Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Prospects
Prerequisites
Contents
Executive summary and recommendations 5
Introduction 11
The nature of stem cells and their differentiation into specific cell types 15
Martin Evans
■ 6■
cytes (heart muscle cells) for heart disease, islet rejection of foreign cells. This could provide a Adult and embryonic stem cells have
cells for diabetes, haematopoietic cells (cells that longer-term therapy, or even cure. The value of different advantages and disadvan-
give rise to all blood cells) for blood diseases, and such “genetically corrected” stem cells has been tages; research on both is comple-
hepatocytes (liver cells) for pharmaceutical test- demonstrated at the level of proof of principle. mentary and crucial…
ing. However, it may require the development of
alternative methods to the hitherto used viral
Concerns, problems and vectors in order to be accepted for widespread
open questions clinical application.
In certain applications (i.e. skeletal muscle
Although the development of stem cell appli- and the lining of blood vessels) infusion of stem For effective administration, stem
cations is sometimes presented as involving a cells into the circulatory system can be used as cells must be well understood and
choice between ES cell research and adult tissue the route of administration. However, in the specially prepared; further research
stem cell research, biomedical advances can be majority of applications of cell-based therapy, is needed to clarify the role in tissue
foreseen equally from both approaches. It is introduction of cells directly to the site of repair/ regeneration of the cells themselves
known that ES cells are pluripotent, having the regeneration is likely to be necessary. This will and the chemicals they emit…
capacity to generate any cell type in the body. require techniques and equipment specifically
However, that potency is offset by some lack tailored to each clinical application, and the
of certainty as to their stability in a partially or application of sophisticated imaging technolo-
completely differentiated state, and a limited gies to track the introduced cells. Furthermore,
knowledge of the signals that are necessary to several experimental approaches – notably in
achieve definitive differentiation. Adult stem bone and cartilage repair – rely on the develop-
cells, while restricted in the range of cell types ment of suitable “scaffold” materials on which Genetically altered stem cells could
that they can generate, are more amenable to cells can grow prior to implantation. Research be used to treat and correct genetic
controlled differentiation, precisely because they on such bio-compatible materials must keep diseases, but this may require new
have fewer choices available. However, what can pace with stem cell research, and production methods for introducing the “repair”
definitively be demonstrated is that research in must be scaled up to satisfy demand. gene…
each field benefits the other at the levels of basic In both basic and clinical stem cell research,
science and application. It is, therefore, wise to progress is required in selecting from a tissue
support both. only the rare population of true stem cells
The stem cell is an entity that should be among a mixture of partially differentiated pro-
understood and manipulated in the laboratory genitor cells. Such cell sorting is important in
before reintroduction to the patient. In general, order to increase the efficacy and specificity of
the direct regenerative effect of stem cells is due the dose of cells finally administered. In many
to the proliferation and differentiation of the areas of research it remains to be seen whether Most therapies will be given directly
cells in the desired tissue. In some cases, however, progenitor cells grown in the laboratory are into the tissue in question, requiring
cell transplantation may have indirect beneficial still capable of differentiating and function- sophisticated administration and
effects due to anti-inflammatory and growth sig- ing properly after transplantation. Clearly, imaging technology, and in some
nals that the introduced cells emit – the so-called consistency of production and quality control cases “scaffolds” of advanced materi-
“bystander” effect. More tissue-based research is are prerequisites for safe clinical application of als to grow the cells…
necessary in order to clarify exactly how intro- cell therapies. However, the efficacy of the cells
duced cells interact with the host tissue, and what designated for therapy is at least as important
the essence of their regenerative power is. On the as their safety. Cells that appear to pass overly
basis of such research, optimised therapies can stringent regulatory control may do so at a
be developed. Some types of tissue regeneration price: they may lose a subtle component of their
likely require the introduction of two or more potency to regenerate tissue, and upon trans-
cell types in order to have optimal clinical ben- plantation they may no longer behave as desired.
efit. In other cases it may be more effective to It is therefore essential to maintain an appro-
administer a mixture of cytokines rather than, or priate perspective and avoid compromising the Obtaining the right cells from
in addition to, introducing cells. functionality of stem cells before transplanta- a tissue, and ensuring that they
In principle a genetic defect in the tissue to be tion. An important consideration is whether the remain effective until administration
treated may be repaired using stem cells. Using current level of regulation – with the associated are crucial; efficacy controls are as
a patient’s own cells and repairing/replacing the bureaucracy and costs – would have allowed the important as safety controls, and
gene in question avoids the problems of immune development of life saving stem cell therapies for must not be swamped by the latter...
■ 7■
Large investments would be blood disorders in the 1960s and severe burns excludes from patentability all claims to associ-
necessary to scale up therapies for in the 1980s. ated products necessitating the direct and una-
general availability; to minimise A further concern at the level of delivery of voidable use of a human embryo – including
immune rejection, large numbers stem cell therapies is that very significant invest- claims on cells derived from an embryo.
of cells would need to be banked; ments need to be made if such therapies are to Whether this interpretation is correct, and in
SCNT with patients’ own cells be generally available one day. Infrastructures particular whether inventions using established
needs to be researched further as a for scale-up, safety and quality control, as well hES cell lines – being procedurally distant from
complementary strategy… as distribution and storage need attention before the original embryo – should be subject to patent
therapies start to move out of clinical trials and exclusion, rests on the verdict of the EPO’s
become generally available therapies. Further- enlarged board of appeal. That decision may well
more, should ES cells prove to be a therapeutic not be reached until some time in 2008. To the
that is applicable to a large number of diseases, extent that the final interpretation of the Euro-
the problem of immunological rejection will pean Patent Convention article 23d(c) might
need to be overcome. This may be tackled by exclude from patentability all applications of,
banking a relatively large number of ES cell lines and techniques pertaining to, human ES cells,
in stem cell banks for histocompatibility match- it would have a major negative impact on future
ing (as used in organ transplants), combined commercial investment in this area in Europe.
with immunosuppressive drugs or strategies This unusual situation – patents on human
But legislative obstacles are to induce tolerance. The derivation of ES cells
ES cells are granted elsewhere around the world,
hindering basic research… from a patient via SCNT or direct reprogram-
notably in the US – and the lack of a verdict
ming represent alternative possibilities, but such
at the EPO present the temptation for research-
techniques need to be firmly proven and then
ers or companies to apply for national patents
developed into an efficient process.
in individual European countries instead. But
And techniques and products A major concern hanging over the field of
– depending on the particular case and the inter-
involving the use of a human stem cell research – more particularly research
pretation of the European Biotechnology Direc-
embryo remain unpatentable in with human embryonic stem cells (hES cells)
Europe; researchers’ main concerns – is that there are legislative obstacles to free tive – that process risks contravening the very
are the techniques for manipulating international collaboration and exchange of instrument designed to aid harmonization across
stem cells and the differentiated cells materials. The disparate national regulations Europe (the Directive itself ), hence potentially
that result… governing stem cell research in Europe inhibit precipitating legal proceedings at the European
the field from benefiting from the internation- Court of Justice.
ality of approach inherent to scientific advance. In summary, the intellectual property situa-
In some countries scientists are allowed to pursue tion is so complex, and so far from a positive res-
research with a limited number of human ES olution, that there is little – if any – incentive for
The appeals process of the European cells, but are faced with the threat of prosecution commercial involvement in the development of
Patent Office is dealing with the if they engage in research on other human ES ES cell applications in Europe. Since patents on
matter, but a resolution is not cell lines developed by collaborators in Europe. human ES cells are already granted in the United
expected before 2008… In the context of economic value and patents, States and elsewhere, investors and bioindustry
European stem cell researchers are concerned are focussing on those opportunities. This situa-
with the protection of intellectual property relat- tion renders the European biotechnology sector
ing to the manipulation of established human at a serious disadvantage compared with global
Meanwhile patents on human ES ES cells and differentiated derivatives, not to competitors, and carries potentially damaging
cells are granted elsewhere around their derivation from the human embryo. How- consequences for the economy and healthcare.
the world… ever, the current stance of the European Patent
Office (EPO) is to exclude from patentability all
inventions or claims relating to human embry-
onic stem cells. This position has its roots in rule
23d(c) of the European Patent Convention (the
legal framework in which the EPO operates),
Leaving Europe at a big disadvan- which stipulates that “European patents may not
tage because the situation is so com- be granted in respect of biotechnological inven-
plex and far from positive resolution tions which, in particular, concern uses of human
that there is little industry interest in embryos for industrial or commercial purposes.”
ES cell R&D… According to current EPO interpretation, that
■ 8■
Recommendations
In order that stem cell research and development ■ 6. Care should be taken that regulatory
in Europe stand the maximum reasonable chance requirements are not excessively stringent and
of fulfilling their potential for advancing health- do not present an unreasonable financial and/
care, the biological sciences and the economy… or bureaucratic barrier to clinical applications,
as currently threatens.
■ 1. The prospective value of stem cell research
in benefiting healthcare, knowledge produc- ■ 7. Efficacy measures and standard operating
tion and the economy should be publicly rec- procedures for clinical use of stem cells should
ognised. Human stem cell research should be be developed. In establishing clinical prac-
integrated into the mainstream of biomedical tices, efficacy measures should be accorded
research, including disease modelling, study of at least as much significance as that of safety
cellular degenerative processes, development controls.
of pharmaceutical and toxicological screening
platforms, and regenerative therapy. ■ 8. Stem cell banks with high levels of quality
assurance should be encouraged, and inter-
■ 2. Research on both adult and embryonic national access by scientists and industry
stem cells, being highly complementary, facilitated.
should be fully supported; so too should
research into understanding the reprogram- ■ 9. Greater harmonisation and interlinking of
ming of the nucleus brought about by somatic clinical trials and their results across Europe
cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), cell fusion and should be promoted in order to facilitate
other techniques. cross-border studies and evaluation of all cell
therapies (including, but not limited to stem
■ 3. Communication and professional educa- cell therapies). Such an initiative should be for
tion on stem cell research and applications the benefit of all citizens and underpinned by
should be promoted with active participation public funding.
of scientists and clinicians along with ethicists,
regulators and patient group representatives. ■ 10. Investments should be made in tech-
nology development to enable large-scale
■ 4. Intellectual property relating to the utili- processing of stem cells for applications in
sation of human ES cells and cell lines after pharmaceutical screening, toxicological test-
their derivation from the embryo should be ing, and cell transplantation.
patentable in order to encourage the necessary
industry involvement in the translation of
stem cell research into clinical applications.
■ 9■
Introduction
Stem cell research is both an evolution and There are already well-validated clinical appli- Stem cell technology represents
a revolution in modern biomedicine. It can cations of stem cells. Thousands of patients a revolutionary way of exploiting
be regarded as a milestone on a progression of have benefited from bone marrow transplants, human genome data…
signal findings and developments: from small for example. During the Cold War the fear of
molecule antimicrobials (e.g. penicillin), anti- nuclear war prompted an acceleration in research
bodies and monoclonal antibodies, to modern to repair human tissues that are particularly
genetics, genomics and cell therapy. Indeed, it prone to radiation damage (renewing tissues that
is possible only because of the multitude of dis- replace themselves continuously throughout life)
coveries in biology that precede it. At the same such as the blood. Experiments in mice showed But it is also closely related in prin-
time, it is quite different from anything so far that following destructive irradiation, the entire ciple to well established and success-
attempted in biomedicine on a global scale. blood system could be regenerated via bone ful transplantation technology…
Stem cells – particularly embryonic stem cells marrow cell transplantation. The first success-
(ES cells) – represent part of the post-genomic ful human bone marrow transplant resulting in
technology for delivering on the promises of the the long-term survival of the patient (a leukemia
human genome sequencing project. Commercial sufferer, whose bone marrow had been destroyed
companies in the USA already use genomics to by radiotherapy) was performed in 1956 by Dr.
derive ES cell lines. E. Donnall Thomas, New York; the proof of
Despite its revolutionary nature, the concept principle was turned into a life-saving clinical
of using stem cells for therapeutic purposes has application. Further signal advances were made
much in common with the now conventional by other researchers in 1968 (first bone marrow
principle of organ transplantation; but rather transplant using a related donor for non-cancer
than introducing a whole new organ to a patient, treatment) and 1973 (first bone marrow trans-
only a certain population of cells is given. Fur- plant using an unrelated donor). Today many It has already proven itself in
thermore, if these cells are from the same indi- thousands of lives are also saved by stem cell skin several clinical settings, and has the
vidual, the problem of immune rejection is also grafts to burns victims, and many hundreds of potential to address a broad variety
avoided. Some established cell therapies relying eyes are saved from blindness with the help of of diseases…
on stem cells can even be regarded as interme- corneal stem cells. In certain cases of corneal
diate between organ transplantation and cell injury, traditional transplantation fails simply
therapy: for example, bone marrow transplants because the transplant does not regenerate itself
and transplantation of pancreatic islets (groups as the normal tissue does. Stem cells can over-
of so-called β-cells that produce insulin in the come this problem.
pancreas). Transplant technology has allowed A significant number of diseases targeted by
medicine to heal people in ways unachievable by stem cell therapy are due to a faulty gene that
mere surgery or medication; the same can be said manifests its effect in a particular tissue or sub-
about the prospects of stem cell technology. Fur- population of the patient’s cells. Using geneti-
thermore, stem cells have the potential to treat a cally corrected stem cells to repair faulty genes
broad spectrum of diseases from the common to in the patient appears an attractive alternative to
the rare, and across all age groups (e.g. rheuma- the classical method using viral vectors to deliver Even to the extent of repairing the
toid arthritis, Duchene muscular dystrophy and the repair gene in situ. Genetically corrected genetic defect that gives rise to
congenital immune deficiencies). stem cells are proving thier value in clinical trials certain diseases…
■ 12 ■
Embryonic stem cells Adult stem cells
Are a ubiquitous component of the embryo, Are rare, often difficult to identify, of unknown
with a well-understood function and life origin, and partially understood function and
history. life history.
Are defined by position in the embryo (the Are defined by a complex list of features such
inner cell mass of the blastocyst). as cell-surface markers, behaviour in vitro, and
in some cases, position in the tissue.
Can divide symmetrically indefinitely in Can divide few or many times (up to 200 or
culture without changing characteristics. more) in culture, but not indefinitely.
A single cell can give rise to a colony of In some tissues, absolutely consistent
genetically identical cells with the same precursor cells can be identified and cultured;
properties as the original cell. that remains to be shown for all tissues.
Pluripotent: can give rise to all three tissue Sometimes multipotent: most only give rise
types of the embryo (endoderm, mesoderm to their tissue of origin, but some may be able
and ectoderm). to give rise to different cell types within the
larger groupings of endoderm, mesoderm and
ectoderm (so-called plasticity)
■ 13 ■
The nature of stem cells and their differentiation into
specific cell types
■ 15 ■
Current status It is clear that an adult cell nucleus can be
reprogrammed -- that is its differentiation can
Derivation of ES cells from IVF human be reversed -- but we only know one complete
embryos has been achieved in a repeatable way, method at the moment: nuclear transfer into
and there are numbers of research grade cell lines an oocyte. Nuclei can also be de-differentiated
available. Derivation of human ES cells from in the context of cell fusion. We are coming to
nuclear transfer embryos, however, remains understand most of the components of the sta-
unproven. The reports from Hwang and his bility of the differentiated state and these are
3: Dennis Normile, Gretchen Vogel, Korean team have proven to be falsified infor- all micro reversible. Methods of direct de-dif-
and Jennifer Couzin CLONING: mation. (3) There remains as yet no reliable evi- ferentiation of somatic cells need to be devel-
South Korean Team’s Remaining dence of derivation of human ES cells from a oped. Moreover, as the therapeutic product
Human Stem Cell Claim Demol- cloned embryo. The generation of an early cleav- will be a committed precursor cell population,
ished ing human embryo from nuclear transfer has we need to know much more about inducing
Science 13 January 2006:Vol.311. been reported by others but not in mainstream and validating specific cell differentiation. It
pp. 156 - 157 scientific journals. (4,5) Differentiation of mouse will be important to invest heavily in cell and
ES cells to defined progenitor or differentiated developmental biology using both model organ-
populations (nerve, pancreatic islet etc.) has been isms (mainly mice) and human cells in culture.
4: Cibelli JB, Lanza RP, West MD, demonstrated, as has specific differentiation of
Ezzell C. The first human cloned human ES cells, and there are cell transplanta- ■ Research on ES cells, adult stem cells and
embryo. tion therapies using adult stem cells – but not ES progenitor cells heralds a possible revolution
Sci Am. 2002 Jan;286(1):44-51. cells – either established or in trial. in the treatment of diseases, especially in the
ageing population and a major contribution
Prospects to personalised medicine.
