BDD surface. the case of detection of benzo[a]pyrene in the presence of SDS
Further, attention has been paid to adsorbability of large bio- [149]. Interesting utilization of CTAB was suggested for detection of
molecules and their constituents (see Section 3). 2-heptyl-3-hydroxy-4-quinolone (PQS), 2-heptyl-4-
Ad (i): The scarce reports on adsorption are limited to flat- hydroxyquinoline (HHQ), and pyocyanin (PYO) as three molecular
molecule aromatic compounds, frequently phenols or poly- signatures of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) in sputum of patients
phenols. Importance of the BDD surface termination was deter- with cystic fibrosis (Fig. 3) [90]. In this study, CTAB was used to
mined for methyl viologen (MV), which exists in three redox states, extract these microbial metabolites from the cell culture by dis-
MV2þ, MVþ, and MV0. The latter represents a neutral form capable rupting the cell membrane and simultaneously to enhance effec-
of adsorption on some electrode surfaces, including H-BDD, but not tiveness of the O-terminated BDD electrode for their direct
O-BDD [102]. The strong adsorption arises probably from interac- electrooxidation.
tion between the hydrophobic H-BDD surface and hydrophobic and The proclivity of organic compounds to adsorption on BDD
low-polar MV0, forming multiple layers adsorbed on the H-BDD surface is governed by its termination and structure of the com-
electrode. Formation of these layers is driven by p-p interactions pound and can be utilized for enhancement of their redox signals
between adjacent MV0 molecules. This tendency was previously with positive effect on their analytical figures of merit and selec-
generally assigned to favourable accumulation of hydrophobic tivity of detection. It is quite probable that some of the organic
compounds on H-terminated diamond surface in order to decrease compounds studied up to present days are capable of adsorption at
the overall hydrated surface area [139]. Besides chemical compo- the BDD, which was however not reported on in the original studies
sition of the BDD surface, proclivity of the surface to adsorption can due to the preconceived opinions on resistance of BDD surfaces to
be also influenced by its pre-exposure to organic solvents, as re- adsorption. Similarly, many organic compounds may form associ-
ported for quinizarine [140]. ates with cationic, anionic or neutral surfactants in dependence on
For some phenolic compounds, adsorption has been proven in structure and pH of the solution, offering development of
S. Baluchova 19
Despite the fact that increased interest in these topics can be traced
in the last seven years, in many studies the boron doping level is
given only as a B/C ratio in the gas phase without stating concen-
tration [B] in the deposited films because its precise determination
demands sophisticated, not commonly available instrumentation
(secondary ion mass spectrometry or boron nuclear reaction
analysis). Rough estimation can be made also by measurement of
resistivity using four-point probe; nevertheless, overestimation of
[B] cannot be excluded due to contribution of non-diamond im-
purities to the overall conductivity. Mott-Schottky plots are appli-
cable for the determination of charge carriers in semiconductive
BDD films [5,7].
Importantly, once the CVD reactor is used for BDD deposition, it
is rather complicated to cleanse off the boron, and thus films
deposited without addition of the boron source may still exhibit
conductivity sufficient for electrochemical measurements. For
example, increase of signal height and shift to less positive poten-
tials by about 0.2 V was documented for oxidation of uric acid with
increasing added boron content of 0e2000 ppm, with well-
developed signals for the “0 ppm” BDD electrode [164].
Only few studies address the influence of boron doping level on
properties important for electroanalysis such as the width of the
potential windows [165e168], or voltammetric responses of
organic analytes. Predominantly, it has been found that the po-
tential window is narrowing with increasing [B], more significantly
at the negative potentials. In aqueous media the overall potential
window widths reported in Refs. [158,168,169] vary between ca
2e3.5 V. Obviously, the HER and OER are connected with boron-
rich places on the BDD surface, representing active sites for
adsorption of reactants/intermediates (Hþ or H2O/H for HER; H2O/
HO radicals for OER) and for efficient electron transfer. Depending
on the boron doping level, difference in the potential window
width can reach up to more than 1 V as proved for a set of semi-
conductive 500 ppme1000 ppm ([B] ¼ 4.5e8.5$1020 cm3) and
Fig. 3. DP voltammograms of a blank cystic fibrosis (CF) sputum sample, bacterial
metallic-type 2000e8000 ppm ([B] ¼ 1.3e5.8$1021 cm3) O-termi-
PAO1 strain, and a CF sputum sample mixed with bacterial culture PAO1. a) The bac-
terial strain PAO1 and CF sputum samples were diluted in 50 mM phosphate buffer, pH nated BDD films prepared by MWCVD [168]. Significant differences
7.0 at a ratio of 1:4, respectively. b) The bacterial strain PAO1 and CF sputum samples were observed betweem these two sets of O-BDD films also when
were treated with 1.0 mM CTAB prepared in 50 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) at a ratio considering voltammetric signals of organic compounds, as pre-
of 1:4, respectively. Electrolyte: 50 mM acetate buffer, pH 5.0 consisting of 20% ACN sented in Fig. 4. They are placed farther from zero potential for the
was used for the detection on the BDD electrode vs. Ag/AgCl. Abbreviations: pyocyanin
(PYO), 2-heptyl-3-hydroxy-4-quinolone (PQS), 2-heptyl-4-hydroxyquinoline (HHQ).
semiconductive films (i.e., at slightly more negative values for
Reprinted with permission from Ref. [90]. reducible 5-nitroquinoline [101] and slightly more positive values
for oxidizable 2-aminobiphenyl [168], benzophenone-3 [73], and 4-
chloro-3-methylphenol [123]) than for the metallic-type films,
alternative electroanalytical methods possibly leading to indicating hindered electron transfer and higher energy required
enhancement of sensitivity and selectivity. for the rate-determining step of the electrode process to take place
at the former films. Simultaneously, the peak heights measured on
2.3. Effect of boron-doping level of BDD film the semiconductive films are smaller (or the signal even di-
minishes). Missing signal on BDD electrodes deposited at B/
Boron doping is accomplished from the gas phase by containing C 1300 ppm was also reported for oxidation of floroquinolone
boron-containing compounds such as B2H6, trimethylborane or enrofloxacin [170], presumably due to their semiconductive char-
B2O3 with the source gases. The boron content is usually given by acter. For the above-mentioned set of BBD films, 2000 ppm film
the B/C ratio in the gas phase; typical values range from 100 ppm to (just above the semiconductive/metallic threshold) exhibited
15 000 ppm resulting in boron charge carrier concentration in the favourable spectral and electrochemical characteristics.
final film between 1$1018 cm3 1$1021 cm3 (boron concentration Another consistent study dealing with HFCVD films deposited at
1$1020 cm3 corresponds ca to 1 boron atom per 1000 carbon B/C 0e20 000 ppm can be found. In general, when O-terminated,
atoms). Metallic type conductivity was reported for threshold bo- they exhibited enormous peak potential difference for [Fe(CN)6]3/
ron content of approximately 1e4.5$1020 cm3. Films with lower 4
(ca from 0.5 V to 1.4 V), decreasing with increasing boron doping
boron concentration exhibit semiconductive properties [150e152]. level [169]. For leucovorin, a reduced derivative of folic acid, and
Several papers were published concerning the influence of bo- linuron, a substituted urea herbicide [169,171], the sensitivity of the
ron content on physical and electrochemical characteristics of the DP voltammetric determination increases with increasing boron
BDD films [153e157], resistance towards electrochemical corrosion doping level up to 10 000 ppm resulting in lower LDs for films with
[155], surface resistance towards fouling [158], effectivity of elec- higher boron content with the exception of 20 000 ppm electrode.
trocatalytic anodic oxidation of organic compounds (utilized in For such electrode, high doping level presumably leads to precipi-
degradation of pollutants [159e162]), and favourable analytical tation of boron at the grain boundaries, lattice expansion of dia-
parameters for determination of selected inorganic ions [157,163]. mond and incorporation of non-diamond carbon impurities. These
