SINUSOIDAL STEADY –STATE ANALYSIS

CHARACTERISTICS OF SINUSOIDS

− sin 𝜔𝑡 = sin(ωt ± 180°)

− cos 𝜔𝑡 = cos(𝜔𝑡 ± 180°)
∓ sin 𝜔𝑡 = cos(𝜔𝑡 ± 90°)
± cos 𝜔𝑡 = sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 90°)
Practice

Find 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶and cos 𝜙 if 40 cos(100𝑡 − 40°) − 20 sin(100𝑡 + 170°) = 𝐴 cos 100𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 100𝑡 =
𝐶 cos(100𝑡 + 𝜙)
SOLUTIONS:

Ptolemy’s identities, the sum and difference formulas for sine and cosine

sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵

cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵
cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
40[cos 100𝑡 cos(−40°) + sin 100𝑡 sin(−40°)] − 20[sin 100𝑡 cos 170° + cos 100𝑡 sin 170°] =
40[cos 100𝑡 cos 40° − sin 100𝑡 sin 40°] − 20[sin 100𝑡 cos 170° + cos 100𝑡 sin 170°] =
40[0.7660 cos 100𝑡 − 0.6428 sin 100𝑡] − 20[0.9848 sin 100𝑡 + 0.1736 cos 100𝑡] =
30.64 cos 100𝑡 − 25.712 sin 100𝑡 − 19.696 sin 100𝑡 − 3.472 cos 100𝑡 =
27.168 cos 100𝑡 − 45.408 sin 100𝑡 =
𝟐𝟕. 𝟏𝟔𝟖 cos 100𝑡 + 𝟒𝟓. 𝟒𝟎𝟖 sin(100𝑡 + 180°) =
= 27.168 cos 100𝑡 − 45.408 sin 100𝑡
= 27.168 cos 100𝑡 + 45.408 cos(100𝑡 + 90°) = 𝟓𝟐. 𝟗 cos(100𝑡 + 𝟓𝟗. 𝟏𝟎°)
FORCED RESPONSE TO SINUSOIDAL FUNCTIONS

THE STEADY-STATE RESPONSE

The term steady-state response is used synonymously with forced response. The steady state simply
refers to the condition that is reached after the transient or natural response has died out.
RL CIRCUIT
𝑑𝑖
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
At any instant where the derivative is equal to zero, we see that the current must have the form 𝑖 ∝
cos 𝜔𝑡. Similarly, at the instant where the current is equal to zero, the derivative must be proportional
to cos 𝜔𝑡, implying a current of the form sin 𝜔𝑡.

𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐼2 sin 𝜔𝑡

Where 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 are real constants whose values depends upon 𝑉𝑚 , 𝑅, 𝐿, and ω.

Substituting the assumed formed for the solution in the differential equation yields

𝐿(−𝐼1 𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐼2 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡) + 𝑅(𝐼1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐼2 sin 𝜔𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡

Collecting the cosine and sine terms , we obtain

(−𝐿𝐼1 𝜔 + 𝑅𝐼2 ) sin 𝜔𝑡 + (𝐿𝐼2 𝜔 + 𝑅𝐼1 − 𝑉𝑚 ) cos 𝜔𝑡 = 0

This equation must be true for all values of t, which can be achieved only if the following equations are
true

−𝜔𝐿𝐼1 + 𝑅𝐼2 = 0 and 𝜔𝐿𝐼2 + 𝑅𝐼1 − 𝑉𝑚 = 0

Solving for 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 simultaneously

𝑅𝑉𝑚
𝐼1 =
𝑅 2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2
𝜔𝐿𝑉𝑚
𝐼2 =
𝑅2+ 𝜔 2 𝐿2
Thus, the forced response is obtained:
𝑅𝑉𝑚 𝜔𝐿𝑉𝑚
𝑖(𝑡) = cos 𝜔𝑡 + 2 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑅2 +𝜔 𝐿2 2 𝑅 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2
A MORE COMPACT AND USER-FRIENDLY FORM