5: Stojkovic, M., P. Stojkovic, et al.
(2005). “Derivation of a human The advent of human ES cells and the ideas ■ Regulations and ethical/legal frameworks
blastocyst after heterologous nuclear for the future potential for therapeutic medicine need to be constructed in such a way to allow
transfer to donated oocytes.” of using stem and precursor cells is the begin- Europe to take advantage of the potentials for
Reprod Biomed Online 11(2): 226- ning of a very major change in therapeutic stem cell applications.
31. practice, which will address many areas of great
importance, particularly in our ageing popula- Cell developmental biology in animal model
tion. Europe can provide leadership in an ethi- systems and human cells will be important in elu-
cal application of science to a type of healthcare cidating the reprogramming of the cell nucleus
that is patient-centred and evidence-based. We in SCNT, differentiation and the reversal of dif-
are seeing the beginning of major changes in ferentiation.
medicine that are coming about because of our
greatly increased biological and genetic knowl- Problems, concerns and
edge. Insurance is the sharing of unknown risk. open questions
As such, increasingly predictive medicine does
not fit comfortably in an insured provision of The debacle of the Hwang team serves to
healthcare. Moreover, the change to patient- highlight both the practical and ethical problems
specific (such as cellular or genetically selected) of a SCNT approach. The ethical sourcing of
therapies may be changing the commercial phar- sufficient oocytes may be a major practical block.
maceutical model of the blockbuster drug. Derivation of an embryo by cell nuclear transfer
For these reasons, Europe needs to be in the needs to be an efficient process, and much devel-
vanguard of stem cell research and application. opment work needs to take place before this can
In order to achieve this we need regulation that be so.
will facilitate advances and prevent abuses and In order to provide therapeutic cells the source
in which our diverse public is confident. We needs to be histocompatible with the patient.
need, ethical and legal frameworks, which sepa- The patient specific ad hominem approach, be it
rate considerations of reproductive intervention by “cloning” or another method of de-differen-
from laboratory and therapeutic cell biology. ES tiation will provide this perfectly, but there are
cells must be viewed as a cell type, and not as an other potentially more practicable ways forward.
embryo. If it is possible to establish a very large bank of
■ 16 ■
6: Taylor CJ, Bolton EM, Pocock S,
genetically diverse embryonic stem cells most Sharples LD, Pedersen RA, Bradley
patients could be provided with a near perfect JA. (2005 Dec)
match. Another approach would be to have a Banking on human embry-
much smaller bank of cells which are pre-char- onic stem cells: estimating the
acterised and which could be tolerated in trans- number of donor cell lines needed
plantation by many patients. The calculation of for HLA matching. Lancet.
the number of cell lines needed for a minimally 10;366(9502):2019-25.
acceptable match is surprisingly small if their
genotypes were very specifically chosen.(6) Such
a very carefully designed bank might need to
be made from genetically chosen IVF embryos
from genetically selected individuals i.e. made 7: Evans, M. (2005). “Ethical
to order. This alone could present a huge ethical sourcing of human embryonic stem
problem, potentially bigger than using SCNT (7). cells--rational solutions?”
In order to be available for therapeutic use these Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 6(8): 663-7.
cell lines have to be established, validated and
maintained under Good Manufacturing Practice
Regulations.
■ 17 ■
Embryonic stem cells: potency and potential
■ 19 ■
Furthermore, for ethical reasons it should provide the platform for rigorous pre-clinical
remain unknown whether human ES cells can evaluation of cell replacement therapies.
contribute to chimaeras. It is perhaps unfortu- A further opportunity provided by ES cells
nate, therefore, that the cells from the two spe- is the production and characterisation of tissue
cies have been given the same name before a stem cells that may be very rare in vivo. This
2. Smith, A. G. Embryo-derived common identity has been established.(2) may lead to methods for isolating such stem cells
stem cells: of mice and men. Ann. directly from adult tissue or even to development
(2001) Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 17, ■ Embryonic stem cells are “pluripotent” - of drugs that can activate these tissue stem cells
435-462. capable of generating all cell types found in for repair in the body.
the body. ES cells are critical for the above developments
because there is little evidence that pluripotent
■ Embryonic stem cells are produced in the lab- cells exist in the adult body. However, use of
oratory by special treatment of cells removed ES cells in transplantation would trigger rejec-
from blastocysts. tion by the patient’s immune system. This could
be combated by immunosuppressive drugs, but
■ Production of human embryonic stem cells these are costly and have damaging side-effects.
involves the use of blastocysts discarded from An ambitious goal for researchers, therefore,
infertility treatments or diagnosed by genetic would be to find methods of converting adult
screening as carriers of a lethal disease gene. cells into pluripotent cells. It is already known
that this can be achieved by nuclear transfer into
oocytes or by fusion with ES cells. Furthermore,
in mice developing germ cells can be converted
Prospects under particular conditions into pluripotent
stem cells similar to ES cells.(4) The next chal-
Differentiation involves a stable change in the lenge is to identify the proteins that mediate
activity of genes to give a cell specialised proper- such “reprogramming” and attempt to convert
ties, such as contractility for heart cells or elec- adult tissue cells directly.
trical activity for nerve cells. A pluripotent cell
can differentiate down many different pathways.
A key challenge for ES cell scientists therefore ■ Researchers will take increasing control of
is to understand how to control differentiation. the expansion and directed differentiation of
Guided by discoveries in basic developmental human embryonic stem cells to produce new
3. Keller, G. Embryonic stem cell biology and armed with post-genomic informa- bioresources.
differentiation: emergence of a new tion and technologies, researchers are acquiring
era in biology and medicine. increasing knowledge of the mechanisms that ■ Embryonic stem cell bioresources will lead
Genes Dev 19, 1129-55 (2005). maintain self-renewal of mouse ES cells or direct to greater understanding of tissue stem
their differentiation.(3) Protocols and selection cells, and enable major advances in model-
techniques have been devised to produce rela- ling development and disease, identifica-
4. Kanatsu-Shinohara, M., Inoue, tively pure populations of particular cell types. tion of new drugs, and cell transplantation.
K., Lee, J., Yoshimoto, M., Importantly, these differentiated derivatives do
Ogonuki, N., Miki, H., Baba, not carry the potential risks of undifferentiated ■ Experimentation to enable creation of
S., Kato, T., Kazuki, Y., ES cells to form tumours. pluripotent stem cells directly from cells taken
Toyokuni, S., Toyoshima, M., Niwa, Differences between mouse and human in the from our bodies will be a focus of increasing
O., Oshimura, M., Heike, T., basic biology of ES cells and early development research efforts.
Nakahata, T., Ishino, F., Ogura, A. present challenges, but it is reasonable to antici-
& Shinohara, T. pate well-controlled, scaleable, production of
Generation of pluripotent stem cells differentiated cell populations from human ES Problems, concerns and
from neonatal mouse testis. cells in the next few years. This will provide basic open questions
Cell 119, 1001-12 (2004). researchers and the biopharmaceutical industry
with a major new bioresource for discovery and Human ES cell research is still in its infancy
drug development. Directed differentiation into and the scientific challenges in harnessing the
cell types of clinical relevance, such as dopamin- potential of these cells should not be glossed over.
ergic neurons or pancreatic beta cells, should also A realistic timescale for new therapies may be
■ 20 ■
decades rather than years. For example, human ■ Co-ordinated cross-disciplinary programmes
ES cells are genetically diverse and it remains are necessary to address the broad scientific,
to be seen whether they can be standardised in technical, clinical and regulatory challenges of
the same fashion as genetically uniform mouse moving stem cells from the bench to the patient
ES cells. The genetic stability of ES cells during in a safe, effective, and affordable manner.
long-term expansion is also uncertain and will 5. Porter, G., Denning, C., Plomer,
require comprehensive monitoring prior to any ■ New funding mechanisms will be needed A., Sinden, J. & Torremans, P. The
clinical applications. Sophisticated bioprocess- to support clinical trials in cell replacement patentability of human embryonic
ing techniques will be required to enable large therapy. stem cells in Europe. Nature Biotech-
scale production of functionally mature pheno- nology In press (2006).
types suitable for biopharmaceutical screening. ■ Restrictive national legislation and failures to
Complex regulatory requirements for cell thera- grant Patent protection undermine European
pies may impede clinical translation and greatly research morale and competitiveness, jeopard-
increase the costs. Novel mechanisms will be ising future economic and healthcare benefits
required for funding multi-centre clinical trials from stem cell research
in the absence of major industry partners. These
hurdles should be overcome by a combination
of individual scientific creativity and European- Conclusions
wide co-ordination and investment.
However, a divisive political climate is cur- ES cells provide unmatched opportunities for
rently a major barrier to the advance of stem cell applying post-genomic technologies to under-
research in Europe. Most notably, legislation in stand cellular development, functional differen-
some countries prohibits researchers from study- tiation and disease. Out of this should emerge
ing human ES cell lines derived after an arbitrary medical benefits in the form of new biomarkers,
date. It is a criminal offence for scientists from improved drugs, and ultimately cell replacement
those countries to collaborate fully with other therapies. Crucially, ES cells also hold the key
European researchers on human ES cell work. to understanding pluripotency which might
The European research base in stem cell biology eventually enable scientists to convert one type
is consequently in danger of fragmentation and of specialised cell into another cell type for treat-
individual researchers are under threats of legal ment of a disease or injury in the same patient.
action. For Europe to participate fully in, and reap
A second roadblock obstructs biotechnologi- the rewards of, stem cell research will require
cal exploitation of ES cell research in Europe. supra-national cooperation in both research and
The European Patent Office (EPO) has cur- regulation.
rently suspended all patent applications involv-
ing human ES cells. EPO has adopted a rigid
interpretation of the “morality clause” in the EU
Directive on Biotechnology which states that “use
of human embryos for industrial or commer-
cial purposes” is excluded from patentability(5).
Apart from the fact that ES cells are not embryos,
the stance of the EPO ignores the opinion of the
European Group on Ethics that patents should
be allowed on modified human stem cells or
processes involving human stem cells, whatever
their source.
Although some European countries have
broken rank to allow national patents concerning
human ES cells, the position of the EPO places
Europe collectively at a significant disadvantage
compared with North America or Asia where ES
cell patent applications are routinely granted.
■ 21 ■
Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT):
prospects in disease research and treatment
■ 23 ■
■ SCNT embryos have been demonstrated to a change that may be used as a test in assessing
be capable (in a few cases) of developing into compounds. Using high through-put screening
a blastocyst. systems it would then be possible to assess sev-
eral hundred drugs comparatively cheaply. By
■ Methods have not yet been established for the contrast, at the present time drugs are tested in
production of ES cells from SCNT embryos. experimental animals. At the same cost it is only
possible to assess a handful of drugs in a year
Prospects compared with hundreds in high through-put
cell-based screens.
The ability to produce stem cells from SCNT The same approach could be used to study
embryos will provide new opportunities to study any inherited human disease. The advantage is
inherited diseases, such as ALS, a relentlessly pro- greatest if the genetic error that causes the dis-
gressive muscle wasting disease that causes the ease is not known. Naturally, it is also essential
death of 130,000 people worldwide each year. that the affected cell types can be produced in
Degeneration of motor neurones is the common the laboratory from ES cells. Other candidate
cause of this fatal condition, but the causes of conditions for study include neurodegenerative
the degeneration are not understood. In a small diseases, psychiatric diseases, abnormalities of
proportion of cases the disease occurs repeatedly the heart that may cause sudden death (cardio-
within a family, but it seems likely that in gen- myopathy), and some forms of cancer.
eral several genetic and environmental factors But it is not only in the research and treatment
contribute to the pathogenesis of ALS. Experi- of identified diseases that adult cell types result-
ments in mice suggest that toxic effects of an ing from SCNT would be of use: the screening
abnormal protein cause damage to both motor of drugs for efficacy and side-effects on various
neurons and neighbouring cells, but a detailed tissues of the body would benefit enormously
understanding is still lacking. from such readily available and genetically iden-
In order to understand the mechanisms by tical cells. In the era of “personalised medicine”
which the abnormal protein causes the disease cells representing different patient “genotypes”
it would be extremely useful to be able to study could be produced en masse and used for a more
nerve cells from patients with ALS in the labora- realistic test of a drug’s action across the diversity
tory. Unfortunately this is not possible with cells of patient types in society.
taken directly from living patients, because the
cells that are affected are deep within the central ■ Differentiated cells from SCNT-made ES cells
nervous system. Furthermore, even if extracted, would introduce new opportunities for study-
it is unlikely that they could be maintained in ing inherited human disease, and for research-
culture and expanded to the numbers needed to ing suitable drugs to treat them.
study. Finally, by the time the patient dies there
may have been many secondary changes result- ■ Cells with the characteristics of those in
ing from the illness or natural ageing. patients with inherited disease will open up
Suitable stem cell lines could be obtained from new ways of studying inherited diseases and
SCNT embryos in such a way that they have an developing drugs. Examples are ALS, Parkin-
inherited form of the disease. Such a methodol- son’s disease and some cancers.
ogy would make it possible, for the first time,
to study the development of ALS in nerve cells ■ SCNT could theoretically produce large
equivalent to those of a patient with ALS. Com- numbers of identical cells of various tissues
parisons could be made with nerve cells from for efficacy and safety testing of drugs across
healthy embryos. a range of patient “types” in the population at
Following analyses of the proteins produced large, contributing significantly to “personal-
in the “diseased” cells, it would be possible to ised medicine” for everyone.
develop rapid methods for screening potential
drugs in order to identify compounds able to
stabilise the condition of the patient and prevent
progression of the disease. First it is necessary to
understand the causes of the disease and identify
■ 24 ■
Problems, concerns and the use of SCNT for these research purposes, it Background/further reading
open questions is essential that comparisons be made to discover
whether or not errors in cell function introduced 1: Gurdon JB, Colman A. The
The opportunities available through SCNT by SCNT mask those that are due to the dis- future of cloning. Nature. 1999 Dec
will complement those provided by different ease. Such tests may involve carrying out SCNT 16;402(6763):743-6.
approaches. In a small proportion of cases the from ES cell lines carrying known genetic errors
genetic error that causes a disease has already before producing new ES cell lines. It would 2. McLaren A. Ethical and social
been identified. If the error has been identified, then be possible to compare the manifestation of considerations of stem cell research.
it may be introduced into existing ES cell lines by the genetic error between conventional ES cell Nature. 2001
standard methods of molecular biology to create lines and those produced by SCNT. Nov 1;414(6859):129-31.
cells that are expected to have the characteristics ■ The success rates of SCNT in producing
of the disease. Such modified cells can then be human embryos that appear (substantially) 3. Brambrink T, Hochedlinger K,
contrasted with cells of the original line, which normal are currently low. A better understand- Bell G, Jaenisch R.
are identical except for the precise change asso- ing is required of how exactly the transferred ES cells derived from cloned and
ciated with the disease. This approach is simple nucleus becomes “re-set” to an embryonic state. fertilized blastocysts are transcrip-
and direct, but only possible in the small pro- tionally and functionally indistin-
portion of cases in which the mutation has been ■ More research is required to establish meth- guishable.
identified. In the case of ALS the proportion is ods of producing ES cells from SCNT Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2006 Jan
2 per cent of patients. In this situation a very embryos (or of optimising SCNT formation, 24;103(4):933-8. Epub 2006 Jan
precise direct comparison can be made between if it is at that stage that failure is determined). 17.
nerve cells from the ES cell line with or without
the genetic error. ■ Should ES cells be reliably produced via
In cases in which the error has been identi- SCNT, appropriate comparisons must be
fied, molecular tests can be used to identify made between conventionally derived ES cells
embryos that have inherited the disease as the and those from SCNT to rule out side effects
result of one of their parents having an inherited due only to the procedure of SCNT.
form (We inherit one copy of a gene from each
parent). Usually only one of the two copies of Conclusions
the gene is damaged in the case of inherited cases
of ALS. Hence, only half the embryos produced The possibilities that arise if one envisages
by a patient are expected to have inherited the the reproducible creation of stem cell lines from
disease. In this case, cells can be taken from each SCNT-derived embryos are very significant
embryo and molecular techniques used to dis- indeed. They include not only improvements
cover if the embryo has inherited the damaged in research and treatment of serious degenera-
gene in the process known as Preimplantation tive inherited diseases, but generally applicable
Genetic Diagnosis. Indirectly, these tests identify methodologies for the pharmaceutical industry
those embryos that have inherited the disease that could improve the lives of millions. SCNT-
and these would be destroyed if they were not derived cells may in certain cases also facilitate
used for research. This approach can be used to a reduction in the number of animals used to
obtain cells for any disease for which the causa- research a condition or test drugs against a dis-
tive mutation is known. ease. The culturing of ES cells from IVF embryos,
SCNT provides opportunities when the and the establishment of stable cell lines, has
cause of the disease is not known. However, already been achieved, and are no longer tech-
the present methods of cloning are inefficient, nical challenges. It has also been demonstrated
although they are repeatable and used by many that several tissues can be produced by artifi-
laboratories around the world. This low overall cially differentiating ES cells in the laboratory
efficiency reflects a failure of current procedures (with appropriate growth factors, for example).
to change the function of the genetic informa- The Step from SCNT to adult tissue cell that
tion from that appropriate for an adult cell to currently represents a challenge is the formation
that required for normal embryonic develop- of definitive ES cells from the SCNT-derived
ment. It is not known whether similar abnor- embyro. The research to solve that obstacle is of
malities in gene function would occur in ES cells crucial importance in achieving the considerable
derived from SCNT. In developing and assessing potential illustrated above.
■ 25 ■
Somatic stem cells of the blood:
Haematopoietic stem cells
■ 27 ■
mental niches and that HSC numbers are con- of other lineages. Clearly, the demonstrated first
trolled by the numbers of, and factors produced development of HSCs from the embryonic vas-
within, these niches. Stromal cell lines from the culature implicates a particular molecular state
bone marrow have been generated for the ex vivo (genetic and epigenetic) in the generation proc-
laboratory study of the molecular interactions ess. Elucidation of the program of these embry-
between HSCs and their surrounding environ- onic precursors, early HSCs and the cells of
ment. Knowledge of the molecular programs the embryonic stromal environment and com-
of HSCs, as well as the stromal cells within the parisons with the programs of HSCs and cells
niches, is of great importance for improvement of the stromal environment of the adult could
of blood therapies. suggest signalling pathways for stimulation or
Developmental environments and factors inhibition through small targeted drugs. Already
are a current intense focus of haematopoietic known developmental signalling pathways such
research. (2, 3) It is thought that HSCs are gener- as the Notch, Hedgehog and Wnt pathways have
2. Dzierzak E. (2005) The emer- ated only during embryonic development and been shown to affect haematopoietic cell growth.
gence of definitive hematopietic that no further generation occurs in the adult. Thus, further cellular and molecular insights
stem cells in the mammal. Current Recent cell transplantation research in animal are yet gained into formation and expansion of
Opinion in Hematology. 12:197- models has identified the originating source of HSCs during embryonic stages, and their poten-
2002. HSCs as the cells of the developing embryonic tial contribution to the adult haematopoietic
blood vessels, such as the dorsal aorta and the system. Interestingly, it is as yet unknown in
umbilical artery. Several other tissues including mammals whether the HSCs generated during
3. Hematopoietic stem cell develop- the yolk sac and placenta may also contribute embryonic stages do indeed migrate and colo-
ment: to the HSC pool found in the adult. HSC gen- nize the adult bone marrow to provide life-long
Review Issue (2005 Ed: Yoder MC. eration in the human embryo appears to be very haematopoiesis. It remains possible that rare
Experimental Hematology, 33. similar to that of the mouse embryo.(3) Within the endothelial cells in parts of the adult vasculature,
first four weeks of conception, HSCs are found perhaps the abundant vessels of the human pla-
in the dorsal aorta, and slightly later in the yolk centa retain potential to generate haematopoi-
sac. They appear to be at least as potent as adult etic cells. If this is the case, prospects for further
bone marrow and cord blood HSCs. Molecu- expansion and induction of these vascular cells
lar manipulation of the genetic and epigenetic for therapeutic application are encouraging.
programs that direct the generation and expan- The availability of unlimited numbers of
sion of HSCs in development should provide ES cells for differentiation to desired lineages
further important insights into the regulation of has raised the possibility for use of ES cells in
HSCs and may therefore lead to improved blood blood replacement therapies as an alternative to
replacement therapies. adult bone marrow or umbilical cord blood hae-
matopoietc stem cells.(3) Additionally, universal
■ HSCs produce all adult blood cells. donor strains of ES cell derived HSCs would alle-
viate the problems inherent in obtaining closely
■ HSCs are produced in multiple sites in the matched donor stem cells. Since the first dem-
embryo and are thought to contribute to the onstration of haematopoietic differentiation of
adult blood system. mouse ES cells over 20 years ago, many insights
into the embryonic development of the mouse
■ Stromal cell niches support the growth of haematopoietic system have been applied to ES
HSCs through the production of factors. cell haematopoietic differentiation. Through
the dedicated efforts of a few laboratories, the
■ Genetic and epigenetic programming of improvement of ES cell culture conditions has
HSCs is beginning to be explored. resulted in an enhanced ability to produce cells
of the erythroid lineage (precursors of red blood
cells), myeloid lineage (precursors of white blood
Prospects cells with non-specific, non-adaptive, immune
functions) and lymphoid lineage (precursors of
Health related prospects for the use of infor- B and T lymphocytes of the specific adaptive
mation from HSC research include the ability immune system), and to identify a common vas-
to de novo produce HSCs in the adult from cells cular and haematopoietic precursor.(4)
■ 28 ■
Additionally, the haematopoietic differen- new opportunities for obtaining large numbers 4. Passegué E, Jamieson CHM,
tiation of human ES cells has been achieved.(5) of HSCs from other easily accessible tissues, such Ailles LE, Weissman IL (2003)
These studies have furthered our understanding as the placenta. Moreover, these studies will fur- Normal and leukemic hemat-
of some of the genetic programs directing the ther our understanding of how HSCs are gener- opoiesis: Are leukemias a stem
differentiation of the developmentally early hae- ated from the embryonic vasculature. cell disorder or a reacquisition of
matopoietic cells. stem cell characteristics? PNAS
Most interestingly, many advances have been ■ HSC generation from ES cells and/or vascular 100(1):11842-11849.
made recently in the treatment of blood malig- cells will most likely need a complex environ-
nancies/leukaemias with the drug Gleevac. How- ment
ever, while this drug affects the cells that form in 5. Wang L, Li L, Shojaei F, Levac
large part the leukaemia, small populations of K, Cerdan C, Menendez P, Martin
leukaemia-inducing cells survive, and in time Conclusions T, Rouleau A, Bhatia M. (2004)
lead to the reappearance of the leukaemia. These Endothelial and hematopoietic cell
“leukaemia stem cells” are interesting targets for The haematopoietic system is a dynamic, fate of human embryonic stem cells
novel drug treatments, which could be revealed highly proliferative and complex differentiation originates from primitive endothe-
through knowledge of the genetic and epigenetic system with many levels of regulation. Faulty lium with hemangioblastic proper-
programs in normal and leukaemic HSCs. regulation of HSC self-renewal can lead to 1) ties. Immunity, 21:31-41.
over proliferation, as in leukaemia or 2) lack of
Realistic prospects or outcomes of stem cell maintenance. An increasing knowledge
research are: of the process of self-renewal, as well as the devel-
opmental signals and environment leading to the
■ Stimulation of the developmental reprogram generation of the HSCs, is essential for direct-
directing de novo HSC generation from vas- ing the generation and expansion of HSCs from
cular precursors adult and/or embryonic tissue sources or ES cells
for the treatment of blood related diseases.
■ ES cell derived HSCs in unlimited num-
bers and for universal engraftment in blood
replacement therapies
■ 29 ■
Stem cell research in bone
■ Paolo Bianco fibrous tissue (the main constituent of tendons 1. Bianco P & Gehron Robey P:
■ La Sapienza University and ligaments), and the tissue required to sup- Skeletal stem cells. In RP Lanza,
■ Rome, Italy port haematopoiesis (haematopoietic stroma, HM Blau, DA Melton, MAS
which creates the environment for the making of Moore, E. Donnall Thomas (Hon),
Introduction blood cells within the marrow cavities). C M Verfaillie, IL Weissman, MD
Thus, all tissues that together make the skel- West (eds) (2004) Handbook of
Each year over 800 000 bone grafts are per- eton can be generated by a single skeletal stem adult and foetal stem cells, vol
formed globally with a total market of around cell. This can be demonstrated using appropri- 2. Academic Press, New York, pp
300 million euros. 27 million Europeans ate transplantation models, in which culture- 415-424
undergo dental surgery requiring bone augmen- expanded cell strains originating from single
tation for success. Osteoporosis affects 44 mil- SSCs generate one or more skeletal tissue in vivo. 2. Bianco P, Gehron Robey P: Stem
lion American citizens, with an anticipated equal Initially designed as proof of principle studies cells in tissue engineering. (2001)
market size in Europe. The total cost for treating using immunocompromised mice as recipients, Nature 414: 118-121,
these patients amounts to over 14 billion euros a transplantation studies have evolved into pre-
year. Bone disease, either of surgical or medical clinical models and subsequently into pilot clini-
interest, is emerging as a major health problem cal studies. Focus has been on the use of SSCs for
in the western world. Stem cell research in bone bone regeneration. To this end, clinical trials are
provides an innovative, rational, and challenging either underway or planned worldwide. The use
avenue, promising major scientific and applica- of SSCs for bone repair via tissue engineering
tive reward.(1,2) approaches may be considered clinically feasible
– if not today, then at least in the near future.
Current status Currently, the most common approach to
bone tissue engineering is based on the genera-
The concept of a skeletal stem cell is not origi- tion of a cell-biomaterial construct that is then
nal; it dates back to the late sixties. More recently, locally transplanted. The cell component of the
skeletal stem cells have risen to centre stage as a construct is obtained through in vitro culture
specific kind of post-natal stem cell, and have of SSCs isolated from the patient’s own bone
been renamed ‘mesenchymal stem cells’. Con- marrow. The cell strain obtained in this way is
tained in the fraction of the bone marrow that then combined with a scaffold, typically consist-
does not give rise to blood cells (called the stro- ing of a mineral phase (hydroxyapatite, tricalcium
mal tissue), skeletal stem cells can be isolated in phosphate, calcium carbonate, or combinations
culture from small samples of adult bone marrow, thereof ). Cells adhere to the mineral phase,
obtained via simple extraction procedures. Skel- which in turns facilitates the deposition of new
etal stem cells(SSCs) can be culture-expanded bone by the cells loaded onto the scaffold. Ide-
and induced to generate mature cells, which ally, the scaffold should be amenable to resorp-
can form bone tissue (the main constituent of tion by the host over time, leaving behind only
individual bones), cartilage (the main constitu- the newly formed bone.
ent of joint surfaces in the bones), adipose tissue
(a component of the bone marrow filling bone ■ Skeletal (mesenchymal) stem cells can easily
cavities, and of the soft tissue around the bones), be isolated from the post-natal bone marrow.
■ 31 ■
3. Kuznetsov SA, Riminucci M,
Ziran N, Tsutsui TW, Corsi A, Calvi ■ Skeletal stem cells give rise to bone, carti- and haematological diseases. This is an emerg-
L, Kronenberg HM, Schipani E, lage, fat, fibrous tissue, and haematopoietic ing area of interest that is likely to see important
Gehron Robey P, Bianco P: (2004) stroma. advances of relevance both to the skeleton and to
The interplay of osteogenesis and haematopoiesis.(3)
hematopoiesis: Expression of a ■ The ability of SSCs to give rise to specific
constitutively active PTH/PTHrP skeletal tissues has been tested, and can be ■ Clinical trials testing the use of SSCs for bone
receptor in osteogenic cells perturbs exploited to regenerate bone – and possibly repair are underway.
the establishment of hematopoiesis other tissues in the future.
in bone and of skeletal stem cells ■ SSCs make it theoretically possible to treat
in the bone marrow. Journal of Cell severe skeletal diseases that currently await a
Biology 167:1113-1122, Prospects cure.
We can expect to see the results of ongoing ■ SSCs and their progeny are functionally
clinical trials for bone tissue engineering using related to hematopoietic (blood-forming)
SSCs in the next two years. The results of these cells.
studies will provide additional evidence of the
feasibility, safety and efficacy of the approach.
Meanwhile, it is expected that these studies will Problems, concerns and
highlight specific problems. These will include open questions
dealing with the diversity of future approaches
in the surgical arena, and the need to work out In the area of bone tissue engineering, impor-
specific strategies for different applications (e.g., tant advances are needed and expected in the
segmental reconstruction versus bone augmenta- area of biomaterials. The materials employed in
tion versus spinal fusion etc). the first round of studies (both preclinical and
Equally important prospects lie in the area clinical) were selected on the basis of their ability
of cell therapy using skeletal stem cells. While to facilitate bone formation by cells that usually
the scale of the clinical problem, and related perform that function in vivo (osteoconductive
market, is enormous for bone tissue engineer- materials). The use of stem cells for bone tissue
ing, individual diseases theoretically amenable engineering poses specific challenges, and mate-
to cure through cell therapy are relatively rare. rials employed as scaffolds will need to be tai-
However, the severity of the clinical, social and lored to maintain the characteristic properties
human problem that they represent will suffice of stem cells in the long-term following in vivo
to justify intense efforts. Just as the notion of transplantation. Studies are underway to design
stem cells in haematopoiesis allowed researchers and test ‘advanced generation’ materials, includ-
to envisage a cure for diseases that appeared to ing those designed to release bioactive factors in
be incurable such as leukaemia, so the greatest a controlled way.
appeal and challenge of skeletal stem cells lies The use of SSCs for repair of other skeletal
in the prospect of curing crippling and at times tissues, such as articular cartilage (which covers
lethal diseases of the skeleton. Specific problems the surfaces of joints), seems less immediate, and
must be tackled through intensive and targeted still requires substantial pre-clinical work. Again,
research before this aspect can reach an applica- the size of the clinical problem and related
tive horizon. Current therapeutic approaches to market is very large. Whereas it is easy to obtain
diseases such as osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) and genuine cartilage from SSCs (using both in vitro
fibrous dysplasia cannot provide a cure. How- experiments, and some in vivo models), further
ever, pursuing the innovative avenue of stem cell research is needed to identify better biomaterials,
based therapy for these diseases is a medical need and to ensure ultimate stability of the tissue.
more than an investigative option. In the area of cell therapy, advances are
Important prospects are also associated with expected in technologies designed to: a) modify
some less apparent properties of SSCs. The abil- stem cells prior to their use in vivo; and b)
ity of SSCs to generate the stromal framework deliver stem cells in ways other than direct, local
for the production of blood cells has major theo- implantation. Advances in both areas are needed
retical and applicative implications that link the for the conception and design of studies using
field of SSCs with the field of haematopoiesis stem cells for therapy of genetic diseases. This
■ 32 ■
is also important for other diseases that affect required to repair bone defects (e.g. to replace
the entire skeleton, rather than a single bone or resected segments of a bone; to increase bone
a single region of a bone. To genetically modify mass at a specific site; or to bridge defects result-
stem cells, basic tools have been developed over ing from fracture non-union, etc – bone tissue
the past few years (such as viral vectors) and they engineering. Beyond the boundaries of ortho-
need to be adapted to use in specific cell systems. paedic surgery, the notion that skeletal tissues
In addition, systems must be developed whereby originate from stem cells opens the perspective
single genes can not only be transferred into of using stem cells for the cure of non-curable
stem cells, but also silenced in stem cells. This diseases, such as crippling genetic diseases of the
would be necessary for addressing the treatment skeleton. In such cases, stem cell therapy can be
of specific skeletal diseases in which excessive combined with genetic correction. Furthermore,
function of a gene product – rather than lack the notion that growth and life-long turnover of
of a gene product – causes the abnormality in the skeleton is fundamentally dependent on the
bone structure and function. Devising effective biology of skeletal stem cells provides a perspec-
ways to deliver stem cells to all sites in the skel- tive on skeletal diseases in general. It influences
eton is important for treating diseases that affect the design of new drugs, and the very under-
the whole skeleton. At present, there is no solid standing of disease mechanisms. This sets skel-
evidence that one can deliver SSCs to the whole etal stem cells (SSCs) in the context of targets for
skeleton via the bloodstream, i.e. using an intra- pharmacological intervention in a wide range of
venous injection. bone disorders, including diseases of very high
In the area of stem cell biology that is directly prevalence and social and economical impact.
relevant to clinical use, advances are needed and
expected in the purification of the genuine stem
cell fraction comprised in the cell population
that can be currently explanted and grown in
culture. This population includes a hierarchy of
stem and progenitor cells with variable potential
for cell replication and maturation into specific
types of skeletal cells. The availability of puri-
fied stem cell populations will permit the design
of strategies that may avoid a cell culture phase
prior to clinical use. This would greatly simplify
the clinical use of SSCs, and possibly improve
their efficacy.