S. Baluchova
Fig. 4. DP voltammograms of (A) benzophenone-3 (c ¼ 1$104 mol L1) in BR buffer pH 12.0, (B) 5-nitroquinoline (c ¼ 1$104 mol L1) in 0.1 mol L1 acetate buffer pH 5.0, (C) 4-
chloro-3-methylphenol (c ¼ 1$104 mol L1) in 0.1 mol L1 phosphate buffer pH 2.0, (D) 2-aminobiphenyl (c ¼ 5$105 mol L1) in BR buffer pH 7.0 measured at BDD electrodes
with boron-doping level: (a) 500 ppm, (b) 1000 ppm, (c) 2000 ppm, (d) 4000 ppm, and (e) 8000 ppm. Fabrication described in Ref. [168].
phenomena may affect electrochemical properties of the elec- 2.4. Spectrum of analytes
trodes, resulting in lower charge transfer rate, decreased signal/
background and signal/noise ratios and influence signals of organic A wide spectrum of organic analytes has been investigated by
analytes [172]. For glucose, adsorbed and oxidized at boron-rich means of the BDD electrodes. Preference has been given to
sites, a decrease of oxidation signal was also observed on oxidizable rather than reducible compounds taking advantage of
20 000 ppm electrode in comparison to 10 000 and 8000 ppm BDD the wide potential window in the anodic region. Direct electro-
films [173]. On the other hand, favourable characteristics were chemical oxidation on the BDD surface is the main source of the
obtained for 1000 ppm film [169], probably with the B/C ratio measured signal. In some special cases, indirect oxidation mediated
around the semiconductive/metallic threshold, similarly as for the by HO radicals produced on the BDD surface as a result of water
above-mentioned set of electrodes [168]. Sufficient conductivity decomposition (eq. (1)) leads to signals within the potential win-
and absence of negative effects connected with incorporation of dow. For example, in Ref. [177], a mechanism of electrooxidation of
substantial quantities of boron in diamond are connected with aliphatic polyamines was proposed relying on oxygen transfer from
proficient electrochemical behaviour of these films in HO radicals produced at sp2 carbon present at grain boundaries on
electroanalysis. amine moiety coordinated nearby at a boron surface site.
In other studies reflecting changes in voltammetric signals of Among the oxidizable compounds, pharmaceuticals, food
organic compounds with increasing boron content in the BDD, components and additives, agrochemicals, environmental pollut-
improved sensitivity of 20 000 ppm film in contrast to 10 000 ppm ants such as derivatives of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
film towards reduction of nitrofurantoin was reported [174]. biogenic amines or biosynthesized compounds as well as bio-
Consistent increase of sensitivity and decrease of anodic oxidation molecules can be found. Most frequently, these analytes possess
potential with increase of boron concentration was reported for aromatic amino-, phenolic or N-heterocyclic moieties undergoing
oxidation of uric acid [164,175] on presumably O-BDD films, and for electrooxidation within the potential window of the BDD. After
dopamine on H-BDD films [158]. In the latter study, limited fouling optimization of parameters for pulse voltammetric methods e DPV
in the presence of albumin was reported for dopamine on elec- or SWV e determination of these compounds with LDs typically in
trodes with lower boron content, as these are presumably prone to the 106 mol L1 to 107 mol L1 concentration range has been re-
adsorption of spectator molecules. In contrast, non-consistent ported. Lower LDs in the range of 108 mol L1 were achieved in
changes in current densities were observed for reduction of ben- some studies; e.g., using adsorptive accumulation of the analyte in
zodiazepines bromazepam and alprazolam using H-BDD films the presence of a surfactant on the BDD surface followed by a pulse
deposited at 1000 ppme8000 ppm (by HFCVD) [176]. scan [146,147]. In liquid flow techniques, usually lower LDs are
Evidently, not only conductivity of the BDD electrode given achieved in the 107 mol L1 ‒ 108 mol L1 concentration range.
(besides surface termination) by the boron content, but also other However, in some cases such low reported LDs are questionable for
factors, e.g., mechanism of the electrode reaction, medium practical purposes (e.g., in Refs. [57,174,178]), as they are much
composition etc., influence the current responses of the above lower than the lowest measurable concentrations and were ob-
mentioned and other analytes. Nevertheless, boron-doping level is tained numerically owing to low values of relative standard devi-
one of the fundamental factors influencing the electron transfer ation for the noise of the blank solution, or of the peak current for
kinetics and thus should be stated in all electroanalytical studies the lowest measured concentration (depending on the method
where applicable, at least as a given fact in the experimental part. used for calculation). Thus, experimental LDs corresponding to the
S. Baluchova 21
lowest measurable concentration providing observable signal of BDD electrodes for reductive processes has been recognized in
should be always taken into account when considering practical the reported decade and further applications are envisaged.
applicability of the developed method.
In the reported decade, a substantial expansion of studies 2.5. Miniaturization and structuring of BDD-based sensors
devoted to reducible compounds can be traced (in Table 2 sum-
marized in italic script). This approach takes advantage of relatively In search for promising bare BDD-based sensors, effective ap-
wide potential window of BDD in the cathodic region. In Ref. [58], it proaches earlier applied for other electrode materials were used,
was shown that the cathodic potential limit Elim,C on BDD electrode including relatively simple strategies such as preparation of com-
was ca 1.15 V, 1.45 V, and 1.65 V vs. SHE in acidic, neutral and posite materials for paste and screen printed BDD electrodes, or
basic media, respectively. When compared to GCE, these values are technically demanding strategies such as structuring the BDD sur-
by ca 0.6 V more negative in acidic medium and by almost 1.0 V face, fabrication of microelectrodes, MEAs, ultramicroelectrode ar-
more negative in neutral and alkaline media. Further, Elim,C can be rays (UMEAs), and nanoelectrode arrays (NEAs). The latter micro-
directly related to the boron-doping level as weak adsorption of H and nano-architectures have been reviewed till 2011 in Ref. [29]
atoms, further catalysing hydrogen evolution reaction [179], is and the newer achievements also regarding structuring the BDD
associated with near-subsurface substitutional boron defects surface are included in recent reviews [6,11].
[167,168]. Decreased sensitivity of the BDD surface (compared to BDD powder (BDDP) for composite materials can be prepared by
other electrode materials) to presence of oxygen in measured so- MWCVD deposition on non-conductive diamond powder. BDDP
lution is also advantageous because the initial step of its reduction mixed with mineral oil forms a paste, which was stencil printed to
requires adsorption, limited on BDD surfaces [125,180]. For 5- fabricate microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (mPADs). This
nitroquinoline, DP voltammograms recorded in oxygen-free solu- low-cost BDD sensor exhibited smaller background currents and
tion exhibited approximately 10e30% lower current response than wider potential windows than the carbon paste electrodes typically
those measured in the presence of oxygen, but importantly, the employed with mPADs and was capable of norepinephrine and se-
peak height repeatability was not affected, and LDs were compa- rotonin detection at similar oxidation potentials and moreover, of
rable in the 107 mol L1 concentration range [101]. Nitro group is a simultaneous detection of these analytes when modified with
moiety reducible on all, H-, O-terminated and polished BDD sur- electrochemically reduced graphene oxide (ERGO) [208].
faces. This has been documented in numerous reports dealing with Kondo et al. [209e211] fabricated screen-printed BDD elec-
some of the nitrophenols [181,182] and aminonitrophenols [183], trodes from ink containing BDDP and an insulating polyester resin
nitro-group containing pesticides (methylparathion [184,185]), binder. It had lower background current than a conventional
pharmaceuticals (chloramphenicol [186], nitrofurantoin [174], carbon-printed electrode, which resulted in larger signal-to-
metronidazole [187], nimesulide [188], imidacloprid [189], selected background (S/B) ratio for the electrochemical detection of ascor-
benzodiazepines [190]) and derivatives of polycyclic aromatic hy- bic acid and 8-hydroxy-20 -deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), the most
drocarbons (1-nitropyrene [74,191], 3-nitrofluoranthene [192]) and common lesion of nucleic acids caused by oxidation stress [210].
more complex compounds such as 4-nitrophenyl triazole-labeled Enhanced sensitivity of BDDP-printed electrode with a large
nucleosides [193]. In comparison with electroanalytical studies on binder/BDDP ratio, compared to either polycrystalline BDD film or
mercury and amalgam-based electrodes (reviewed e.g., in BDD-printed electrode with lower content of binder, was ascribed
Refs. [194,195]), slightly more negative potentials of the 4e‒ to the random microelectrode array effect.
reduction of nitro group can be traced for solutions of comparable Fabrication of intentional architectures of MEAs requires so-
pHs. Similar LDs have been attained for the BDD as for solid phisticated instrumentation, mostly based on combination of CVD
amalgam electrodes. with photolithographic etching. A 3-in-1 sensors with BDD pseu-
Azo group-containing dyes are reducible at the BDD with the doreference and auxiliary electrodes and conventional BDD or BDD
preference to H-terminated surface [117,120]. Further, N-heterocy- MEA working electrodes were compared using reduction of the
clic compounds such as heme group in cytochrome c [196], 3- drug isatin (indole-2,3-dione). An improvement of LD from
phenyl-1,2-benzisoxazole 2-oxide [125], herbicides diquat [197], 0.22 mmol L1 to 0.04 mmol L1 was reported for the MEA sensor
paraquat [198,199], terbutryn [200], and atrazine [57] or drugs despite its lower sensitivity, because of the two orders of magni-
bromonidine [201], selected benzodiazepines [176] and benzaze- tude improved signal repeatability. Importantly, although the po-
pine varenicline [202] were reduced on various BDD surfaces. The tential of the pseudoreference BDD electrode shifts as a function of
keto group of coumarin was reported to be reduced to hydroxyl pH, a miniscule potential drift was observed when holding the
group at surprisingly far negative potential of ca 1.6 V (vs. Ag/ solution pH constant [212]. Other studies were performed with
AgCl) in weakly base media [203]. In ethionamide, reductive commercially available MEAs [213]. Further miniaturization to BDD
cleavage of thioketo group was proposed [204]. NEAs fabricated by e-beam litography and nanoelectrode ensem-
On the other hand, it seems that some functional groups and bles (NEEs) using nanosphere lithography has been reported [214].
moieties ordinarily reducible on mercury-based electrodes exhibit The former platform with 18 000 nanodes with a diameter of
problematic reactivity on BDD surfaces. Missing reports on reduc- 320 nm and inter-electrode distance of 10 mm has been used for
tion of azides are in concordance with our experience with azido- ultrasensitive determination of dopamine in the presence of
thymidine [205] or aromatic azides tethered to nucleosides [206] ascorbic acid with LD smaller than 0.1 mmol L1 [215].
yielding, at the BDD, only poorly developed (if any) signals at po- Applications of BDD microelectrodes (BDDmE) are naturally
tentials remarkably more negative than at mercury or amalgam devoted mostly to detection of biogenic compounds to show their
electrodes in the quoted papers. Similar result was obtained for potential for in-vitro and in-vivo studies. Nevertheless, the fabri-
benzofurazane labeled nucleosides exhibiting distinctive signals at cation strategies have not been changed significantly since publi-
mercury and pyrolytic graphite electrodes (PGE) due to 6e‒ cation of the review [29] in 2011. They rely on CVD of BDD on
reduction process [207], but negligible signals at the same potential tungsten [216e218] or platinum [219] wires, followed by insulation
were obtained on the BDD [193]. No redox activity within the po- of the tip, most frequently in prepulled glass capillaries [216,217] or
tential window of BDD was observed for aromatic aldehydes (e.g., heated polypropylene pipette tips [219]. An all-diamond m-fiber
vanillin), exhibiting signals at far negative potentials at mercury- electrode consisting of a conductive BDD core with an insulating
based electrodes. In spite of these negative results, the potential polycrystalline diamond cladding represents a novel approach and
S. Baluchova
enables detection of dopamine using fast scan cyclic voltammetry preparations containing more active species are commonly ana-
(FSCV) [220]. This detection technique hyphenated to flow- lysed (e.g., the mixture of antihypertensives amlodipine, amiloride,
injection analysis (FIA) device was used to detect dopamine on hydrochlorothiazide, and atenolol being detected within the po-
ultrananocrystalline diamond (UNCD) microelectrode deposited on tentials from þ0.7 V to þ1.3 V using SWV [83]). Advantageously,
tungsten wire insulated by parylene patterned through a laser chemometrics offers tools for analytical resolution of complex
etching process. Similar UNCD microelectrode deposited on systems of analyte mixtures providing highly overlapping signals
tantalum wire was capable of monitoring extracellular dopamine in by means of deconvolution and optimization of parameters of the
real-time in the rat striatum in-vivo [218]. Further, BDD chip mi- proposed electroanalytical methods.
croelectrodes in microfluidic devices were used for quantitative Turning to the first point, analysis of equimolar mixture of DNA
and potentially high-throughput measurement of activity of nucleotides GMP, AMP, TMP, and CMP on both anodically or
NAD(P)-dependent oxidoreductases [216]. Importance of surface cathodically pretreated BDD films by SWV was performed; how-
termination for detection of serotonin, a notorious fouler of carbon ever, deconvolution procedure had to be applied for distinguishing
electrodes, was reported in Ref. [219]. Cathodic pretreatment was TMP and CMP responses [233]. Next, highly overlapped SW vol-
found to be effective inactivating a fouled BDDmE in-situ when tammetric signals of quaternary mixtures of biogenic amines,
measuring serotonin secretion in the gut mucosa using amper- namely cadaverine, histamine, putrescine, and tyramine were
ometry. In-situ activation is extremely important when considering recorded, and a multivariate calibration method based on partial
BDDmEs, as they can neither be re-hydrogenated in plasma nor least squares regression was employed to carry out the electro-
treated by polishing. analysis of these compounds simultaneously in standard solutions
Enlarging the BDD active surface area has become another and in ham samples [234]. DP voltammetric determination of
powerful approach how to further improve already outstanding ternary mixture of phenolic antioxidants (triads of analytes were
properties of BDD electrodes, without modifying their surface. By chosen from the list: caffeic acid, syringic acid, ferulic acid, and
structuring the diamond surface, higher sensitivity, increased vanillic acid) was performed; nevertheless, independent compo-
selectivity [221], and higher double-layer capacitance values [222] nent analysis method had to be used in order to ensure separation
have been achieved, when compared with conventional planar of their overlapped signals [235]. Moreover, since only partial
BDD films. separation of the peaks of indole and 3-methylindole was achieved
Electrochemical performance of structured BDD samples pre- when measured simultaneously by SWV in standard solutions as
pared either by etching techniques [223e228] or by deposition on well as in contaminated pork fat, signal deconvolution using a
porous templates, such as silicon nanowires [229,230], “black” sil- Gaussian fit was required to uncover both oxidation peaks [236].
icon [221], or vertically aligned carbon nanotubes [231,232] was Factorial planning is one of the most frequently used chemo-
thoroughly investigated in electroanalysis of biologically active metric tools that enables acquisition of optimal parameters and
organic compounds, including dopamine [221,223,228,232], uric conditions for the electroanalysis and, moreover, reduces numbers
acid [223,230], adenine [229], glucose [225,229], tryptophan of required experiments. Lima et al. developed a new method for
[224,226], tyrosine [226], catechol [227], pyridoxine (vitamin B6) selective and simultaneous determination of carbendazim and
[228], epinephrine [232], and acetaminophen (paracetamol) fenamiphos pesticides in samples of lemon juice in association with
[231,232]. In all reported studies, the behaviour of porous BDD was a 34 full factorial design [237]. To achieve improved sensitivity for
compared to the one of conventional planar BDD and the key pesticide pirimicarb detection, a 23 full-factorial central composite
finding is as follows: While the peak potentials of studied oxidiz- design (CCD) was used to optimize the DPV parameters [238]. In
able analytes on porous BDD shifted negatively to lower potential addition, multivariate optimization of DPV and SWV parameters
values which can possibly lead to improved selectivity towards using Doehlert design was carried out for ethylone determination
interfering analytes, the peak currents increased significantly due in seized drug samples [239]. Similarly, Doehlert design along with
to the higher surface area resulting in amplified sensitivity and optimization of multiple responses were employed for investiga-
lower LDs compared to planar films using voltammetric methods. tion of the variables of DPV to obtain the best experimental con-
Structured electrodes are rarely applied for detection in liquid ditions for simultaneous determination of herbicides diuron, 2,4-
flow methods. The only real exception is porous diamond electrode, dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and tebuthiuron in lake and well wa-
tested for FIA determination of epinephrine and acetaminophen ter samples [112]. Finally, principal component analysis (PCA) and
[231]. This raises questions on their stability in flowing liquids, k-nearest neighbour analysis were used for the treatment of vol-
especially when considering non-compact composite materials. tammetric data obtained for five different carbamate pesticides by
Nevertheless, it can be concluded that composite and structured a BDD electrode for the purpose of discrimination and classification
BDD materials possess improved characteristics distinguishing it [240]. A PCA method combined with SWV was also used as an
from conventional planar BDD films and present novel and approach to obtain drugs fingerprints and the potential of such
perspective approach for improvement in electrochemical sensing screening method was applied on tablets containing sildenafil as
of biomolecules. the active substance [241].
Naturally, combination of amperometric detection with liquid
2.6. Approaches for simultaneous detection of analytes in batch flow and/or separation techniques, particularly HPLC and capillary
voltammetric and liquid-flow arrangements by means of BDD zone electrophoresis (CZE), ensures both sufficient sensitivity and
electrodes selectivity of measurement thanks to high separation efficiency,
which enables determination even in very complex matrices such
It has been demonstrated in many electroanalytical applications as body tissues [242e244] or complex food samples [245].
that detection of target molecules on bare BDD electrodes without Compatibility of separation and detection conditions, i.e.,
preliminary separation steps is economical, fast, and sensitive composition and pH of the mobile phase used, is necessary for
enough when redox potentials of analytes in their mixtures differ successful analysis when considering hyphenation of electro-
sufficiently to allow their simultaneous detection. Using simple chemical detection with separation techniques. Extreme detection
voltammetric approaches, analysis of a number of binary, ternary or potentials, for example over þ2.2 V for cholesterol [246], require
even quaternary mixtures has been reported based on sufficient the use of non-aqueous media because sterols are hardly oxidizable
peak-to-peak separation (see Table 2). Typically, pharmaceutical at reasonable potentials in aqueous electrolytes (reviewed in
S. Baluchova 23
Ref. [247]). Nevertheless, BDD electrodes allow the application of ferric (Fe3þ)/ferrous (Fe2þ) heme unit can undergo reversible or
highly positive potentials even in aqueous or mixed media and thus quasireversible redox process. Electron transfer is dependent on
extend the range of detectable compounds; for example, determi- the protein orientation, which influences accessibility and/or dis-
nation of saccharides is possible at a potential of þ1.95 V [248] and tance of the redox unit from the electrode [268]. It is believed that
electrochemical reaction of some heterocycles takes place at the electron transfer in cyt c occurs at the solvent-exposed edge of the
detection potential of þ1.9 V [249]. The application of negative heme group by an outer-sphere mechanism [269]. Rapid electrode
detection potentials also gains attention in determination of reaction kinetics can be observed on metallic and some sp2 carbon
reducible compounds [182]; detection potentials can reach highly electrodes using highly pure cyt c and hydrophilic/oxophillic and/or
negative values close to 1.5 V (all vs. Ag/AgCl) as demonstrated for negatively charged surface [269,270]. The kinetics of the cyt c
the determination of niacin in coffee using low-pressure chroma- electron-transfer rate increased at the edge plane oriented pyro-
tography [250]. lytic graphite (EOPG) with higher O/C ratio in comparison with
Furthermore, FIA can be applied for the analysis of samples of freshly cleaved, hydrophobic basal plane [271]. In addition, chem-
simple matrix, such as surface water [251e258]. Although its ical modification of electrodes by SAM with negatively charged
selectivity is partly limited, it is compensated by a high sample COO terminal groups improved the rate of electron transfer
throughput and instrumental simplification in comparison to compared with mixed surfaces containing hydroxyl groups [272],
chromatographic methods. Between these options an interesting because deprotonated carboxylates enable electrostatic interaction
group of works can be found, performed by three Brazilian labo- between the positively charged heme edge and the negatively
ratories, devoted to utilization of BDD as working electrodes for FIA charged electrode surface.
with multiple-pulse amperometric detection (MPA). This technique First report on cyt c electrochemistry on allegedly H-BDD sur-
provides current responses during periodically repeated potential face (nevertheless, later denoted as probably oxygenated [269])
pulse program; it does not include chromatographic separation of was described by G. Swain's group in 2002 [196]. Later, cyt c was
the samples, but certain selectivity is obtained by combination of studied on BDD electrodes functionalized with carbon-oxygen
responses from different detection potentials. As a result, it can be groups or molecular linkers that are oxygenated or charged
used for samples with limited number of electrochemically active [273e277] or on alumina polished BDD electrodes [72]. In all
components. Nevertheless, this condition is often fulfilled in mentioned studies, fast electron transfer was reported. In contrast,
pharmaceutical preparations [259e262], less complex food other authors showed that cyt c yielded only negligible cyclic vol-
matrices [105,120] or even in biological matrices such as blood tammetric response on H-BDD [269,275,276]. These results indi-
serum, particularly if the concentration of the analyte is high cated that differences in cyt c redox reaction and conformation
enough [263]. Several works further increase the selectivity by depend on oxygenation of the BDD surface. Efficient immobiliza-
generator/collector principle e oxidation products of the reaction tion and fast electron transfer was observed only at moderately
occurring during the first pulse are determined during the subse- oxidized surface, enabling adsorption of the protein by electrostatic
quent pulse. Ref. [178] can serve as an example of a complex interactions and good electronic coupling of the heme unit [269].
amperometric potential program: first pulse of potential þ1.80 V This surface mimics the binding of cyt c to its natural binding
oxidizes cotinine (N-alkylpyrrolidine) in saliva sample, second partner cytochrome c oxidase. Proper cyt c orientation and
pulse, 1.00 V, reduces possible interferents, third pulse, 1.20 V, conformation allows relatively rapid rates of electron transfer due
selectively reduces the cotinine oxidation products and is used for to close positioning of the Fe heme edge to the electrode surface
the determination, and finally, potential 1.45 V (all vs. Ag/AgCl) is through electrostatic and hydrogen bonding interactions. Heavily
used for cleaning the electrode surface. Increased sensitivity allows oxidized surface allows adsorption of the native protein, but with