Choosing to express the response as a cosine function,

𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃)
𝑅𝑉𝑚 𝜔𝐿𝑉𝑚
𝐴 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜔𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑡 + 2 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑅2 +𝜔 𝐿2 2 𝑅 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2
𝑅𝑉𝑚
𝐴 cos 𝜃 =
𝑅2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2
𝜔𝐿𝑉𝑚
𝐴 sin 𝜃 =
𝑅2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2
𝜔𝐿𝑉𝑚 𝜔𝐿
tan 𝜃 = =
𝑅𝑉𝑚 𝑅
 𝜔𝐿
𝜃 = tan−1
𝑅
𝐴2 cos2 𝜃 + 𝐴 sin2 𝜃 = 𝐴2 (cos 2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃) = 𝐴2

𝑅 2 𝑉𝑚2 𝜔 2 𝐿2 𝑉𝑚2
𝐴=√ 2 +
(𝑅 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2 )2 (𝑅 2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2 )2

𝑉𝑚2 (𝑅2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2 ) 𝑉𝑚
=√ 2 2 2 2
=
(𝑅 + 𝜔 𝐿 ) √𝑅 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2
2

And so the alternative form of the forced response therefore becomes

𝑉𝑚 𝜔𝐿
𝑖(𝑡) = cos(𝜔𝑡 − tan−1 )
√𝑅 2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2 𝑅

PRACTICE 2

Let 𝑣𝑠 = 40 cos 8000𝑡 V in the circuit of Fig. 10.7. Use Thevenin’s theorem where it will do the most
good and find the value at 𝑡 = 0 for (𝑎)𝑖𝐿 ; (𝑏)𝑣𝐿 ; (𝑐)𝑖𝑅 ; (𝑑)𝑖𝑠 .

Solution:

THE COMPLEX FORCING FUNCTION

Euler’s identity states

𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 sin 𝜃
Applying a complex forcing function

𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) + 𝑗𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜃)

must produce a response

𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) + 𝑗𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) = 𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜙)

An Algebraic Alternative to Differential Equations

RL Circuit

𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒{𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗 sin 𝜔𝑡} = 𝑅𝑒{𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 }

𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜙)
𝑑𝑖
𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 = 𝑣𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜙)
𝑒
𝑑𝑡
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑗(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑗𝜔
𝑑𝑡
𝑦 = 𝑒𝑢
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑒𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= × = 𝑒 𝑢 × 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑗𝜔𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜙)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑅𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜙) + 𝐿 (𝐼 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜙) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑅𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜙) + 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜙) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡

𝑅𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜙 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜙 = 𝑉𝑚

𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜙 (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿) = 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜙 =
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿
𝑉𝑚 𝜔𝐿
𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜙 = 𝑒 𝑗 [− tan−1 ]
√𝑅 2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2 𝑅

Thus,
𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 =
√𝑅 2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2
And,
𝜔𝐿
𝜙 = − tan−1
𝑅
In polar notation

𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜙
Or,
𝑉𝑚 𝜔𝐿
∠ − tan−1 ( )
√𝑅 2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2 𝑅
𝑉𝑚 𝜔𝐿
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) = cos(𝜔𝑡 − tan−1 )
√𝑅 2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2 𝑅

Example 10.2

−3𝑒 𝑗5𝑡 + 1𝑖𝐶2 + 𝑣𝐶2 = 0

2𝑑𝑣𝐶2
−3𝑒 𝑗5𝑡 + + 𝑣𝐶2 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝐶2 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗5𝑡
 𝑗10𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗5𝑡 + 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗5𝑡 = 3𝑒 𝑗5𝑡
3 3 10
𝑉𝑚 = = ∠ tan−1 ( ) V
1 + 𝑗10 √1 + 102 1
And our steady-state capacitor voltage is given by