Conclusions
Stem cell research in the field of skeletal dis-
ease opens important new perspectives in mul-
tiple areas of medicine and orthopaedic surgery.
In orthopaedic surgery, it provides the option
of using stem cells for generating the tissues
■ 33 ■
Stem Cells and Cancer
■ 35 ■
4. Reya, T and Clevers, H Wnt
Adult stem cell niche
signalling in stem cells and cancer.
Apoptosis
(2005) Nature;434:843-50
BENIGN MALIGNANT
Systemic and
Apoptosis micro-environmental EMT
effects
Transient MET
amplifying cells Differentiated
cells
Adult stem cells
Macro-metastasis Micro-metastasis
Fig.1 Schematic representations of the cancer stem cell hypothesis in tumor formation and progression to malignancy.
In the adult stem cell niche, pluripotent stem cells together with more committed progenitors and fully differentiated
(specialized) cells are kept in equilibrium. Gene mutations leading to cancer alter this equilibrium between stem cells
and more specialized ones. This disequilibrium results in excessive cellular proliferation and\or to lack of programmed
cell death (apoptosis) thus leading to the formation of a heterogeneous cellular mass (benign tumor). Additional gene
mutations underlie progression to more malignant tumor stages. Different cellular types will detach from the primary
tumor, reflecting its heterogeneous cellular composition. Cancer stem cells, because of their plasticity and capacity
to trans-differentiate, will successfully move across the body and invade distant organs by forming micro-metastases
(enriched in cancer stem cells) and eventually macro-metastases which recapitulate the primary tumor in terms of
cellular composition and heterogeneity.
■ 36 ■
Cancer Type CSC-specific markers Reference
Tab.1 Prospectively identified cancer stem cells and the corresponding markers
tion events affecting signal transduction path- shared by CSCs isolated from different cancer
ways (e.g. Wnt, Hedgehog, and Notch) known types, possibly indicating activation of common
to regulate this finely regulated balance. The signal transduction pathways. Deregulation of
latter can be achieved, for example, by simply the Wnt signal transduction pathway for exam-
favouring symmetric vs. asymmetric cell division ple, has been shown to be a very early event in
or by insensitivity to growth-inhibitory signals colon, breast, skin and haematopoietic malig-
from the surrounding stem cell niche. nancies and is likely to activate self-renewal and
Hence, according to the CSC model, a small ‘stemness’ in the corresponding tissue-specific
sub-population of cells retains stem-like proper- niches (4, 5)
ties and is responsible for tumour growth (by To summarize:
self-renewal) and heterogeneity (by differentia- ■ Self-renewal and differentiation represent
tion). Experimental evidence for the existence of the main CSCs’ features: the former drives
cancer stem cells has been delivered for several tumour formation and growth whereas the
tumour types including leukaemias, multiple latter underlies tumour heterogeneity.
myeloma, breast, brain, prostate and lung cancer
(table 1). In this approach, human tumours are ■ Deregulation of signalling pathways known
dissociated to single-cell suspensions, sorted by to modulate self-renewal and differentia-
different cell surface markers, and transplanted tion during development and in adult stem
into immunodeficient (NOD/SCID) recipient cell niches underlies CSC onset and invasive
animals. behaviour.
Cancer stem cells are hereby defined by
their capacity to recapitulate tumourigenesis ■ Cell-sorting by specific combination of
even when transplanted at low multiplicity in cell surface markers and transplantation in
an experimental model. For example, 1 in 105 immune-deficient mice has allowed the pro-
acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) cells express spective identification and isolation of CSCs
the cell surface markers CD34+CD38+and can from different human cancer types.
recapitulate the histological heterogeneity of
the disease when transplanted in SCID animals,
whereas CD34+CD38+ leukaemic cells cannot, Prospects
even at higher multiplicities. Likewise, human
breast cancers encompass a subpopulation (1-10 Research on cancer stem cells offers prospects
per cent) of CD44+CD24low lin- cells. These puta- for improvements in cancer prognosis and treat-
tive breast CSCs can form tumours in NOD/ ment. The demonstration of the existence in sev-
SCID mice when as few as 200 cells are trans- eral human malignancies of a minority of cancer
planted. Notably, many cell surface markers are stem cells capable of reproducing the heteroge-
■ 37 ■
neity and malignancy of the human disease in the primary lesion at distal locations. The iden-
experimental animals has several implications tification of CSC surface markers for specific
for cancer prognosis and treatment. Expression cancer types (table 1) will allow the detection
profiling is currently regarded as the most prom- and quantification of migrating CSCs in body
ising tool for cancer prognosis and response to fluids, blood and bone marrow, and guide post-
treatment. However, if tumour onset and inva- surgical clinical management and surveillance of
sive behaviour are driven by a minority of CSCs, the cancer patient.
their relative number within the tumour mass
may correlate with the patient’s risk of develop- To summarize:
ing local and distal metastases. Hence, expres- ■ Whole tumour expression profiles are likely to
sion profiling of total tumours by microarrays encompass heterogeneous cellular types thus
encompassing the complete set of human genes possibly masking the clinically relevant CSC
is unlikely to detect CSC-specific expression sub-population.
signatures as they are diluted within a major-
ity of heterogeneous cellular types. Likewise, ■ Definition of CSC-specific gene signatures
whole tumour expression profiles are likely to will improve our capacity to predict cancer
be of less value to design tailor-made therapeutic prognosis and response to treatment based on
approaches. expression profiles of whole tumours.
The identification of CSC-specific signatures
by expression profiling of purified CSCs will ■ The same CSC expression profiles will facili-
allow their supervised bioinformatic analysis tate the identification of therapeutic targets
from whole tumour profiles and the refinement for tailor-made intervention.
of clinical prediction of metastatic behaviour
and response to treatment. Also, it will facilitate
the identification of novel CSC-based therapeu- Conclusions
tic targets. Upon conventional chemotherapy
or radiation therapy, tumour shrinkage is likely The cancer stem cell hypothesis represents a
to result from death of differentiated tumour truly innovative concept in cancer biology with
cells. However, if CSCs represent a minority of profound fundamental and clinical implications.
cancer cells and if, as reported in the literature, Research on cancer stem cells will run in paral-
they are characterised by an intrinsic resistance lel with the research on normal embryonic and
to radiation and chemical agents, they are likely adult stem cells. Central to both lines of investi-
to escape adjuvant therapy and underlie cancer gation is the identification of cell surface markers
relapse. Therefore, the development of therapies for their prospective identification from healthy
specifically targeted against CSCs is likely to and diseased tissues. The subsequent molecu-
result in considerable improvement of the cancer lar characterisation of the purified stem cells
patient’s long-term survival. by genomic and proteomic analysis will lay the
The cancer stem cell hypothesis also suggests foundation for the elucidation of the molecu-
novel prospects for the detection of circulating lar and cellular mechanisms that regulate self-
cancer cells after surgical removal of the primary renewal and differentiation in homeostasis and
malignancy. In general, circulating cancer cells in cancer. These advances in our understanding of
blood and bone-marrow are known to be present cancer stem cell biology will open new avenues
at various multiplicities in cancer patients. Cir- for the improvement of cancer risk assessment,
culating cancer cells however, will reflect the prognosis, surveillance, prevention and targeted
heterogeneity of the primary tumour mass and therapy. To this end, both fundamental and
only a minority will succeed in the metastasis of applied research should be encouraged, combin-
a distal organ. CSCs, because of their intrinsic ing genetic, cellular and molecular analysis of in
plasticity and capacity of transdifferentiate upon vitro and in vivo CSC experimental models with
stimuli from their direct environment, repre- the prospective detection, purification and anal-
sent a clinically highly relevant sub-population ysis of CSCs from surgical specimens and body
of migrating cancer cells capable of reproducing fluid from cancer patients.
■ 38 ■
Repairing the damaged heart:
Stem cell research in acute heart attack and chronic
coronary artery disease
■ 39 ■
2. Strauer BE, Brehm M, Zeus T, et molecular-biologically and finally clinically. global pump function of the heart.(2) In larger
al. (2001) Myocardial regeneration However, the molecular-biological and cellular- clinical studies a benefit of using autologous
after intracoronary biological mechanisms are still a matter of intense bone marrow cells for patients with acute inf-
transplantation of human autolo- research, and the in vitro and in vivo monitor- arction has been confirmed both after 3 months
gous stem cells following acute ing of applied bone marrow-derived stem cells and after 24-36 months. In a small minority of
myocardial infarction. are of particular interest in better understanding studies this effect was not manifested so clearly:
Dtsch med Wschr. 2001; 126:932- the regenerative processes that occur within the here the cells were given during the acute phase
938. cardiac muscle. within the first 24 hours after the acute infarct,
at a time when the degradation of the dying car-
■ Bone marrow-derived cells can differentiate diomyocytes was in full swing, and the inflam-
into cardiac specific cells (e.g. endothelial matory response has to be taken into account.
cells, smooth vascular muscle cells and cardio- Differing results have been obtained in the
myocytes). long-term follow up after stem cell transplan-
tation. In one study, an improved pump func-
■ Observed repair to damaged myocardium tion was recorded in the majority of patients,
could be due to such transdifferentiation, as persisting even after 3 years. In another study
well as the migration and differentiation of carried out by magnetic resonance tomography
resident cardiac stem cells in response to fac- (MRT), only a temporary effect was recorded
tors released by the newly introduced cells. after 3 months, and after 12 months there was
no improvement compared to the non-cell trans-
■ Various clinical studies have confirmed that planted control group. However, in one multi-
autologous bone marrow-derived stem cells centre double-blind placebo-controlled study a
taken from the patient herself/himself can significantly improved regional and global pump
repair the damaged heart, hence improving function of the heart (as measured via left ven-
cardiac function, perfusion and metabolism tricular angiogram) was recorded after 4 months
in a number of cardiac disease states. in the stem cell-treated patient group compared
with the control group (which received no stem
cells).
Prospects for research The great benefit of bone marrow derived
stem cell therapies for myocardial repair is not
In treating cardiac diseases it is important to merely the replacement of damaged heart tissue
evaluate three different approaches for applying (e.g. cardiomyocytes, endothelial cells and
stem cells to achieve myocardial repair: (I) autol- smooth muscle), but also the functional work-
ogous bone marrow-derived stem cell transplan- ing together of the new heart muscle cells with
tation via different application routes, preferably the existing tissue. Bone marrow-derived stem
by the intracoronary technique, (II) stimulated cells may indirectly mediate additional beneficial
myogenesis and vasculogenesis from endogenous effects through the stimulation of local, resident,
resident cardiac stem cells or progenitor cells, cardiac stem cells. Transplanted bone marrow-
and (III) cytokine-mobilized bone marrow stem derived stem cells can produce cardiotrophic
cells that home in on the damaged myocardium. cytokines (growth factors, chemoattractant fac-
Acute heart attack and chronic coronary artery tors), which may support the survival of dying
disease have benefited from autologous bone heart muscle cells or modulate the immune
marrow-derived stem cell transplantation. response that occurs upon damage to the heart.
Most progress has been made with acute heart
attack, and has proceeded without any major An attractive alternative to transplantation of
complications over the last five years. Strauer autologous bone marrow-derived stem cells is to
et al. were the first to inject autologous bone activate the differentiation of resident endog-
marrow-derived stem cells during routine cath- enous cardiac stem cells or cardiac progenitor
eterization in a reopened coronary artery (left cells into new cardiac cells. Resident stem cells are
anterior descendent coronary artery, LAD) in a found in so-called “niches” in the cardiac tissue.
patient with anterior wall infarction in March Such an approach would have the advantages
2001. The outcome was a definitive recovery in of being potentially non-invasive, and would
anterior wall motion, anterior wall perfusion and only use the patient’s own resident stem cells. At
■ 40 ■
first glance this may appear extremely challeng- cult or laboured breathing), and increase daily 3. Anversa P, Torella D, Kajstura J,
ing, since it involves several steps, including cell activity as well as quality of life in humans et al. (2002) Myocardial regenera-
migration, proliferation and differentiation, all with heart diseases. tion. Eur Heart J.; 4 (Suppl. G):
of which would have to function for a successful G67-G71.
therapy to occur. However, it certainly appears ■ Pharmaceutical stimulation of heart muscle
that the adult heart muscle has the capacity to growth from endogenous cardiac stem cells
repair itself. In experimental studies it has been may offer a non-invasive approach for myo-
demonstrated that resident cardiac stem cells can cardial repair.
be attracted by certain cytokines (cardiotrophic
factors) when injected into the heart. ■ Cytokine-induced mobilisation of stem cells
from the bone marrow may offer an alterna-
Perhaps the least challenging approach to ther- tive technique for myocardial regeneration,
apeutic myogenesis (muscle (re)generation) is to but the possibility of a clinically relevant cor-
enhance the process by mobilizing bone marrow onary re-narrowing currently weighs against
stem cells with the help of systemic application such an approach.
of so-called chemoattractant factors such as G-
CSF or GM-CSF. This increases the mobilisation
into the peripheral blood of haematopoetic stem Problems, concerns and
cells, mesenchymal stem cells and cardiac com- open questions
mitted progenitor cells from the bone marrow.
The circulating stem cells can then migrate into The main challenge for developing any stem
the damaged area of the heart. Such an approach cell based therapy for heart diseases is the control
– which may indeed prove beneficial in treating of cell migration, proliferation and differentia-
heart diseases – was first put forward by Anversa tion ex vivo as well as in vivo, i.e. the achieve-
and coworkers.(3) The systemic application of ment of a high proportion of cardiac committed
chemoattractant factors (chemokines) such as progenitor cells without any other unwanted cell
the mobilizing granulocyte colony stimulat- types. This is important for improving the clini-
ing factor (G-CSF) or granulocyte-macrophage cal effect achievable to date, and also for trans-
colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) promoted planting these cells into elderly patients who
(i) the migration of bone marrow-derived stem have a reduced stem cell reservoir in their bone
cells into the infracted heart muscle, and (ii) the marrow. The evaluation of the experimental and
proliferation of bone marrow-derived stem/pro- clinical effects in animal models or clinical trials
genitor cells in the heart muscle for repair and is difficult, because different mechanisms are
functional recovery of the heart after a heart involved in the different myocardial diseases.
attack. Moreover, in human studies only a slight
beneficial effect after G-CSF injections has been ■ Cardiac stem cell differentiation needs to be
demonstrated in patients with acute heart attack, controlled in order to ensure that the desired
although some investigators have demonstrated cell types are generated.
an increase in re-narrowing in the infarct-related
artery that is not insignificant. It is important ■ Generation of unwanted cell types must be
to point out here, however, that myocardial prevented.
replacement might involve regions where muscle
growth (myogenesis) does not occur at appreci- ■ Clinical studies for tracking stem cells to
able levels under normal conditions. evaluate their cellular fate (exact location and
identity) are important.
■ Several studies have demonstrated that the
transplantation of autologous bone marrow-
derived stem cell is beneficial in acute heart Conclusions
attack and in chronic coronary artery disease.
The once conventional dogma that the heart
■ Stem cell-derived heart muscle cells and does not have the capacity to repair itself is now
endothelial cells reduce clinical symptoms redundant. Several clinical trials have demon-
such as angina pectoris and dyspnoea (diffi- strated the beneficial effect of replacement ther-
■ 41 ■
4. Strauer BE, Brehm M, Zeus T, et apy after stem cell transplantation in coronary pathways, together with the realisation of cell
al. (2005) Regeneration of human artery disease.(4) Additional heart diseases may be fusion processes and the effects of growth hor-
infarcted heart muscle by intracoro- treated with increased knowledge of stem cell/ mones and other chemical signals released in the
nary autologous bone marrow cell progenitor cell migration processes, proliferation neighborhood of the regenerating cardiac tissue.
transplantation in chronic coronary
artery disease – the IACT study.
JACC; 46:1651-1658.
■ 42 ■
Stem cell research in vascular endothelia
■ 43 ■
2. Dimmeler, S. and Zeiher, A.M. cells indicating that individuals at risk for coro- other sources within the bone marrow (e.g.
(2004) Vascular repair by circulating nary artery disease have an impaired endothelial mesenchymal stem cells, SP cells) or from
endothelial progenitor cells: the repair capacity. This hypothesis is supported by tissue resident stem cells. Moreover, myeloid
missing link in atherosclerosis? recent findings demonstrating that measure- intermediates (cells that mature into white
J Mol Med, 82, 671-677. ment of circulating endothelial progenitor cells blood cells) might have the capacity to con-
predicts the prognosis of patients with coronary tribute to endothelial repair. Definition and
3. Ingram, D.A., Caplice, N.M. artery disease (2). characterisation of these endothelial progeni-
and Yoder, M.C. (2005) Unresolved tor cells is ongoing. (3)
questions, changing definitions, ■ Circulating bone marrow-derived cells can
and novel paradigms for defining contribute to regenerating the endothelial ■ The double-edged role of endothelial pro-
endothelial progenitor cells. Blood, monolayer after injury, and improve vascular genitor cells: By improving neovascularisation
106, 1525-1531. healing. (formation of new blood vessels) endothelial
progenitor cells may also contribute to blood
■ Patients with coronary artery disease show an vessel formation in atherosclerotic plaques,
impaired number and function of circulating thereby potentially destabilising the plaques
endothelial progenitor cells. – a negative consequence. Although, clini-
cal trials and animal data do not support a
■ Quantitative measurement of circulating profound pro-atherosclerotic effect of endog-
endothelial progenitor cells may be useful in enous or applied progenitor cells, careful
monitoring patients at risk of atherosclerosis. evaluation of putative side effects have to be
considered in future studies.
■ 44 ■
Vascular regeneration and potential Improvement of blood flow after ischemia by infusion of
atheroprotective effects endothelial progenitor cells (EPC)
Incorporation in
newly formed vessels
Bone marrow-derived
endothelial progenitor cells (EPC) Increase in neovascularisation
Increase in blood supply
Vessel wall
Endothelial monolayer EPCs
an enhancement of blood vessel formation in progenitor cells have been used for therapeutic
tumours by circulating progenitor cells may angiogenesis (blood vessel formation) studies in
prove detrimental. Interestingly, studies in mice patients. Additional adult cell stem/progenitor
lacking the capacity to mobilise endothelial and cell populations will be tested in comparison,
haematopoietic stems have revealed reduced in order to define the most efficient stem/pro-
tumour growth, supporting the concept that genitor cell for treatment of ischaemic disease.
circulating progenitor cells facilitate blood Enhancement strategies to increase cell number
vessel formation in tumours, and hence tumour (e.g. improvement of cell survival, prolifera-
growth. Although the contribution of progenitor tion), cell homing (e.g. increasing adhesiveness
cells to the tumour vasculature is variable, block- of the cells to the target tissue), and priming of
ing the recruitment of progenitor cell mobilisa- the target tissue to facilitate cell up-take, may be
tion or recruitment might be a novel therapeutic developed to improve cell therapy strategies.
option for cancer treatment. Ample evidence suggests that circulating pro-
genitor cells play a role in blood vessel formation
■ Infusion of bone marrow-derived or circulat- (neovascularisation) in tumours (5). Further stud-
ing blood-derived progenitor cells improves ies are required to clarify whether interference
the formation of new blood vessels and blood with circulating progenitor cell mobilisation or
supply to ischaemic tissues in experimental recruitment might be useful as a therapeutic 5. Schneider, M., Tjwa, M. and
studies and clinical phase II/III trials. approach. Alternatively, the measurement of Carmeliet, P. (2005) A surrogate
circulating progenitor cells might be suitable marker to monitor angiogenesis at
■ The contribution of endothelial progenitor for monitoring the responses of individuals after last. Cancer Cell, 7, 3-4.
cells in blood vessel formation in tumours anti-tumour therapies (5).
may depend on the type of tumour. The
measurement of circulating endothelial pro-
genitor cells might be useful for monitoring Problems, concerns and
responses to anti-tumour therapy. open questions
The major obstacle at present relates to the
Prospects huge differences in incorporation rates of circu-
lating progenitor cells in the vascular endothe-
The use of cell therapy for the treatment of lium. Experimental studies have described an
ischaemic diseases is under clinical investigation endothelial incorporation rate of bone marrow-
and needs to be confirmed in larger scale clini- derived progenitor cells from 0 to 100 per cent
cal trials with hard end-points. So far only bone of newly formed blood vessels in ischaemia and
marrow-derived or circulating blood-derived tumour models. The extent of incorporation
■ 45 ■
may crucially depend on the experimental model Progenitor cells also can be incorporated in the
(e.g. extent of injury, tumour type etc) and the vessel wall (perivascular localisation) rather than
source of progenitor cells used. However, the in the endothelial monolayer, thereby supporting
therapeutic effect of cell therapy of ischaemic vessel stability and maturation. It is unclear at
diseases may not only depend on the physical present whether the improvement in new blood
incorporation of the cells into the endothelial vessel formation induced by stem/progenitor
lining. It might also be due to growth factors cell therapy indeed depends on the “stemness”
released by the progenitor cells, which in turn of the cells or might also be achievable by other
promote the formation of new blood vessels and cell types, including those that give rise to white
tissue repair in a paracrine manner (i.e. acting blood cells (myeloid lineage).
locally on neighbouring tissue).
■ 46 ■
Stem cell research in Epithelia
■ Michele De Luca
■ Department of Biomedical Sciences,
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia,
Modena, Italy
■ The Veneto Eye Bank Foundation,
Epithelial Stem Cell Research Center,
Venice, Italy
Introduction
Regenerative medicine, which is aimed at tremendous capacity to poliferate. A single epi-
the permanent restoration of damaged tissues dermal holoclone can double enough times to
and/or organs, is tightly linked to stem cell biol- produce the skin surface area of an adult human
ogy. Regenerative medicine includes cell therapy being (8 x 1010 cells). Under appropriate condi-
(a clinical setting where stem cells are isolated, tions, such human keratinocyte stem cells (which
usually cultivated and transplanted back onto give rise to the tough layer of keratin in our skin)
patients) and gene therapy (a clinical setting can thus be maintained in culture and are cur-
where stem cells are also genetically modified rently used in many cell therapy protocols, as
to cure a genetic disease). Self-renewing tissues outlined below.
(such as blood and epithelia) contain a popula- Human epidermal keratinocytes can be grown
tion of stem cells that are responsible for their in the lab to give sheets of so-called stratified
generation and continuous regeneration. The epithelium (the outer layer of our skin), these
entire integrity of the tissue and its repair depend have the characteristics of real skin. Keratinoc-
on these cells. ytes cultured from the particular patient to be
treated (so-called autologous keratinocytes) have
been used worldwide to regenerate a functional
Current status epidermis in patients suffering from massive full-
thickness burns. Human epidermis is renewed
Exceptional progress has recently been made in monthly. Permanent epidermal regeneration has
understanding how epithelial stem cells develop been achieved in these patients – over 20 years
into tissues such as skin. A type of adult stem cell follow-up, hence over 200 renewing cycles. This
from the epidermis (the outer protective layer technology has proven to be life-saving.
of our skin, which possesses no blood vessels), The corneal epithelium of the eye has yielded
and known as a “holoclone”, has already shown a great wealth of information about keratinoc-
great therapeutic promise. Firstly, holoclones are yte stem cells. Depending on their exact location
multipotent – i.e. they can (re)generate all of the in the cornea or adjacent tissue, they have dif-
cell types of their tissue of origin. Furthermore, ferent characteristics and properties. So-called
they are able to restore permanently the epithe- transiently amplifying (TA) cells continuously
lium when grafted onto patients with massive migrate into the cornea from locations some-
epithelial damage/defects. This is partly a prod- times millimeters away, the equivalent of push-
uct of their phenomenal self-renewal properties ing one’s way from one end of a crowded football
and resilience: human holoclones can be rescued stadium to the other – without legs!
from skin and regenerated years after the origi- Chemical burns to the eye result in a loss of
nal grafting. These very special cells can resist the a special group of cells at the boundary between
normal process of chromosome shortening that the cornea (clear part) and the sclera (white part)
leads to ageing in normal cells, and they have a of the eye – so-called limbal cells. Surprisingly
■ 47 ■
the damage is repaired by cells from a region of play an indispensable accessory role in the resto-
the conjunctiva (the thin membrane covering ration of the pigmentation.
the external surface of the eye). This “abnormal”
wound healing causes formation of new blood ■ Stem cells capable of being grown health-
vessels, chronic inflammation and scarring; this ily to enormous numbers in the lab can be
can seriously reduce the sight of the affected eye, obtained from various epithelial tissues.
and even cause complete blindness. Allogeneic
(from non-self donors) corneal grafts are not ■ There is substantial evidence that cultured
successful in these patients unless limbal cells epithelial stem cells can regenerate/repair a
taken from the uninjured eye are grafted at the tissue when transplanted back to patients.
same time. Such an approach has been successful
(longest follow-up: five years post operation) in ■ Frequently this approach achieves results
giving back normal vision to patients who could unattainable by conventional grafting surgery,
not have been helped by conventional surgery. and can be life-saving (e.g. in burn victims).
The penile urethra, the tube in which urine
flows through the penis, is lined with a multi- Prospects
layered epithelium. In a congenital condi-
tion known as “hypospadias”, the urethra ends The natural development of the research on
either on the ventral surface of the penis, and keratinocyte stem cells would be: (i) to use them
in extreme cases (around 20 per cent) at its in cell therapy procedures aimed at the regen-
base, i.e. the penile urethra is totally absent. eration of other stratified epithelia e.g. mouth,
Treatment requires reconstruction of the penile bladder, vagina and rectum; (ii) to develop ways
urethra, usually with autografts (grafts of tissue of repairing genetic defects in the cells before
from the patient himself ) made by folding back returning them to the patient (so-called ex vivo
adjacent skin, or transferring skin taken from the gene therapy), hence treating genetic epithelial
foreskin, other parts of the body or even bladder diseases, such as Epidermolysis Bullosa (EB). EB
lining. This is sometimes problematic, leading to is a group of devastating inheritable disorders
hair growth, sebaceous secretion, calcification, characterised by fragile skin (at a deep level).
and even openings in the urethra. However, epi- There are broadly speaking three types of EB,
thelial cells taken from the end of the urethra can depending on the level at which the lack of tissue
be grown in the lab and then used to rebuild the integrity occurs. Genetic analysis has led to the
missing section of urethra. Fourteen years after identification of mutations in at least 10 distinct
such treatment, the urethral epithelium of such genes expressed within the cutaneous basement
patients continues to be normal. This shows that membrane, largely explaining the spectrum of
even when the end of the urethra is incorrectly severity observed in EB. Inherited EB affects
located; it still contains stem cells capable of per- approximately 30,000 individuals in Europe and
manently regenerating the epithelium at a dif- about 400,000-500,000 people worldwide. The
ferent site. severity of the clinical manifestations depends
Patients with non-worsening vitiligo or pie- on the type of EB, and can include continuous
baldism (skin with large irregular patches of blistering of the skin as a result of minor trauma
lacking pigmentation) have been successfully or temperature change, nail loss, alopecia (hair
treated with their own melanocytes (pigment loss), milia (white bumps on the skin), blistering
producing skin cells) grown in the lab. When a in or around the mouth and throat, oesophageal
culture of the patient’s melanocytes mixed with lesions and respiratory difficulties. Mortality is
keratinocytes is applied to a shallow wound as high as 87 per cent in the first year of life for
made in an affected area of skin, the healed infants with the lethal form of juvenile EB. No
epidermis becomes populated by melanocytes cures for EB have been developed so far, and
and these melanocytes persist for at least seven currently a phase I/II clinical trial aimed at the
years. Normal human melanocytes alone grow ex vivo gene therapy of juvenile EB is ongoing.
and divide poorly in culture, but when grown The goal is to validate ex vivo procedures for
together with keratinocytes they produce large genetic correction of epidermal stem cells in a
enough numbers to transfer them to the large clinical setting, and to analyse critical concerns
areas affected by vitiligo. Thus, keratinocytes such as (i) the overall safety of the treatment, (ii)
■ 48 ■
the long-term survival of the genetically modi- tory. However, appropriate quality controls that
fied cells, (iii) immune responses against the ensure the preservation of stem cell characteristics
new (repair) gene product, (iv) the persistence in culture should be compulsory as well. Safety
of expression of the new gene. The application controls can be identical for the cultivation of all
of gene therapy protocols to limbal keratinocytes types of cells, but different quality controls must
in the eye could lead to the correction of genetic be developed for different cell types.
disorders affecting the corneal surface, such as The cultivation of keratinocyte stem cells by
corneal dystrophies (developmental disorders). newly established culture facilities, the proposal
of a new culture system and/or of a new carrier
■ Keratinocyte stem cells could well be used to for autologous keratinocytes destined to perma-
repair/regenerate other multi-layered epithe- nent restoration of massive epithelial defects,
lia. should be dependent on: (i) the direct demon-
stration of the presence of holoclones in culture,
■ The combined approach of gene therapy (ii) the periodical clonal analysis of a reference
and stem cell therapy holds great promise strain of keratinocytes (both in terms of ability
for treating at least one severe disorder of the to replicate unchanged, and in growth potential),
deep skin in infants. (iii) the evaluation of the percentage of aborted
colonies during cultivation, (iv) when applicable
■ In the future, developments in genetic modi- (as in the case on human cultures from corneal
fication of keratinocyte stem cells could open tissue), evaluation of the expression of specific
up new perspectives in other fields of regen- holoclone markers. These basic “quality con-
erative medicine. trols” should eliminate one important hitherto
uncontrolled variable in the evaluation of the
Problems, concerns and clinical performance of epithelial cultures.
open questions
■ Safety of stem cells is a pre-requisite for
It has been about 30 years since the discovery their application in medicine, but quality is
of a method of artificially growing large number equally important, and this measure must be
of human epidermal keratinocytes from a small controlled in ways specific to particular cells.
skin biopsy. The procedure was often highly suc-
cessful, but the failure rate remained high. Suc- ■ New culture facilities and methods must pass
cess depends firstly on the quality of the cultures such controls first before they serve clinical
used to prepare the grafts. This means that the applications.
cultures should contain a sufficient number of
the keratinocyte stem cells essential for long-
term epidermal renewal. Once this criterion is Conclusions
met – and only then – success rests in the hands
of the surgeon. In the absence of an adequate Epithelium-derived stem cells have already
number of stem cells, failures of epidermal demonstrated their value in repairing con-
regeneration are inevitable, and will entail not genital defects and injuries, some of which are
only suffering of the patients and possible loss of completely beyond the reach of conventional
life, but also general confusion as to what results tissue/cell grafting. Proof of principle is cur-
are to be expected. rently being tested for ex vivo gene therapy using
In the field of pharmaceuticals products, qual- stem cells, i.e. genetically repairing the patient’s
ity and safety requirements are often laid down by defect in his/her own cultured cells, before graft-
agencies. This is understandable, since a drug is ing them back in order to repair the lesion. The
usually a well-defined chemical product. A living prospects for increased application in the areas
cell, however, is a complex entity. Hence, in the already addressed, and in other areas of epithe-
field of regenerative medicine, quality and safety lial tissue (re)construction, are good. To ensure
should be considered separated issues. Obviously safety to patients, cell type-specific quality con-
it is undesirable to transmit diseases or to expose trols should be imposed by regulatory agencies,
patients to toxic compounds through cell cul- and new culture facilities and methods should be
tures, so appropriate safety controls are manda- scrutinised carefully according to these controls.
■ 49 ■
Stem cell research in brain and nervous system
■ 51 ■
tify stem cells in the adult brain, but much of the ways by affecting the resident cells. Transplanted
data are contradictory. This is largely due to the neural stem cells can produce neurotrophic fac-
lack of methods to identify stem cells, and there tors, which may support the survival of neurones
is a need for the development of novel strategies or have immunmodulatory effects. Moreover,
for the visualisation of the distinct steps in a cel- stem cell transplantation in animal models of
lular lineage in vivo. metabolic disorders suggests that the stem cells,
or their progeny, can substantially reduce the
■ Neural stem cells give rise to neurones and accumulation of toxic products.
supporting cells. An attractive alternative to cell transplanta-
tion is to induce resident stem or progenitor cells
■ Understanding the development of the nerv- to produce new cells. This approach would have
ous system has helped direct the differentiation the advantage of potentially being non-invasive
of stem cells for therapeutic applications. and using the patients own cells, without the
need for immunesuppression. This may at a
■ Neurones are generated from stem cells in dis- first glance appear very challenging, as there are
crete areas of the adult brain. several steps, including cell proliferation, differ-
entiation and migration, which would need to
work. However, it appears that the adult brain
Prospects may retain many of the necessary instructive sig-
nals. In addition to that, several commonly used
There are two conceptually different routes pharmaceuticals prescribed in psychiatry actu-
for the use of stem cells for neural repair: cell
ally stimulate neurogenesis, which may partially
transplantation and stimulated neurogenesis
account for their therapeutic effect.
from endogenous stem or progenitor cells. Sev-
Perhaps the least challenging approach to
eral neurological diseases have been suggested
therapeutic neurogenesis is to enhance this
to benefit from cell transplantation, but most
process in the normally neurogenic regions.
progress has been made in Parkinson’s disease.
Characterisation of the molecular pathways
Patients have been transplanted with grafts of
that normally control different steps in the
ventral midbrain tissue from aborted human
generation of neurones in the adult brain have
foetuses containing dopaminergic neurones, the
resulted in insights as to how this process can
3. Björklund A, Lindvall O. Cell predominantly affected neuronal type in Parkin-
be enhanced. A dramatic indication that such an
replacement therapies for central son’s disease, with promising results (3). In some
nervous system disorders. Nature studies, the patients have benefited substantially approach may indeed be beneficial in neurologi-
Neuroscience 2000;3:537-544. from the grafts, whereas other studies have been cal pathology was first provided by Nakatomi
less encouraging or even demonstrated negative et al. They suggested that the delivery of the
side effects, hence indicating the need to develop mitogens epidermal growth factor (EGF) and
the strategy further. Even when optimised, there fibroblast growth factor (FGF) promoted the
are, however, substantial hurdles for the use of proliferation of stem/progenitors by the lateral
foetal grafts in terms of clinical feasibility. Stem ventricle resulting in neuronal replacement and
cells could, in theory, be a source of unlimited functional recovery after stroke (5). Importantly,
4. Lindvall O, Kokaia Z, Martinez- supply of neurones for transplantation (4). One the neuronal replacement appeared to include
Serrano A. Stem cell therapy for could in this case consider several sources of regions where neurogenesis does not occur at
human neurodegenerative disorders- stem cells, and the most studied thus far in such appreciable levels under normal conditions.
how to make it work. Nat Med a context are embryonic stem cells (ES cells) and
2004;10 Suppl:S42-50. foetal neural stem cells. Studies in experimental ■ Several studies suggest that cell transplanta-
animals using ES cells or foetal neural stem cells tion may be beneficial in Parkinson’s disease.
5. Nakatomi H, Kuriu T, Okabe S, have lent support to the concept of stem cell
Yamamoto S, Hatano O, Kawahara based cell replacement therapy for Parkinson’s ■ ES cell derived neurones reduce symptoms
N, et al. Regeneration of hippoc- disease (4). in animal models of neurological disease.
ampal pyramidal neurones after Perhaps the most intuitive benefit of stem cell
ischemic brain injury by recruitment based therapies for neural repair is the replace- ■ Pharmaceutical stimulation of neurogeneis
of endogenous neural progenitors. ment of lost neurones. Neural stem cells may, from endogenous stem cells may offer a non-
Cell 2002;110:429-441. however, mediate beneficial effects in indirect invasive approach for neural repair.
■ 52 ■
Problems, concerns and
open questions
The main challenge for the development of
any stem cell based cell therapy is the control
of cell differentiation, i.e. to make sure that the
desired cell type, rather than all the other cells
in the stem cell’s repertoire, is generated. This is
not only important in order to obtain a clini-
cal effect, but also to avoid the development of
rapidly proliferating cell types and tumour for-
mation.
Many of the challenges in stem cell research
are common to several fields. The evaluation of
effects in injury models in experimental animals
or in clinical trials is often extraordinarily dif-
ficult in neurological diseases. This is because
of the often large inter-individual variation in
spontaneous recovery after, for example, stroke,
and the very slow dynamics of brain plasticity.
An indication of this is the unusually high costs
and large proportion of failed clinical studies in
neurology.
Conclusions
The brain has traditionally been viewed as a
static organ with little possibility of repair. Rap-
idly increasing knowledge on nervous system
development – which has been translated to
protocols for the directed differentiation of stem
cells for transplantation – together with the reali-
sation of the existence of stem cells in the adult
brain, has resulted in increasing optimism that
replacement therapies may be developed for neu-
rological diseases.
■ 53 ■
Stem cell research in pancreas
■ Helena Edlund
■ Umeå Center for Molecular Medicine
Umeå University
■ Umeå, Sweden
Introduction
In the European Union, more than 30 mil- producing β-cells – and these cluster into so- 1. Shapiro, A.M. et al. Islet trans-
lion people suffer from diabetes (mainly type 2), called islets of Langerhans (or “islets” for short) plantation in seven patients with
which can lead to serious and costly complica- (figure 1). The β-cells control the concentration type 1 diabetes mellitus using a
tions such as cardiovascular disease, stroke, of glucose in the blood by secreting insulin in glucocorticoid-free immunosup-
kidney failure, blindness and amputation. The response to increased blood sugar levels. How- pressive regimen. N Engl J Med.
figure is predicted to rise to nearly 50 million by ever, the different hormone producing cells of 343:230-238, 2000.
2030. The two most commonly known forms of the pancreas form an integrated entity, or “mini-
diabetes – type 1, or juvenile onset diabetes, and organ”, which ultimately ensures a fine-tuned
type 2, or adult onset diabetes – are increasing at regulation of blood glucose levels in response to
an alarming pace. In type 1 diabetes the insulin physiological changes.
producing β-cells are destroyed by the immune
system, leading to partial or complete deficiency ■ Diabetes develops as a consequence of β-cell
of β-cells. Type 2 diabetes is the result of insulin loss and/or β-cell failure and increases dra-
resistance and β-cell failure, and is closely linked matically world wide.
to obesity. In severe and advanced forms of type
2 diabetes there is also a loss of β-cells mass. ■ The insulin producing β-cells cluster with the
Hence, type 1 diabetics and patients with severe other pancreatic endocrine cells into small
forms of type 2 diabetes may benefit significantly “mini-organs” called islets that constitute a
from cell replacement therapy through transplan- mere 2-3 per cent of the entire pancreas
tation of normal, functional, insulin producing
β-cells. The recent development of new proto- ■ Islet transplantation is a promising therapy for
cols, in particular the so-called Edmonton pro- the treatment of diabetes but there is shortage
toco(1), to prevent the rejection and to improve of human islets
the viability of transplanted pancreatic β-cells
– or rather islets (see below and figure 1) – has
validated the principle of this approach in restor- Fig.1 Pancreas islets
ing the number of functional β-cells required to
normalise blood glucose levels, and thus to cure Pancreas
■ 55 ■
Current status bone and blood) – could differentiate into other
lineages, including insulin-producing cells,
All pancreatic cell types are of so-called endo- have been largely refuted by several independ-
dermal origin (originating from the embryonal ent investigators. The differentiation of bone
tissue layer that gives rise to the lungs, digestive marrow stem cells into non-mesodermal lineages
tract and related organs). The morphogenesis is at best questionable.
and structural development of the pancreas are The adult pancreas appears to possess some
well characterized, and studies of pancreatic capacity, albeit limited, to regenerate in response
gene expression have identified several factors to diseases such as diabetes and pancreatitis, or
that mark different stages of pancreas develop- various types of tissue injury. These observations
2. Edlund, H. Pancreatic organo- ment and pancreatic cell differentiation.(2) The have given rise to the concept of an adult pan-
genesis – developmental mecha- genetic dissection of pancreas development in creatic stem cell. The existence of a stem cell in
nisms and implications for therapy. mouse has provided valuable information on the adult pancreas remains elusive however, and
Nat Rev Genet 3:524-532, 2002. basic mechanisms of pancreatic organogen- a recent study (in mice) provides evidence that
3. Bonner-Weir, S., and Weir, G.C. esis, exocrine and endocrine cell differentiation, the formation of β-cells in vivo in adult mice
New sources of pancreatic β-cells. β-cell function, and maintenance of normal following removal of the pancreas is rather the
Nature Biotechnology 23:857-861, blood sugar levels(2). Several of the identified result of β-cell replication. Transdifferentiation
2005. factors have also been linked – by expression or of adult non-β cells has also been suggested as
function – to human pancreatic development alternative mechanism by which β-cell neogen-
and β-cell function, providing evidence for an esis can occur.
evolutionary conserved cascade of factors con- The liver is developmentally related to the
trolling pancreas development and β-cell func-
pancreas, and the liver has a significant regenera-
tion.
tion capacity. Consequently, several investigators
3. Cozar-Castellano, I., and Stewart, One attractive approach to generate sufficient
have looked into the possibility of trans-differ-
A.F. Molecular engineering human numbers of transplantable cells is to generate
entiating liver cells into pancreatic cells, both in
hepatocytes into pancreatic beta cells functional β-cells from stem and/or progenitor
mice and humans. With this approach limited
for diabetes therapy. Proc Natl Acad cells in vitro. An alternative approach would be
expression of some pancreatic genes both in vivo
Sci U S A. 102:7781-7782, 2005. to try to stimulate β-cell replication or neogen-
and in vitro has been achieved. The efficacy and
esis (de novo formation) in vivo. Several different
reproducibility of this approach need to be fur-
4. Rukstalis, J.M., and Habener, J.F. approaches (3-4) to generate new insulin produc-
ther investigated and the transdifferentiated cells
Islets break off from the mainland. ing β-cells have been or are being pursued:
need to be rigorously characterised at the molec-
Nature Medicine 12:273-274, 2006.
■ Embryonic stem (ES) cells ular and functional level.
■ Bone marrow stem cells An alternative adult source for β-cells might
■ Adult pancreatic stem cells be the adult β-cells themselves. Studies per-
■ Transdifferentiation of adult stem cells formed by independent investigators suggests
■ Adult β-cells that isolated β-cells can be expanded following
dedifferentiation and then induced to re-differ-
ES-cells have unquestionably the highest self- entiate back to a β-cell like state. However, the
renewal capacity and pluripotency of all stem resulting cells express very low levels of insulin
cells, making them a prime candidate for stem and it is still unclear what the true origin of the
cell-based therapies. The use of ES cells for the expanding cells is. Again, the efficacy and repro-
generation of pancreatic cell types has, however, ducibility of this approach also need to be rigor-
been hampered by the difficulties in ensuring the ously analysed.
generation of definitive endoderm from which
the pancreas later forms. The recent progress ■ Genetic dissection of pancreas development
with both mouse and human ES cells in achiev- in mouse has generated key information
ing this goal represents an important step towards regarding factors controlling pancreatic cell
the prospect of generating pancreatic cell types differentiation.
from ES cells.
The initial claims that bone marrow stem cells ■ Several different stem cell sources for the
– which are derived from a developmental cell generation of β-cells are currently being
layer called mesoderm (giving rise to muscle, explored.
■ 56 ■
■ The recent breakthrough in obtaining defini- Conclusions
tive endoderm from ES-cells represents an
important step towards generating β-cells Cell replacement therapy is an appealing
from ES-cells. approach for the treatment and cure of diabe-
tes. Proof-of-concept concerning the prospect
Future prospects and of curing diabetes already exists: islets trans-
open questions plantations have enabled numerous patients to
stop injecting themselves with insulin. For this
The use of stem cells for the generation of to be become a fully functional therapy, further
insulin-producing β-cells is of great interest, optimisation of the immunosuppression proto-
but it will remain fiction rather than fact until col, and increased availability of transplantable
we can efficiently and reproducibly ensure that insulin producing cells are required. In general,
stable, fully functional cells can be generated the use of stem or progenitor cells as a source
in vitro or in vivo. Today bona fide β-cells have for β-cell replacement therapy would offer a
not yet been successfully obtained from stem or near inexhaustible source of transplantable cells.
progenitor cells. The current ongoing stem cells However, this depends upon two important
research, and in particular the recent develop- points: i) the use of appropriate markers that
ments regarding in vitro differentiation of ES allow the classification of distinct stages of cell
cells, is encouraging, but the prospect of fully differentiation (insulin is just one of many key
in vitro or in vivo differentiated β-cells is still markers that defines a functional β-cells), and
for the future. Given the tight interactions of ii) information regarding key signalling factors
the different pancreatic endocrine cells and the that – in a sequential manner – operate at the
finely tuned regulation of hormonal secretion in different stages of differentiation to ultimately
response to variations in blood sugar levels, an guide the cell towards a mature β-cell. As already
important question is whether the generation of mentioned, studies of pancreatic development in
insulin producing β-cells per se will be sufficient animal models have generated information that
to ensure glucose homeostasis, or whether we is of relevance for both these aspects, and will
need to recreate fully integrated islets containing continue to do so. Information thus obtained
all pancreatic endocrine cells. needs to be integrated with our current knowl-
An equally important issue for the prospect edge regarding pancreatic development, β-cell
of curing diabetes by cell replacement therapy differentiation and function, to ensure that
is immune rejection. As for any transplantation stringent criteria regarding marker gene expres-
therapy, both type 1 and 2 diabetics face alloim- sion and functionality are used in the evalua-
munity, i.e. immune rejection of foreign cells or tion of stem and progenitor cell derived β-cells.
organs. In addition, the primary cause of type No matter which other criteria are fulfilled, to
1 diabetes is autoimmunity: the body’s immune be clinically useful as a replacement for current
system turns against its own pancreatic β-cells. therapies, the cells should secrete fully processed
That means that even β-cells derived from the insulin in response to physiological concentra-
patient’s own progenitor or stem cells are suscep- tions of glucose.
tible to attack and destruction after re-implanta-
tion. Hence, the future success of therapies based ■ In vitro differentiation of stem or progenitor
on mere cell replacement will require the devel- cells offers an attractive source for the genera-
opment of improved immunosuppressive drugs. tion of insulin producing β-cells.
■ In stem cell-based transplantation therapy for ■ Stem cell derived β-cells need to be rigorously
diabetics it is not clear whether β-cells alone characterised to assure functionality; insulin
will suffice or whether complete, functional expression alone does not make a β-cell. Iden-
islets need to be recreated. tification of factors that direct the generation
of true β-cells during development will be
■ Even if autologous transplantation became a critical for the prospect of generating β-cells
reality, the problem of how to protect the new from stem cells.
β-cells from autoimmune destruction needs
to be solved.
■ 57 ■
Stem cell research in skeletal muscle
■ 59 ■
– and still remains – somewhat elusive, but in Prospects
the following years the scientific literature was
flooded with reports of unorthodox differentia- Currently cell therapy for muscular dystro-
tion of progenitor cells of one tissue into differ- phy can be envisioned either using satellite cells
entiated cells of distant and unrelated tissues (e.g. or one of the above “unorthodox” progenitors
blood stem cells were differentiated into neu- whose positive attributes have to be considered
rons, and vice versa). This phenomenon, termed carefully. Where possible, cells may be derived
“plasticity” had a strong impact even outside the from the same patient (autologous) or from a
scientific community: in fact the possibility of healthy donor (heterologous): in the first case
inducing differentiation of a stem cell from an the defective gene must be corrected or replaced
unaffected tissue into a cell type affected in a to make transplantation effective; in the second
case, gene correction would not be necessary, but
given disease, opened a new therapeutic perspec-
the patient would require immune suppression
tive and questioned the need to invest in embry-
to prevent rejection of the foreign cells.
onic stem cell research. The prospect of avoiding
In both cases, to optimize the chances of suc-
the heated ethical controversy that embryonic
cess for stem cell for therapy of muscular dys-
stem cells elicit was short-lived. In reality, plas- trophy it would be necessary a) to isolate cells
ticity is a very rare event, often – though not from an easily accessible anatomical site; b) to
always – due to cell fusion. Until the molecular grow them up in the lab without loss of self-
mechanisms are elucidated and the biology of renewal and muscle differentiation ability; c)
these cells is understood, plasticity will be irrel- to efficiently introduce the repairing gene (for
evant from a therapeutic point of view. autologous cells); d) to reach the diseased muscle
Nevertheless, during the past few years evi- through the blood circulation. A theoretical
dence has accumulated that different progenitor scheme of this protocol is reported in (figure 1).
cells, isolated from tissues unrelated to muscle, Cells may be isolated from biopsies of skeletal
such as blood vessels, adipose tissue, sinovium muscle (satellite cells but also vessels), fat, bone
and nervous tissue, are able to differentiate into marrow, sinovium and dermis.
4. Wagers, A. and Conboy, I.M. skeletal muscle cells (for a recent review4). This Satellite cells from DMD patients would
2005 Cellular and molecular signa- differentiation occurs at low frequency (usually obviously be the first choice but there are prob-
tures of muscle regeneration: current less than 10 per cent of the total cell population) lems that seriously limit this possibility: they
concepts and controversies in adult and needs to be induced by signals released by are already exhausted in DMD patients, cannot
myogenesis. Cell 122:659-667 differentiating bona fide myogenic (muscle form- cross the vessel wall – and thus cannot be deliv-
ing) cells, or by drugs that modify the genetic ered systemically – and furthermore, they cannot
instructions. migrate from the site of intra-muscular injec-
The possible developmental significance of tion, hence requiring many thousands of injec-
this “unorthodox” muscle differentiation is com- tions. For all the other cell types it is imperative
plex and not yet well understood: its discussion to show efficient muscle differentiation in vitro
and in vivo, after transplantation into immune
is beyond the scope of this article.
deficient, dystrophic mice. For the non standard
myogenic progenitors, recent evidence of efficacy
■ Muscle development, maintenance and
came from a study utilizing vessel-associated pro-
growth are well understood, and the role of
genitors in a mouse model of limb-girdle mus-
5. Sampaolesi, M. et al. (2003) Cell
satellite stem cells in renewal and repair has cular dystrophy.(5) More recently, human cells
therapy of alpha sarcoglycan null
been clarified. from adipose tissue and bone marrow have been
dystrophic mice through intra-arte- shown to reconstitute dystrophic mouse muscle,
rial delivery of mesoangioblasts. ■ Satellite cells replace damaged muscle fibers, but the extent of this reconstitution remains to
Science 301, 487-49 but in certain muscular dystrophies, fibers are be quantified.
destroyed with such a high frequency, that the Stem cell research is likely to produce a clearer
pool of satellite cells is sooner or later exhausted. and more comprehensive picture of the identity,
biological features and lineage relationships of
■ Stem cells from other tissues may have some satellite cells and other non-standard muscle cell
value as a therapy, but their differentiation is a progenitors. Simultaneously, cell therapy pro-
complex task and requires further studies. tocols – which will benefit from ongoing basic
■ 60 ■
research – are moving to large animal models,
Cells isolated from such as the dystrophic dog. This will set (perhaps
the patient’s tissues in a couple of years) the stage for clinical trials
(bone marrow, vessels)
in dystrophic patients. Inevitably, the results will
initially be modest (improvement, rather than
cure), because the methods will require opti-
misation. In the following five to ten years, and
assuming appropriate funding (muscular dystro-
Selection of stem cells phies are rare and of little interest to Companies),
optimisation of the protocols will progressively
increase clinical outcome, and a complete “cure”
of such untreatable and devastating disease may
be in sight.
In vitro expansion
■ 61 ■
lematic for the very large dystrophin gene, which
cannot be fitted into viral gene-transfer vectors.
However, alternative molecular strategies – such
as mini-genes or methods to skip the muta-
tion during transcription – appear promising.
Vectors derived from lentiviruses seem very effi-
cient in correcting diseased cells, but their use is
still pending approval from regulatory agencies.
Finally, delivery to skeletal muscle tissue appears
to be the major technical problems to be solved
especially for satellite cells which cannot cross
the blood vessel wall.
Conclusions
Biomedical research has given us an under-
standing of the nature of muscle repair and
regeneration to the extent that experiments with
muscle-related stem cells can be initiated. The
ultimate aim is to provide a therapy or even a
complete cure for seriously debilitating diseases
such as muscular dystrophies. More work is nec-
essary to understand the origins and differentia-
tion of the different types of muscle stem cells
in order to assess their ultimate usefulness in
cell therapy of muscular dystrophies in humans.
Repairing the defective gene in these cells will be
a feasible possibility, and coupled with culturing
the cells to high numbers in the lab, may provide
the first proof of principle in patients in the next
few years or so. There still are many obstacles
to overcome, but the possibility of combining
future stem cell therapy with novel pharmaco-
logical approaches should lead to a cautious opti-
mism that clinical efficacy may be reached in a
not too distant future.
■ 62 ■
Evaluating the therapeutic potential of stem cells
■ 63 ■
Current Status compromised bone marrow stem cells. Other
workers have shown that, in mice susceptible to
There are numerous reports in the scientific atherosclerosis, the stem cell population in the
literature describing the results of experiments on blood is limited. These observations have led
stem cell delivery in animal models of disease. In us to the idea that certain of these degenerative
many cases the studies are well conducted, care- diseases may be caused by stem cell exhaustion.
fully interpreted and subject to the sort of strin- For reasons unknown to us at this time, such
gent review that we expect. In many cases also individuals have a depleted or poorly function-
results suggestive of possible benefits in humans ing reservoir of stem cells. This theory, although
are reported. Recent published reports point to preliminary, is attractive and may help us to
some functional improvement when stem cells understand more about the underlying diseases
from bone marrow are delivered to the injured mechanisms. If the theory is correct, it would
spinal cord in rats. Other studies suggest that, in suggest that stem cell therapy, delivered early in
a stroke model in rats, there is also good recov- life, would reduce susceptibility to degenerative
ery when stem cells are given. Studies on the disease later on.
effect of delivering stem cells in rat and mouse
models respectively of heart/vascular disease and ■ Many respectable studies demonstrate ben-
arthritis are underway. Preliminary unpublished efits of stem cell therapy in animal models in
results indicate positive results. a variety of human diseases. Such therapy has
All of this research contributes to a rapidly demonstrated promise in a few applications in
growing stem cell database, and it is critical that humans, but the field is at a very early stage of
this work is supported and allowed to continue. development.
There is a need for caution, however, and there is
a long road ahead. As with any therapy in devel- ■ Differentiation and plasticity (potential to
opment, we need to have a sensible awareness of become other cell types) are only partially
the issues surrounding stem cells. Good results understood, as is the long-term stability of
in rats do not necessarily translate into good transplanted stem cell populations.
results with humans. Furthermore, we know
virtually nothing about the long-term effects ■ The theory of stem cell exhaustion, although
of stem cells in an immune-competent host. requiring much more research, suggests an
There is the possibility that stem cells may form explanation for certain degenerative diseases
tumours, or wrong tissue in the wrong place in at the level of cellular renewal.
the host (ectopic tissue). To date, there is very
little evidence that these concerns represent real ■ Future prospects, problems, concerns and
problems, but we have to be careful to continue open questions
research with long-term studies designed to eval-
uate the chronic effects of stem cell therapy. Assuming that the early data that we now see
A further area of interest is in researching the are confirmed, and assuming no major adverse
question of stem cell exhaustion in certain dis- events associated with stem cell delivery, it is
eases, especially of the elderly. Stem cells exist likely that over the next 5-10 years we will see
in adult tissues as a repair mechanism. They are the development of major commercial enter-
mobilised and become active following tissue prises in the area of adult stem cells. Some have
injury as a result of trauma or disease. When a already started in the US and in Europe, but they
bone is fractured, the stem cells in the marrow are still small or medium in size. If stem cells
migrate to the site of injury, differentiate into continue to be successful in reversing the effects
bone cells and participate in the repair process. of arthritis or heart disease, millions of patients
Some degenerative diseases, where the ability will potentially be treated each year.
to repair damaged tissues is reduced, may arise Prior to this, some formidable obstacles have
because these individuals have reduced popu- to be overcome. We do not yet fully understand
lations of stem cells, or because they function how cell manufacturing technology will cope
poorly. For instance, it has been shown that indi- with markets of this magnitude. Furthermore,
viduals with chronic osteoarthritis, who need current methods for long-term storage and pres-
total joint replacement surgery, have severely ervation of stem cells require very low tempera-
■ 64 ■
tures, usually liquid nitrogen. This gives rise to fully into stem cell research. Many human trials
logistical issues and a need for available exper- remain to be completed and it is hoped that the
tise and equipment at the clinical site. For the results of these will be as promising as the early
moment, this may restrict stem cell procedures studies. Early success in small, often poorly
to major medical centres. controlled studies makes the large placebo-con-
The ultimate goal has to be universal delivery trolled, fully blinded, multicentre studies all the
of stem cell therapy, and for this to happen the more important. There are many reasons to be
technology has to become simpler and meth- optimistic about stem cell therapy in the future,
ods of delivery more accessible. Another serious but a lot more research and investigation will be
obstacle relates to the reliance on foetal bovine needed for success to be achieved in the clinic.
serum (FBS) as the growth medium used to
culture cells in the laboratory. Two problems
arise immediately: (1) the risk of transmission
of infectious agents and (2) industry depend-
ence on a limited and geographically restricted
commodity. There have been many efforts in
the past to develop serum-independent culture
conditions but it is still an uncertain area. Until
this is achieved the widespread use of stem cell
technology will be hindered.
Conclusions
The field of stem cell research will need to
move at a fast pace so that new therapies can
be made available to patients as quickly as pos-
sible. Conversely, if the results turn out to be
disappointing, which is unlikely, policy makers
and funding bodies will need to be aware of
this sooner rather then later. The most press-
ing issue is to support high quality, accelerated
research programs that will enhance European
competitiveness in stem cell research and lead to
clear and unambiguous conclusions.
Clearly, the pace of research needs to be
accelerated, and the funding for high quality
projects assessing therapeutic benefit of stem
cells increased. Furthermore, translational medi-
cine approaches need to be incorporated more
■ 65 ■
Commercial development of embryonic stem cells:
report from a company operating in the US
■ Thomas Okarma age, limiting their use in research or therapeutic 1. Lebkowski, J., Gold, J., Xu, C.,
■ Geron Corporation applications. hESCs can be expanded in culture Funk, W., Chiu, C., Carpenter, M.
■ California, USA indefinitely and hence can be banked and quality (2001). Human Embryonic Stem
tested for scaled product manufacture(2). Cells: Culture, Differentiation, and
Introduction We have developed methods to grow, main- Genetic Modification for Regenera-
tain, and scale-up production of undifferentiated tive Medicine Applications, The
The goal of human embryonic stem cell- hESCs using feeder cell-free, chemically defined Promise of Cellular Therapy, The
based therapies is to restore organ function culture medium(3). We have also developed scal- Cancer Journal, Vol. 7(2):S83-S93.
lost to chronic degenerative diseases or injury. able manufacturing procedures to differentiate
Geron intends to establish living cells as tomor- hESCs to therapeutically relevant cell types(4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, 11, 12.)
row’s pharmaceuticals by means of introducing We are now testing six different ther- 2. Rosler, E., Fisk, G., Ares, X.,
functional cells derived from human embryonic apeutic cell types in animal models. In five of Irving, J., Miura, T., Rao, M.,
stem cells (hESCs) into the affected organ. We these cell types, we have preliminary results sug- Carpenter, M. (2004). Long-Term
have been working in the hESC field for over 10 gesting efficacy as evidenced by durable engraft- Culture of Human Embryonic Stem
years, funding the original derivation of hESCs ment or improvement of organ function in the Cells in Feeder-Free Conditions,
at the University of Wisconsin in 1998 and sub- treated animals. Developmental Dynamics, 229:259-
sequently developing multiple therapeutic prod- 274.
uct candidates for diverse diseases. Current Status
Stem cells generally are self-renewing primi-
tive cells that can develop into functional, dif- GRNOPC1, glial progenitor cells for 3. Xu, C., Rosler, E., Jiang, J.,
ferentiated cells. Human embryonic stem cells, spinal cord injury Lebkowski, J., Gold, J., O’Sullivan,
which are derived from very early stage embryos The major neural cells of the central nervous C., Delavan-Boorsma, K., Mok,
called blastocysts, are unique because: system typically do not regenerate after injury. If M., Bronstein, A., Carpenter, M.
a nerve cell is damaged due to disease or injury, (2005). Basic Fibroblast Growth
■ they are pluripotent, which means they can there is no treatment at present to restore lost Factor Supports Undifferentiated
develop into all cells and tissues in the body, function. Millions of patients worldwide suffer Human Embryonic Stem Cell
and from injury to the nervous system or disorders Growth without Conditioned
■ they self-renew and proliferate indefinitely associated with its degeneration. In the case of Medium, Stem Cells, Vol. 23:315-
in the undifferentiated state when cultured spinal cord injuries, patients are often left partly 323.
under appropriate conditions. or wholly paralyzed because nerve and support-
ing cells in the spinal cord have been damaged
The ability of hESCs to divide indefinitely in and cannot regenerate. Such patients are perma-
the undifferentiated state without losing pluripo- nently disabled, often institutionalised and may
tency is a unique characteristic that distinguishes require life support.
them from all other stem cells discovered to date We have derived oligodendroglial progenitors 4. Xu, C., Police, S., Rao, N., Car-
in humans. It has been demonstrated that hESCs from hESCs in culture and have begun testing penter, M. (2002). Characterisation
express telomerase continuously, a characteristic them in animal models to determine whether and Enrichment of Cardiomyocytes
of immortal cells(1). Other stem cells such as they can restore normal neural function. Using Derived from Human Embryonic
blood or gut stem cells express telomerase at very our serum and feeder-free culture system, we are Stem Cells, Circulation Research,
low levels or only periodically; they therefore now producing our first hESC-derived prod- Vol. 91:501-508.
■ 67 ■
6. Carpenter, M., Inokuma, M., uct, GRNOPC1, oligodendroglial progenitor In some cases, patients with diabetes have been
Denham, J., Mujtaba, T., Chiu, cells for use in treating acute spinal cord injury. treated with islet β-cell transplantation. How-
C., Rao, M. (2001). Enrichment Results from a proof-of-concept study - a col- ever, poor availability of suitable sources for islet
of Neurons and Neural Precursors laboration between academia and industry - β-cell transplantation and the complications of
from Human Embryonic Stem were published in the Journal of Neuroscience(10) the required co-administration of immunosup-
Cells, Experimental Neurology, Vol. 2005. The studies showed that the GRNOPC1 pressive drugs make this approach impractical
172:383-397. cell product, when injected directly in the spinal as a treatment for the growing numbers of indi-
cord of rats with spinal cord injury, re-myeli- viduals suffering from diabetes.
7. Sottile, V., Thomson, A., nated the injured nerve axons, resulting in func- We have derived insulin-producing islet β-
McWhir, J. (2003). In Vitro Osteo- tional improvement of locomotor activity of the cells from hESCs and are working to improve
genic Differentiation of Human ES injured animals compared to controls. We are the yield of islet cells and characterise their secre-
Cells, Cloning and Stem Cells, Vol. currently completing our preclinical IND-ena- tion of insulin in response to glucose.(12) We have
5(2):149-155. bling studies and expect to begin testing these transplanted the islets into animal models of dia-
cells in patients with acute spinal cord injury in betes and to date the cells showed the presence of
2007. c-peptide (insulin)-producing cells three months
8. Rambhatla, L., Chiu, C., Kundu, after transplantation. Human c-peptide was also
P., Peng, Y., Carpenter, M. (2003). GRNCM1, cardiomyocytes for found in the serum of these transplanted animals
Generation of Hepatocyte-Like heart disease after challenge with high glucose.
Cells from Human Embryonic Stem Heart muscle cells (cardiomyocytes) do not
Cells, Cell Transplantation, Vol. regenerate during adult life. When heart muscle Haematopoietic cells to prevent
12:1-11. is damaged by injury or decreased blood flow, immune rejection
functional contracting heart muscle is replaced The haematologic system (the circulating
9. Nistor, G., Totoiu, M., Haque, with non-functional scar tissue. Congestive heart cells of blood) is one of the rare tissues of the
N., Carpenter, M., Keirstead, failure, a common consequence of heart muscle human body that can replenish itself through-
H. (2004). Human Embyronic or valve damage, affects approximately 5.0 mil- out life. Although complex and expensive, the
Stem Cells Differentiate into lion people in the United States. This year, it use of bone marrow transplantation is increasing
Oligodendrocytes in High Purity is estimated that about 1.2 million people will worldwide. A major unresolved problem in the
and Myelinate After Spinal Cord have a heart attack, which is the primary cause procedure is the lack of availability of suitably
Transplantation, GLIA, Vol. of heart muscle damage. matched marrow donors, which severely limits
49(3):385-396. We have derived human cardiomyocytes from the numbers of patients who can undergo the
hESCs and observed their normal contractile transplant. We have derived haematopoietic
function and response to cardiac drugs.(4) We stem cells from hESCs5, and tests of these cells
have transplanted these cells into animal models, in animal models of bone marrow transplanta-
10. Keirstead, H., Nistor, G., and to date the cells appear to survive in the myo- tion show stable engraftment of the cells.(11) Hae-
Bernal, G., Totoiu, M., Cloutier, cardium in infracted animals, as well as restoring matopoietic stem cells (HSCs), or certain subsets
F., Sharp, K., Steward, O. (2005). cardiac function in animals with induced myo- of dendritic cells, produced from hESCs may
hESC Derived Oligodendrocyte cardial infarctions.(13) find use not only in haematopoietic transplanta-
Progenitor Cell Transplants Remy- tion therapies, but also in procedures designed
elinate and Restore Locomotion GRNIPC1, islet cells for diabetes to prevent immune rejection of other hESC-
after Spinal Cord Injury, Journal of It is estimated that there are as many as one derived transplanted cells. Employing the princi-
Neuroscience, Vol.25(19)4694-4705. million Americans suffering from type 1 Dia- ples of tolerance induction, hESC-derived HSCs
betes (Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus). or hESC-derived dendritic cells, as well as the
Normally, certain cells in the pancreas, called the particular hESC-derived therapeutic cells, would
islet β-cells, produce insulin which promotes the each be differentiated from the same hESC line.
11. Wang, L., Menendez, P., uptake of the sugar glucose by cells in the human Co-administration of the hESC-derived tolero-
Shojaei, F., Li, L., Mazurier, F., body. Degeneration of pancreatic islet β-cells genic cells may allow “education” of the recipi-
Dick, J., Cerdan, C., Levac, K., results in a lack of insulin in the bloodstream ent’s immune system to accept the therapeutic
Bhatia, M. (2005). Generation of which results in diabetes. Although diabetics cells without rejection.
Haematopoietic Repopulating Cells can be treated with daily injections of insulin,
from Human Embryonic Stem Cells these injections enable only intermittent glucose Hepatocytes for drug discovery and
Independent of Ectopic HOXB4 control. As a result, patients with diabetes suffer liver failure
Expression, Journal of Experimental chronic degeneration of many organs, includ- Many prospective new drugs fail in clinical
Medicine, Vol. 201(10):1603-1614. ing the eye, kidney, nerves and blood vessels. trials because of toxicity to the liver or because of
■ 68 ■
poor uptake, distribution or elimination of the ing Academic-Industry liaison and applying 12. Jiang, J., Eshpeter, A., Fisk, G.,
active compound in the human body. Much of Framework Programme funding for academic Au, M., Lovelace, P., Lebkowski, J.,
the efficacy and safety of a drug will depend on research on hESCs in the EU are urgent pri- Korbutt, G., Majumdar, A. Human
how that drug is metabolised into an active or orities needed to prevent the European aca- Embryonic Stem Cells to Pancreas
inactive form, and on the toxic metabolites that demic sector from falling permanently behind Differentiation: A Three-Stage
might be generated in the process. Hepatocytes, the industrial sector, as is occurring in the Protocol to Generate Producing,
the major cells of the liver, metabolise most com- United States. Glucose Responsive Cell Clusters
pounds and thereby can be used to predict many via Pancreatic Endoderm, Keystone
pharmacological characteristics of a drug. ■ The European Patent Office (EPO) position Symposia 2006 Abstract Book,
There are no completely effective systems on the unpatentability of hESCs is at odds Abstract 215, and Taos, New Mexico.
available today to accurately predict the metabo- with most of the world, - even the United
lism or toxicity of a compound in human livers. States - because of morality objections. This
Rat and mouse metabolism models only approx- position must be reversed quickly if the EU
imate human metabolism. The development of is serious about attracting an industrial hESC
several drugs has been terminated late in human presence in its territory. The Enlarged Board
clinical trials because rodent systems utilised of Appeal of the EPO should resolve this issue
early in the development process failed to predict expeditiously. 13. Laflamme, M.A., Gold., J.,
that the drug would be toxic to humans. Human Xu, C., Hassanipour, M., Police,
hepatocyte cell lines available today do not have ■ A divisive EU political climate has prevented S., Schurb, K., Chen, K., Minami,
the same attributes as their normal counterparts the emergence of a technical infrastructure E.A., Gill, S., Ueno, S., Muskheli,
in the body and must be transformed in order to to support, characterise and disseminate V., Murry, C.E. “Cardiac Applica-
maintain their capacity to proliferate in culture. hESC technology in Europe. There should be tions For Human Embryonic Stem
Access to fresh primary human liver tissue for (1) a central resource for characterizing and Cells” 2nd World Congress Interna-
use in toxicity studies is very limited and sub- maintaining cell lines (a hESC cell bank); tional Academy of Cardiovascular
stantial variability can be observed depending (2) mechanisms established for sharing know- Science, 2006 Book, Abstract 691,
on the individual donor, the time and process how, cell lines and reagents and enhancing Sapporo, Japan
of collection and the culture conditions for the inter-laboratory collaboration between and
experiments. within all member nations of the EU; (3) a
We are developing methods to derive stand- funding resource devoted for training work-
ardised functional hepatocytes (liver cells) from shops and for providing fellowships to train
hESCs to address the significant unmet need for scientists on hESC biology; and (4) standards
a reliable predictor of the metabolism, biodistri- established for regulatory approvals, clinical
bution and toxicity of drug development candi- development and product registration across
dates.(8) These cells would provide a consistent the EU, rather than country by country.
source of normal human liver cells that can reli-
ably predict how a new drug will affect, and be ■ A public education program across the EU on
metabolised by, the livers of the patients who the positive impact of stem cell-based therapies
take it. We are also evaluating the use of these for chronic disease should be implemented in
cells in animal models of liver failure. order to avoid a GM food-type backlash.
■ 69 ■
Perspective of an international patient advocacy
organization
■ 71 ■
8.Committee on Guidelines for
Human Embryonic Stem Cell and other cell replacement therapies for diabetes semination of information about human stem
Research, National Research Coun- and its complications. cell research and somatic cell nuclear transfer.
cil. 2005. Available online: http:// JDRF has further leveraged its funding JDRF representatives have participated in panels
fermat.nap.edu/books/0309096537/ through international partnerships in stem cell to draft guidelines for human embryonic stem
html/ research relevant to its mission. JDRF’s partners cell research(8), made presentations at various
outside the United States to support stem cell educational forums, and testified before the
research include funding agencies in Australia, United States Congress.
9.http://www.camradvocacy.org/ Canada, Finland, France, Sweden, Singapore, In 2001, JDRF partnered with the Ameri-
default.aspx and the United Kingdom. JDRF is among the can Society for Cell Biology to form the Coali-
participant organizations of the International tion for the Advancement of Medical Research
Stem Cell Forum (ISCF), which was formed to (CAMR)(9), made up of patient organizations,
10. http://camr.ctsg.com/ encourage international collaboration and fund- universities, scientific societies, and foundations,
ing support for stem cell research. Since JDRF to advocate protecting and expanding opportu-
funding is not restricted by national bounda- nities for federal funding of biomedical research
11.Davenport, R.J. (2005). ries, we have been able to provide support for involving human embryonic stem cells. JDRF’s
Drumming up dollars for stem cell multi-national cooperative efforts. In just one Vice President for Government Relations, Larry
research. Cell 123: 1169-1172. example, JDRF funds collaborations between Soler, was CAMR’s first president. Meetings with
two European Union-funded programs, the Members of Congress by JDRF volunteers and
European Consortium for Stem Cell Research their children with type 1 diabetes are crucial in
12.http://stemcell.harvard.edu/ (EuroStemCell); and the Beta Cell Therapy Con- helping to inform lawmakers. In 2005, CAMR
index.jsp sortium. The main purpose of the collaboration and its members helped to pass H.R.810, a con-
is to enhance coordination and data exchange gressional bill to enhance federal support for
between stem cell experts and experts in beta stem cell research.
13.http://mednews.stanford.edu/ cell biology. In the United States, JDRF has a CAMR members have also been active at the
stem-cell-institute.html close working relationship with the National local (state) level(10), initiating campaigns in sup-
Institutes of Health Stem Cell Task Force to port of proactive stem cell research legislation,
facilitate research that can be supported by the as well as opposing potentially harmful bills(11).
14.http://www.hopkinsmedicine. federal government, and to disseminate infor- Public advocacy has been important in persuad-
org/press/2001/JANUARY/010130. mation among the research community. JDRF ing state legislatures to allocate resources for stem
HTM works closely with the International Society for cell research (table 1), a unique role for states in
Stem Cell Research and also works with stem cell support of biomedical research.
networks around the world, including those in
15. http://www.nih.gov/news/fund- Canada, Australia, and Europe.
ingresearchareas.htm To ensure the ethical conduct of this research Table. 1 States that have appropriated funding for
in 2000, JDRF formed a Stem Cell Oversight stem cell research
Committee of leading researchers, policy makers,
ethicists and lay volunteers, charged with provid- California US$ 3 Billion over 10 years
ing a “second level” of review (in addition to sci- Connecticut US$ 100 Million over 10 years
entific peer review) for human stem cell research Illinois US$ 10 Million in grants
applications. The Oversight Committee was also awarded in 2006
a practical response to the challenge of vary- New Jersey US$ 10.5 Million initially
ing regulations for this research throughout the budgeted in 2005
world. It was not meant to substitute for insti- Maryland US$ 20 Million proposed
tutional ethical review, or regional or national
legislation, but rather to ensure that the research
is well justified, and subject to appropriate over- In addition, private donors have supported
sight. The Oversight Committee also advises the establishment of Stem Cell Institutes at insti-
JDRF’s Board of Directors on ethical considera- tutions like Harvard(12) and Stanford(13) Universi-
tions of stem cell research. ties. The gift of more than USD 58 million to
In concert with the organisation’s efforts to The Johns Hopkins University School of Medi-
provide funding for stem cell research, JDRF cine established its Institute for Cell Engineering
volunteers have participated in numerous (ICE).(14) The Starr Foundation awarded USD
forums for public education, dialogue and dis- 50 million to three New York City biomedical
■ 72 ■
research institutions -- The Rockefeller Univer- ensuring transnational collaboration in stem cell 16.The Hinxton Group Consensus
sity, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, research. Among the recommendations was the Statement, http://mbbnet.umn.
and Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center importance of providing clarity in laws or regula- edu/scmap.html
(MSKCC) -- to develop new resources and tions, and building flexibility in these in order to
expertise in stem cell research. Thus, despite the accommodate advances in the science.
restrictive nature of federal funding for human 17.http://www.wash-
embryonic stem cell research in the United States ingtonpost.com/wpdyn/
(NIH estimated spending on human embryonic Conclusions content/custom/2005/08/12/
stem cell research was USD 40 million in 2005) CU2005081200827.html
(15)
, both the individual states and the private JDRF’s focus on finding a cure for type 1
sector philanthropic community have and will diabetes and its complications enabled it to
continue to make significant contributions to take an early leadership role in supporting
enable this important research. hESC research, both in terms of direct funding
Despite the major support for hESC research for research, as well as advocacy efforts. JDRF
in the United States, questions about federal reg- has partnered with other, likeminded organisa-
ulations for the conduct of this research as well as tions. The partnership of funding organisations
the lack of national ethical guidelines have led to has provided important support for stem cell
tremendous uncertainties, especially concerning research, allowing the development of research
collaborations involving investigators from states resources (such as new cell lines and cell line
with different laws. Recently published IOM repositories), the exchange of information (such
guidelines represent a start, given that research as the international characterisation effort)
institutions or states can adopt or adapt those among scientists, and the nurturing of research
guidelines to their individual needs. collaborations. A coalition of advocacy groups is
A diversity of ethical and legal regulation and important to ensure maximum opportunity for
oversight of stem cell research is also the current hESC research, adequate public oversight, and
situation in Europe. Recently(16), a consortium of appropriate just distribution of the benefits from
investigators has articulated a set of principles for this research.
■ 73 ■
A glossary for stem cell biology
■ 75 ■
2. Merkle, F. T., Tramontin, A. D.,
Garcia-Verdugo, J. M. & Alva- Clonal analysis Investigation of proper- Niche Cellular microenvironment providing
rez-Buylla, A. Radial glia give rise ties of single cells. Essential for formal dem- support and stimuli necessary to sustain self-
to adult neural stem cells in the onstration of self-renewal and potency. renewal(6, 7).
subventricular zone. Proc Natl Acad
Sci USA 101, 17528-32 (2004).
Embryonic stem cell Derived in vitro Stem cell homeostasis Persistence of
from the pluripotent cells in the pre-gastrula- tissue stem cell pool throughout life. Requires
3. Potten, C. S. & Loeffler, M. tion embryo. balancing symmetric self-renewal and differ-
Stem cells: attributes, cycles, spirals, entiative divisions at the population level, or
pitfalls and uncertainties. Lessons sustained asymmetric self-renewal.
for and from the crypt. Development Tissue stem cell Derived from, or resi-
110, 1001-20 (1990). dent in, a foetal or adult tissue, with potency
limited to cells of that tissue. Sustain turnover Long-term reconstitution Lifelong
and repair throughout life in some tissues. maintainance of renewing tissue by trans-
4. Wang, Z. & Lin, H. Nanos main- planted cells. The definitive assay for haemat-
tains germline stem cell self-renewal opoietic, epidermal and spermatogonial stem
by preventing differentiation. Founder, ancestor, or precursor cell cells, but transplantation may not be applica-
Science 303, 2016-9 (2004). General terms for cell without self-renewal ble to all tissues.
ability that contributes to tissue formation,
including in some cases generating tissue stem
5. Cairns, J. Mutation selection and
cells(2). Label-retaining cell Candidate adult
the natural history of cancer. Nature tissue stem cell on assumption of slow divi-
255, 197-200 (1975). sion rate and/or immortal strand retention(3),
(7)
. Interpret with caution.
Progenitor cell Generic term for any
dividing cell with differentiation capacity.
6. Schofield, R. The relationship
Includes putative stem cells in which self-
between the spleen colony-forming
renewal has not yet been demonstrated.
Cancer stem cell Self-renewing cell
cell and the hemopoietic stem cell. responsible for sustaining a cancer and for pro-
A hypothesis. Blood Cells 4, 4-7 ducing differentiated progeny that form the
(1978). bulk of the cancer(8, 9) Cancer stem cells iden-
Transit-amplifying cell Multiplying tified in leukaemias and certain solid tumours
stem cell progeny fated for differentiation.
constitute critical therapeutic targets.
7. Tumbar, T., Guasch, G., Greco,
Initially may not be fully committed and may
V., Blanpain, C., Lowry, W. E.,
retain self-renewal(3).
Rendl, M. & Fuchs, E. Defining the Cancer cell of origin Precancerous cell
epithelial stem cell niche in skin. that gives rise to a cancer stem cell(8). May be
Science 303, 359-63 (2004). Asymmetric division Generation of a mutated stem cell, or a progenitor that has
distinct fates in progeny from a single mitosis: acquired self-renewal capacity through muta-
oriented division may position daughter cells tion(9).
8. Warner, J. K., Wang, J. C., Hope, in different microenvironments; or, intrinsic
K. J., Jin, L. & Dick, J. E. Concepts determinants may be segregated into only one
of human leukemic development. daughter(4). Observed in some but not all stem Cancer initiating cell General term
Oncogene 23, 7164-77 (2004). cells and can occur in other progenitor cells. that encompasses both cell of origin and
cancer stem cell.
■ 76 ■
9. Reya, T., Morrison, S. J., Clarke,
Cell replacement therapy Recon- M. F. & Weissman, I. L. Stem cells,
stitution of tissue by functional incorporation cancer, and cancer stem cells. Nature
of transplanted stem cell progeny. Distinct 414, 105-11. (2001).
from “bystander” trophic, anti-inflammatory,
or immunomodulatory effects of introduced
cells.
10. Smith, A. G. Embryo-derived
stem cells: of mice and men. Ann.
In vitro stem cell. Self-renewal ex vivo in Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 17, 435-462
cells that do not overtly behave as stem cells (2001).
in vivo. Occurs due to liberation from induc-
tive commitment signals or by creation of a
synthetic stem cell state(10).
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■ EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND INTRODUCTION
Andrew Moore
■ TEXT EDITING
Andrew Moore, Patricia Codyre, Austin Smith
■ COVER PHOTO
■ COVER