the measurement in complex matrices such as saliva [178,264] or an orientation of the heme unit not enabling the electron transfer,
urine [265]. In some cases, pulse regime is applied to assure desired while strongly hydrophobic H-terminated surface induces protein
surface termination. If detection potential causes its change, con- denaturation and thus loss of its redox activity. Comparable kinetics
ditioning potentials alternating with the measuring ones will be of electron transfer (k ¼ 2e4$103 cm s1) were observed for
applied [266]. microcrystalline and ultrananocrystalline BDD thin films, indi-
cating independency of electron transfer on morphologies of the
3. Electroanalysis of biomolecules and their components on BDD films [269].
BDD electrodes Direct electron transfer from BDD surface to heme was exam-
ined also for undecapeptide and horseradish peroxidase with the
3.1. Proteins, peptides and their constituents aim to apply acquired knowledge for the application to H2O2 bio-
sensors. H-BDD electrodes coated with adsorbed heme undeca-
Proteins and peptides, similarly as other biomacromolecules, are peptides exhibited lower responses of H2O2 reduction than the O-
able to adsorb and accumulate at sp2 carbon materials. Label-free BDD surface. However, electron transfer to oxidation products of
analysis of proteins and peptides relies on their intrinsic electro- horseradish peroxidase from the diamond electrodes was much
activity or on electrochemical activity of prosthetic groups in con- slower than that from EOPG or glassy carbon, suggesting that the p
jugated proteins. The prosthetic group typically contains redox electrons of an sp2 carbon may play an important role in the direct
active metal ions, which may exhibit direct electron transfer at electron transfer to the heme moiety of horseradish peroxidase
various electrode materials, depending on the state of the electrode [278].
surface as well as state of the given metalloprotein. The conjugated Electron transfer between prosthetic group and BDD electrodes
proteins are extensively studied on different electrode materials have been reported in the literature also for other enzymes, namely
[267]. Nevertheless, BDD has been exploited for their investigation glucose oxidase (GOx) [279e282], alcohol dehydrogenase [283],
less frequently than other carbon materials despite the fact that it and tyrosinase [282]. Enzymes such GOx can be adsorbed directly
offers a possibility to involve the interplay among protein adsorp- on bare O-BDD [279] or immobilized onto modified BDD surface,
tion, electron transfer kinetics, surface termination and its for example via carboxyl groups covalently cross-linked with GOx
morphology in the studies. through glutaraldehyde [280] or 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane
Well-described cytochrome c (cyt c) was investigated on bare [281] or entrapment in an electropolymerized film on Pt nano-
BDD as well as on different modified BDD-based materials. Cyt c particle modified BDD [13,282].
S. Baluchova
Unmodified BDD surface can be also used for study of non- 3.2. Nucleic acids and their constituents
conjugated proteins relying on their own intrinsic activity. Of the
twenty standard proteinogenic amino acids, Cys, Tyr and Trp are Similarly as for proteins and peptides, the behaviour of DNA, RNA,
electrochemically oxidized at moderate potentials [284], while His and their constituents (substituted pyridine- and pyrimidine-
and Met at highly positive potentials at sp2 carbon electrodes heterocycles and polyanionic sugar-phosphate backbone including
[285,286] as well as at BDD [287e289]. Importantly, BDD has been deoxyribose or ribose) on BDD surfaces has been investigated since
established as an electrode material exhibiting sufficiently large 2002. Published studies deal with different surface terminations and
potential window to further oxidize eS-Se bridge, e.g., in cystine, morphologies but consistent reports systematically comparing re-
homocystine and oxidized glutathione (GSSG). Based on these sponses of these biomolecules at different surfaces are scarce
findings, a couple of FIA-AD or HPLC-AD methods were developed [301e312]. These molecules have been largely investigated on sp2
for separation and detection of these compounds [243,290e293]. carbon materials, as reviewed in Refs. [313,314]. Their electro-
All previously mentioned oxidation signals, namely for Trp, Tyr, chemical activity in the anodic region relies on oxidation of DNA
Cys, His and Met, were observed for short peptides, too, while only bases, mostly guanine and adenine, in less frequent cases thymine
oxidation of Tyr and Trp residues was well-described in proteins and cytosine using specific conditions. Especially the latter two
[267]. In comparison with other carbon-based materials, only a few nucleobases in corresponding nucleos(t)ides or in nucleic acids are
works have been published utilizing intrinsic electrochemical re- oxidized at fairly positive potentials, giving rise to problems such as
sponses of proteins and peptides on BDD electrodes [294e298]. interference with oxygen evolution, large background currents, or
Different surface terminations were utilized in studies of structur- slow electron transfer kinetics. Further, adsorption of nucleic acids
ally similar hormones, vasopressin and oxytocin [293]. Their or their reaction products (leading to undesired electrode passiv-
oxidation peaks at þ0.7 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) were attributable to ation) is characteristic for sp2 carbon materials, such as pyrolytic
oxidation of the phenolic groups in tyrosyl moieties. Voltammo- graphite electrode [315], glassy carbon electrode [316,317], or car-
grams of both hormones observed on as-deposited BDD, as well as bon paste electrode [318]. The adsorption can be exploited to attain
on H-BDD electrode were similar, while a significant difference analyte accumulation and apply adsorptive stripping chro-
between their responses was observed on O-BDD. On the latter nopotentiometric or voltammetric techniques, as demonstrated for,
surface, vasopressin yielded a higher Tyr oxidation peak than e.g., anodically activated glassy carbon electrode used for the
oxytocin, probably due to its stronger electrostatic attraction to the detection of adenine and guanine [316] or all DNA nucleotides [317].
O-BDD (vasopressin, unlike oxytocin, possesses a strongly basic Using BDD electrodes, purine and pyrimidine bases were inves-
arginine residue). Selective measurements performed using chro- tigated by Ivandini et al. [304] in ammonium acetate buffer solution
noamperometry combined with FIA indicated the possibility of (pH 4.25), who reported on the importance of surface termination
BDD utilization for in-situ or in-vivo detection of oxytocin [293]. For and ionic strength of electrolyte for their electrochemical oxidation.
BSA and immunoacidic suppressive protein, better-developed All four nucleobases were detected on O-BDD but not on H-BDD (as
oxidation signals were observed on H-terminated than on O- deposited) surface, where only guanine, adenine and cytosine sig-
terminated BDD [294]. Similarly, ricin, oxidizable owing to its nals were observed while thymine signal was overlaid by earlier
tryptophan residues [299] can be accumulated and thus gives high onset of the background current. This was later confirmed in
oxidation signals on H-BDD; on O-BDD the partially negative Ref. [301]. In the mild acidic medium used, these bases behaved as
charge of the surface repels the negatively charged protein in neutral or very slightly positively charged molecules. Therefore,
borate buffer. their electrostatic interactions with the electrode surface were of
In contrast to simple peptides, large protein molecules exhibit minor importance and diffusion-controlled oxidation process was
more complicated behaviour at the electrode surfaces. In a native recognized for both surfaces. Slight enhancement of oxidative cur-
globular protein part of the amino acid residues, including the rent on the O-BDD compared to that observed on the H-BDD was
electroactive ones, is hidden inside. Protein denaturation (unfold- attributed to the elimination of non-diamond impurities at the
ing of its spatial structure) makes these residues better accessible, former surface during the pretreatment [304]. Nevertheless, such
which leads to higher oxidation peaks than observed for the native explanation is questionable with regard to the current knowledge on
forms as confirmed for bovine serum albumin (BSA) on H-BDD the importance of the BDD surface termination on electron transfer
[294]. Topal et al. [297] studied native and in-solution denatured a- processes. Also on the polished BDD surface, the oxidation process
2-macroglobulin (a2M) on polished BDD and they were able to was reported to be driven by diffusion for both adenine and guanine
discriminate between these two forms. The peak of native a2M [305]. The peak-to-peak separation 0.2 V of these bases enables their
reached half of denatured peak in contrast to result obtained using voltammetric determination in native, thermally, and acid dena-
glassy carbon or edge-plane pyrolytic graphite electrodes, where tured chromosomal DNA.
native a2M produced only small or no peak, respectively. Such Einaga et al. [319] used cyclic voltammetry to compare oxidation
observations may suggest partial denaturation of native a2M upon of adenosine phosphates on H-BDD (cathodically pretreated) and
contact with the polished BDD surface, in apparent analogy with O-BDD. A typical oxidation peak around þ1.3 V (vs. Ag/AgCl)
surface denaturation of proteins on mercury or other bare metallic attributable to the oxidation of adenine moiety was observed in
surfaces (reviewed in Ref. [267]). On the other hand, the above phosphate buffer solution pH 7.4. However, at low pH the oxidation
discussed experiments with cyt c on BDD [293] revealed surface peak could be well observed for all adenosine 5-monophosphate
denaturation only for fully H-terminated, strongly hydrophobic (AMP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and ATP on H-BDD,
surface (but not for the polished one). Moreover, in studies by whereas on O-BDD it was found only for the oxidation of AMP. Such
Grieten et al. [300] who employed electrochemical impedance results indicate that the partially negatively charged surface of O-
spectroscopy to study time resolved adsorption of globular proteins BDD slows down the oxidation kinetic of the adenosine phos-
on BDD surfaces, only slights conformational changes of the pro- phates, possibly due to repulsion effects between the O-BDD sur-
teins were detected on H-BDD (while properties of the O-BDD face and the phosphate (particularly di- and triphosphate)
surface allowed their faster adsorption). Thus, any conclusions functional groups. For free adenine base, only small differences
involving extensive surface denaturation of proteins at the H-BDD between the two surface modes were observed. In contrast, in
are overly speculative without further detailed studies with prop- Ref. [301] it has been reported that AMP is oxidizable neither on O-
erly characterized BDD surfaces. nor on H-BDD electrode. Other DNA nucleotides including
S. Baluchova 25
guanosine 5-monophosphate (GMP), as well as polyguanylic (pG), as fabrication of microelectrodes and their arrays increase func-
and polyadenylic (pA) acids are oxidizable using DPV on both O- tionality of bare BDD materials and open the door to targeted
and H-BDD electrode in 0.1 M acetate buffer pH 4.5, pA and pG on sensing, without the necessity of BDD surface modification.
H-BDD electrode in phosphate buffer pH 7. In the same work During the reported decade, a significant progress has been
electrochemical oxidation of 8-oxoguanine (8-oxoGua - a frequent achieved in electroanalytical applications with respect to identifi-
product of oxidative DNA damage) at the BDD electrodes was cation of the particular aspects influencing properties of BDD-based
reported. electrodes. Cathodic activation leading to H-termination of BDD
While free nucleobases seem not to adsorb on BDD surfaces surface and its polishing have gained wider popularity as effective
regardless of the surface pretreatment, their nucleoside and nucle- ways of electrode surface treatment leading to fast charge transfer
otide forms exhibited proclivity to adsorption of themselves or their kinetics and resulting in repeatable redox signals of organic com-
electrochemical reaction products. Prado et al. [302] focused on H- pounds possessing various redox-active moieties. Boron concen-
BDD surface. Deoxyguanosine monophosphate was oxidized in tration and content of non-diamond carbon impurities have been
adsorbed state through two successive electrochemical processes at addressed as crucial factors imparting electrical conductivity,
potentials of þ1.1 V and þ1.3 V (vs. SCE) which were also observable consequently influencing signal intensity and stability. Studies of
for guanine-containing RNA, ssDNA and dsDNA. These potentials are adsorption features on BDD surfaces with respect to their termina-
more positive than those obtained for free guanosine oxidation by tion enabled development of adsorptive voltammetric techniques.
Dryhurst et al. [320], who reported on the mechanism of its oxida- Fabrication of BDD particles and nanostructures have broadened
tion on PGE, where three oxidation waves were recorded at poten- possibilities in construction of sensors with improved sensitivity.
tials of þ0.81 V, þ1.00 V, and þ1.20 V (vs. SCE) at pH 7. In general, Further, miniaturization of BDD-based devices for functions
positive potential shifts of signals measured at the at BDD electrodes required in in-vitro/in-vivo analysis or detection in micro-scale
compared to analogous signals measured at sp2 carbon materials analytical systems has extended their applications in biosensing.
were observed for other oxidizable substances and may be attrib- Studies on fabrication and application of BDD-based materials
uted to larger hindrance of the electron transfer at the heteroge- represent a vivid field of research facing the following challenges
neous BDD surface. This applies also to a report on the related to organic electroanalysis including electrochemistry of
electrooxidation of 20 -deoxyguanine and 20 -deoxyadenine (and biomolecules:
corresponding nucleotides) on O-BDD by Fortin et al. [308], where
positive shifts of peak potential by approximately 0.15 V were re- (i) Development of selective, sensitive electroanalytical
ported in comparison with the values obtained at the PGE [320]. methods for detection of organic compounds in various
Nucleotide responses at the BDD electrodes occur at even higher matrices based on simple voltammetric approaches or hy-
potentials and the recorded peak intensity is markedly lower, phenation of BDD-based detectors with liquid flow tech-
compared to nucleosides. This is a common feature of the bio- niques, their validation and extension to clinical or
molecules, reflecting lower diffusion coefficients of larger molecules environmental laboratories and laboratories providing other
and decreased accessibility to electron transfer at the respective services. For the latter purpose, robust constructions of
oxidation sites [311,321]. For all mentioned studies, adsorption of macro-scale bare BDD electrodes standing alone or
nucleosides and nucleotides on BDD surfaces was reported with the embedded in flow-through detectors have to be commer-
exception of [311], where microchip CE-EC setup with BDD electrode cially available.
was employed for amperometric detection of purine derivatives (ii) Continuation in studies of boron doping level and BDD sur-
including guanosine and synthetic oligonucleotides. In studies face termination and chemistry and its physical character-
dealing with electroanalysis of oligodeoxynucleotides, native and istics as the main factors influencing charge transfer kinetics
denatured DNA, O-BDD surfaces were used for adsorptive accumu- (and thus potential positioning and signal current intensity)
lation of sparingly soluble Cu(I) of purine bases (released from the and adsorbability of organic compounds and biomolecules.
nucleic acids by partial acid hydrolysis) [310] or for investigation of Targeted surface termination for particular electroactive
electrochemical behaviour of native and thermally denatured fish species to maximize selectivity, sensitivity and reproduc-
DNA in the presence of free cytosine and selected porphyrins [303]. ibility of measurements can be envisaged. Utilization of
Further, adsorption on polished BDD surface was recently studied for adsorption of particular organic species for their determi-
4-nitrophenyl triazole-labeled nucleosides 20 -deoxycytidine nation in complex matrices without other preliminary sep-
(dCTRNO2) and 7-deazaadenosine (dATRNO2) utilizing the cathodic aration steps.
signals of the nitro group and signals of the hydroxylamino/nitroso (iii) Fabrication and characterization of new BDD-based mate-
redox pair arising in reduction products [193]. rials. These include multi-component diamond composite
films (e.g., BDD/carbon nanotubes or graphene), ultrathin
4. Conclusion and outlook films or films deposited at flexible supports [505e508]
expanding the possibilities in construction of new sensing
Over the last nearly 30 years since its introduction in electro- devices. Further, employment of nanostructures fabricated
analysis, boron doped diamond has gained wide popularity in using BDD overgrowth on structured templates, post-
electroanalytical laboratories and nowadays it can be regarded a processing of deposited layers, or assemblies of small-sized
well-established electrode material. Boron doping level, sp2/sp3 BDD structures forming porous layers promote an effective
ratio, and surface termination are considered the key factors way to improved electroanalysis.
influencing its electrochemical properties, as they have vast impact (iv) Design of BDD devices with miniaturized effective BDD areas
on electron transfer kinetics, molecular adsorption, width of po- (micro-, nano-, single crystal BDD electrodes and their ar-
tential window, and conductivity. The knowledge on interplay rays) for potential in-vitro and real time in-vivo applications.
among these factors and the properties of BDD films is of unceasing Effective solutions of insulation of BDD materials in partic-
interest, with the perspective of maximization of the usefulness of ular designs have been made for fit-for-purpose applications.
the BDD films for particular applications. Thus, optimization of the
above mentioned key factors, together with other possibilities, such To date, the BDD-related research in the field of electroanalysis
as structuring the BDD surface and construction possibilities, such has resulted in a number of publications acknowledging
S. Baluchova
attractiveness of this electrode material for environmental, clinical, H-BDD hydrogen-terminated boron doped diamond
and pharmaceutical analysis. New technologies enabling further HER hydrogen evolution reaction
development of BDD-based materials and targeted design of BDD- HET heterogeneous electron transfer
based electrochemical devices assure that unceasing interest in HFCVD hot-filament chemical vapour deposition
their applications in analyses of matrices of different origin and HHQ 2-heptyl-4-hydroxyquinoline
biosensing can be expected. The desirable expansion of developed HPLC high-performance liquid chromatography
sensing platforms and electroanalytical procedures is a challenging HTAB hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide
task demanding continuous effort of researchers from academic ChA chronoamperometry
sphere to present advantages and versatility of such platforms and LaB lactate buffer
procedures to service and commercial laboratories. LD limit of detection
LSV linear sweep voltammetry
Acknowledgement MEA microelectrode array
MeOH methanol
The research was financially supported by the Czech Science MPA multi-pulse amperometry
Foundation (GACR P206/12/G151). This research was carried out MWCVD microwave plasma chemical vapour deposition
within the framework of Specific University Research, Charles N/A not available
University (SVV 260440). NC NeoCoat
NEA nanoelectrode array
List of abbreviations NEEs nanoelectrode ensembles
O-BDD oxygen-terminated boron doped diamond
a2M alpha-2-macroglobulin OER oxygen evolution reaction
AA ascorbic acid PAD pulse amperometric detection
AcB acetate buffer PB(S) phosphate buffer (saline)
ACN acetonitrile PCA principal component analysis
AD amperometric detector PGE pyrolytic graphite electrode
AmB ammonium buffer PhF pharmaceutical formulation
Amp amperometry PP pesticide preparation
APT anodic pretreatment PPT pretreated by polishing
AT Adamant Technologies PQS 2-heptyl-3-hydroxy-4-quinolone
BDD boron doped diamond PYO pyocyanin
BDDmE boron doped diamond microelectrode SCE saturated calomel electrode
BDDP boron doped diamond powder SDS sodium dodecyl sulfate
BIA batch injection analysis SHE standard hydrogen electrode
BRB Britton-Robinson buffer SMX sulfamethoxazole
BSA batch system analysis SW-AdSV square wave adsorptive stripping voltammetry
CB carbonate buffer SW-AdTSV square wave adsorptive transfer stripping voltammetry
CD coulometric detector SWV square wave voltrammetry
CE capillary electrophoresis tacc accumulation time
CF cystic fibrosis TBAH tetrabutylammonium hydroxide
CLC capillary liquid chromatography TBAHFP tetrabutylammonium hexafluorophosphate
CMC carboxymethyl cellulose UA uric acid
CQA 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid WS Windsor Scientific
CSEM Swiss Center of Electronic and Microtechnology UMEA ultramicroelectrode array
CPT cathodic pretreatment UNCD ultrananocrystalline diamond
CTAB cetyltrimethylammonium bromide mPADs microfluidic paper-based analytical devices
CV cyclic voltammetry
Cyt c cytochrome c References
CZE capillary zone electrophoresis
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S. Baluchova 37
Simona Baluchova is currently a PhD candidate in the Veronika Ostatna defended her PhD thesis at Faculty of
UNESCO Laboratory of Environmental Electrochemistry, Mathematics, Physics and Informatics of Comenius Uni-
Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, versity in Bratislava, Slovak Republic in 2006. She studied
Charles University (Prague, Czech Republic). She received DNA-protein interactions (including aptamers) using elec-
her M.Sc. degree at the same university in 2017. Her main trochemical and other methods. She designed one of the
research interest is the development and characterization first electrochemical aptamer-sensors. Since 2005, she
of novel electrochemical sensors and detectors based on has been working in prof. Palecek's team at Institute of
conventional and structured boron-doped diamond elec- Biophysics AS CR. She is currently a senior scientist and
trode materials for applications in electroanalysis of bio- her research interests include electrochemisty of proteins,
logically active organic compounds in batch and liquid DNA and glycans; protein/protein and DNA/protein inter-
flow arrangements. actions, where some new interesting approaches were
developed.
Ales Dan hel received his PhD in analytical chemistry from Miroslav Fojta (born 1967) studied biochemistry at the
the Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic, in 2012. Charles University in Prague and earned his PhD (1995) in
Since 2012, he works at the Department of Biophysics of biophysics at the Institute of Biophysics (IBP), Academy of
Macromolecules at the Institute of Biophysics in Brno. His Sciences of the Czech Republic in Brno with Prof. E. Pale-
research interests include studies of electrochemical cek. In 2005 he became the head of the Department of
behaviour of novel DNA redox labels, native and labeled Biophysical Chemistry and Molecular Oncology and
DNA and/or proteins using various working electrode finished his habilitation at the Masaryk University in Brno
materials, such as mercury, silver/gold amalgams, pyro- where he is a group leader at the Central European
lytic graphite or boron-doped diamond. He is experienced Institute of Technology. His research interests include
from three internships at the Hong Kong Baptist Univer- electrochemistry of nucleic acids, chemical modification of
sity, Hong Kong, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, biopolymers and its application in analysis of nucleotide
Brazil and National Center for Scientific Research, Nancy, sequences, DNA damage and protein-DNA interactions.
France.
Hana Dejmkova defended her PhD thesis in analytical Karolina Schwarzova -Peckova
(born 1976) is appointed
chemistry at Faculty of Science, Charles University in as senior scientist in the UNESCO Laboratory of Environ-
Prague, Czech Republic in 2013 and currently works as a mental Electrochemistry at the Department of Analytical
researcher at this institution. Her scientific interests are Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Pra-
aimed to the combination of flow methods, such as HPLC gue, where she got her PhD in 2006. Her research fields
or flow injection analysis, and electrochemical detection cover development and characterization of new electrode
in both amperometric and coulometric mode. materials and arrangements for sensing of organic com-
pounds with large interest in carbon-based materials
including boron doped diamond, studies on mechanism
of electrochemical oxidation or reduction of redox-active
compounds and miniaturization of electrochemical detec-
tion devices. She has published over 50 peer reviewed
journal papers, and contributed 3 book chapters.

Analytica Chimica Acta: Review

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Analytica Chimica Acta

Recent progress in the applications of boron doped diamond

Boron doped diamond as an elec-

* Corresponding author. Charles University, Faculty of Science, Department of

1. Introduction of organic analytes, in Ref. [34] devoted to detection of phenolic

terminated) surfaces, frequently with an anodic cleaning step

Analyte BDD electrode/ Electroanalytical method, LD Application, remarks Ref.

Neurotransmitters, their metabolites and precursors; interferents

Analyte BDD electrode/ Electroanalytical method, LD Application, remarks Ref.

Analyte BDD electrode/ Electroanalytical method, LD Application, remarks Ref.

commercial tobacco products,

Analyte BDD electrode/ Electroanalytical method, LD Application, remarks Ref.

commercial DPV; 0.01 M NaOH with 0.1

Analyte BDD electrode/ Electroanalytical method, LD Application, remarks Ref.

commercial BIA-MPA (wall-jet); 0.05 M simultaneously in

Analyte BDD electrode/ Electroanalytical method, LD Application, remarks Ref.

commercial PhF þ river

Analyte BDD electrode/ Electroanalytical method, LD Application, remarks Ref.

commercial FIA-MPA (wall-jet); simultaneously in

Analyte BDD electrode/ Electroanalytical method, LD Application, remarks Ref.

BDDCSEM/potential SWV; 0.3 M Na2SO4 adjusted to

Analyte BDD electrode/ Electroanalytical method, LD Application, remarks Ref.

Analyte BDD electrode/ Electroanalytical method, LD Application, remarks Ref.

commercial BIA/FIA-MPA (wall-jet);

Analyte BDD electrode/ Electroanalytical method, LD Application, remarks Ref.

Analyte BDD electrode/ Electroanalytical method, LD Application, remarks Ref.

commercial SWV; 0.04 M BRB pH 4 with orange juice,

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