𝑅𝑒{𝑣𝐶2 } = 𝑅𝑒{0.2985𝑒 −𝑗84.3 𝑒 𝑗5𝑡 V} = 0.2985 cos(5t − 84.3°) V

THE SOURCE-FREE RL CIRCUIT

𝑑𝑖
𝑅𝑖 + 𝑣𝐿 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑅
+ 𝑖=0
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
A Direct Approach (Separation of Variables)
𝑑𝑖 𝑅
= − 𝑑𝑡
𝑖 𝐿
Since the current is 𝐼0 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖(𝑡)𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡, we may equate the two definite integrals which are
obtained by integrating each side between the limits:
𝑖(𝑡)
𝑑𝑖 ′ 𝑡
𝑅
∫ ′
= ∫ − 𝑑𝑡′
𝐼𝑜 𝑖 0 𝐿

𝑅
ln 𝑖 ′ |𝑖𝐼0 = − 𝑡 ′ |𝑡0
𝐿
R
ln 𝑖 − ln Io = − (t − 0)
L
𝑖 𝑅
ln ( ) = − 𝑡
𝐼0 𝐿
𝑖 (𝑡) 𝑅
−( 𝑡)
=𝑒 𝐿
𝐼0
𝑅
−( )𝑡
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝐿

𝑅 𝑅
−( )𝑡 𝑅 𝑅
−( )𝑡
− 𝐼0 𝑠𝑒 𝐿 + 𝐼0 𝑒 𝐿 = 0
𝐿 𝐿
𝑅
(− )(0)
𝑖(0) = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝐿 = 𝐼0 = 0
EXAMPLE 8.1
𝑅
−( )𝑡
𝑖𝐿 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝐿

𝑅 = 200 Ω, L = 500 mH

𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = 2𝑒 −4000𝑡
 −6
𝐴𝑡 𝑡 = 200 × 10−6 𝑠, 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = 2𝑒 −4000×200×10 = 898.7 mA
PRACTICE 8.1
𝑅
−( )𝑡
𝑖𝐿 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝐿

𝑅 1 × 103 1 × 103
= = = 0.2 × 1010 = 2 × 109
𝐿 500 × 10−9 5 × 10−7
𝑅
𝑡 = 2 × 109 × 1 × 10−9 = 2
𝐿
𝐼0 = 6 𝐴

𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = 6 × 𝑒 −2 = 0.812 𝐴 = 812 𝑚𝐴

An Alternative Approach
𝑑𝑖 𝑅
∫ ( ) = −∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾
𝑖 𝐿
𝑅
ln 𝑖 = − 𝑡 + 𝐾
𝐿
𝑖(0) = 0
ln 𝐼0 = 𝐾
𝑅
ln 𝑖(𝑡) = − 𝑡 + ln 𝐼0
𝐿
𝑅
−( )𝑡
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝐿

A More General Solution Approach

𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑠1𝑡
Where 𝑠1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝑑𝑖
𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑅
+ 𝑖=0
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
𝑅
𝐴𝑠1 𝑒 𝑠1 𝑡 + 𝐴 𝑒 𝑠1 𝑡 = 0
𝐿
Or
𝑅
(𝑠1 + ) 𝐴𝑒 𝑠1 𝑡 = 0
𝐿
𝑅
𝑠1 = −
𝐿
 𝑅
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡
𝑅
𝑖(0) = 𝐼0 ⇒ 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝐿 𝑡

A Direct Route: The Characteristic Equation

𝑑𝑖 𝑅
+ 𝑖=0
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
𝑅
𝑠1 + =0
𝐿
𝑅
𝑠1 + 𝐿 is known as characteristic equation.

Consider the general first-order differential equation

𝑑𝑓
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑓 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑓
Where a and b are constants. Substituting 𝑠1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑓
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑓 = 𝑎𝑠1 + 𝑏𝑠 0 = (𝑎𝑠 + 𝑏)𝑓 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑎𝑠 + 𝑏 = 0
𝑏
𝑠=−
𝑎
𝑏𝑡
−( )
𝑓 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑎