Engineering Geology

REMOTE SENSING AND GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

Remote Sensing: Introduction, Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS), aerial photo, types of
aerial photos. Aerial photo mosaics. Elements of aerial photo interpretation. Satellite remote
sensing. Satellites sensors and satellite data products. Principles of GIS. Remote Sensing &
GIS applications to Civil Engineering -Town planning, dams and reservoirs, linear
structures and environmental monitoring.
Geophysical Methods: Principles of geophysical methods, electrical, Seismic, Gravity and
magnetic. Principle of Resistivity method and configurations. Applications of Resistivity
method in prediction of soil profile, hard rock and ground water table. Principles of Seismic
refraction and reflections methods and their applications to Civil Engineering problems.

REMOTE SENSING
Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making
physical contact with the object. In modern usage, the term generally refers to the use of aerial
sensor technologies to detect and classify objects on Earth (both on the surface, and in the
atmosphere and oceans) by means of propagated signals.

There are two main types of remote sensing: passive remote sensing and active remote
sensing. Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected by the
object or surrounding areas. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation
measured by passive sensors. Examples of passive remote sensors include film
photography, infrared, charge-coupled devices, and radiometers. Active collection, on
the other hand, emits energy in order to scan objects and areas whereupon a sensor
then detects and measures the radiation that is reflected or backscattered from the
target. RADAR and LiDAR are examples of active remote sensing where the time delay
between emission and return is measured, establishing the location, speed and direction
of an object.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation.
The "electromagnetic spectrum" of an object has a different meaning, and is instead the
characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object.

96

Engineering Geology

Geospatial Information Centre (GIC), Dept. of Civil Engineering, SRKR Engineering. College Bhimavaram-534204
 Engineering Geology

Electro Magnetic Radiation is characterized by the frequency or wavelength of its wave. The
electromagnetic spectrum, in order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength, consists of
radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma
rays. The eyes of various organisms sense a somewhat variable but relatively small range of
frequencies of EMR called the visible spectrum or light. Higher frequencies correspond to
proportionately more energy carried by each photon; for instance, a single gamma ray photon
carries far more energy than a single photon of visible light.
Regions of the spectrum:
The types of
electromagnetic radiation
are broadly classified into
the following classes:
1. Cosmic rays
2. Gamma radiation
3. X-ray radiation
4. Ultraviolet radiation
5. Visible radiation
6. Infrared radiation
7. Microwave radiation
8. Radio waves

Visible light is the EMR with wavelengths between 0.4 µm to 0.7 µm. the eye’s peak
sensitivity is 0.55 µm. EMR with wave length shorter than visible light is divided into three
regions such as gamma rays, x-rays and ultra violet rays. These bands are not used for
remote sensing because of absorption and scattering.
Wavelengths longer than the visible light are subdivided into infra red (IR), microwave
and radio waves. Irradiation reflected by the surface of the earth, i.e. up to 3 µm. This
can be sending in the form of heat into the atmosphere. The wave lengths between 1mm
and 300 cm is called microwave radiation can penetrating through the clouds because of
this reason it is a valuable region for remote sensing. The radio and television waves are
used for certain radar applications.

Aerial photography:
Aerial photography is the taking of photographs of the ground from an elevated position. The term
usually refers to images in which the camera is not supported by a ground-based structure.
Cameras may be hand held or mounted, and photographs may be taken by a photographer,
triggered remotely or triggered automatically. Platforms for aerial photography include fixed-wing
aircraft, helicopters, multirotor Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), balloons, blimps and dirigibles,
rockets, kites, parachutes, stand-alone telescoping and vehicle mounted poles.
Aerial photography is used in cartography (particularly in photogrammetric surveys, which are often
the basis for topographic maps), land-use planning, archaeology, movie production, environmental
studies, surveillance, commercial advertising, convincing, and artistic projects.

97

Engineering Geology

Geospatial Information Centre (GIC), Dept. of Civil Engineering, SRKR Engineering. College Bhimavaram-534204
 Engineering Geology

Types of aerial photos:

 Oblique photographs: Photographs taken at an angle are called oblique photographs.
If they are taken from a low angle earth surface–aircraft, they are called low oblique
and photographs taken from a high angle are called high or steep oblique. These
photographs are always in the shape of trapezium.
 Vertical photographs: Vertical photographs are taken straight down. They are mainly
used in photogrammetry and image interpretation. Pictures that will be used in
photogrammetry are traditionally taken with special large format cameras with
calibrated and documented geometric properties. The areas covered through vertical
air photos are often square in shape.
 Horizontal photographs: The horizontal photographs are also called as terrestrial air photos.
The axis of the camera is horizontally adjusted to the ground.
 Convergent photographs: These are also similar to oblique photographs. In this, an area is
covered by the two cameras.
 Trimetrigon photographs: Three cameras are used simultaneously. Amongst, the central
camera is vertical and other two cameras are adjusted in the position of oblique.

Flight planning:
The following information is required to a photographer for effective and successful planning of
flight to acquire ground information in the form of photographs or images.
1. Camera focal length
2. Photographic scale
3. Flight altitude: once camera focal length and required average photographic scale have
been selected, required flight height above coverage of ground is automatically fixed in
accordance with scale equation. Average scale Sm = f / (H-hm); where hm is mean
elevation of terrain, ‘f’ is focal length and ‘H’ is height.

98

Engineering Geology

Geospatial Information Centre (GIC), Dept. of Civil Engineering, SRKR Engineering. College Bhimavaram-534204
 Engineering Geology

4. Ground coverage: if average photographic scale and camera dimensions are selected,
ground surface area by a single photograph.
5. Air base: the distance between two adjacent camera stations
6. Base height ratio: the ratio of air base to flying height above average ground (H).
7. Flight line spacing: the distance between two adjacent flight lines
8. Number of flight lines: this is depends on the total width of the area
9. Total number of photographs: the number of photographs per strip and the number of
strips gives the total number of photographs
10. Number of film rolls: the camera film usually carried about 60 meters in length. The film
role may have to be changed after 270 exposures for a 22.5 cm format
11. Exposure: this is the interval of line between two successive exposures and it is generally
depends on the forward overlapping and aircraft velocity
12. Maximum exposure time: the time interval during the exposure of shutter of camera which
is generally a tiny fraction of second. If the exposure time is less / shorter, the image /
photograph will be in less bright
13. Drift angle: it is often caused by strong winds. Because of this reason, pilot fails to run
flight along planned flight lines
Aerial Mosaics:
Mosaicking is the process of joining georeferenced images together to form a larger
image or a set of images. The input images must all contain map and projection
information, although they need not be in the same projection or have the same cell
sizes. Calibrated input images are also supported. All input images must have the same
number of layers.
During a flight, exposures are made at regular interval. In such way that there is 20%
overlap between photographs. Each part of the terrain thus appears on two consecutive
photos. This is necessary to obtain a 3 dimensional picture by means of stereoscope.
From the single copies of a composite assembly can be made called mosaic.

Air photo interpretation:

Photographic interpretation is “the act of examining photographic images for the purpose
of identifying objects and judging their significance”. The most basic of these principles
are the elements of image interpretation. They are:
1. Location
2. Size
3. Shape
99

Engineering Geology

Geospatial Information Centre (GIC), Dept. of Civil Engineering, SRKR Engineering. College Bhimavaram-534204
 Engineering Geology

4. Shadow
5. Tone/color
6. Texture
7. Pattern
8. Site/situation/association.

These are routinely used when interpreting an aerial photo or analyzing a photo-like
image. A well-trained image interpreter uses many of these elements during analysis
without really thinking about them. However, a beginner may not only have to force him
or herself to consciously evaluate an unknown object with respect to these elements, but
also analyze its significance in relation to the other objects or phenomena in the photo or
image. The following are elements of aerial photo and satellite image interpretation.
Location: There are two primary methods to obtain precise location in the form of
coordinates. 1) Survey in the field using traditional surveying techniques or global
positioning system instruments, or 2) collect remotely sensed data of the object, rectify
the image and then extract the desired coordinate information. This allows the aircraft to
obtain exact latitude/longitude coordinates each time a photo is taken.
Size: The size of an object is one of the most distinguishing characteristics and one of
the more important elements of interpretation. Most commonly, length, width and
perimeter are measured. To be able to do this successfully, it is necessary to know the
scale of the photo. Measuring the size of an unknown object allows the interpreter to rule
out possible alternatives. It has proved to be helpful to measure the size of a few well-
known objects to give a comparison to the unknown-object. For example, field
dimensions of major sports like soccer, football, and baseball are standard throughout
the world. If objects like this are visible in the image, it is possible to determine the size
of the unknown object by simply comparing the two.
Shape: There are an infinite number of uniquely shaped natural and man-made objects
in the world. A few examples of shape are the triangular shape of modern jet aircraft and
the shape of a common single-family dwelling. Humans have modified the landscape in
very interesting ways that has given shape to many objects, but nature also shapes the
landscape in its own ways. In general, straight, recti-linear features in the environment
are of human origin. Nature produces more subtle shapes.
Shadow: Virtually all remotely sensed data is collected within 2 hours of solar noon to
avoid extended shadows in the image or photo. This is because shadows can obscure
other objects that could otherwise be identified. On the other hand, the shadow cast by
an object may be key to the identity of another object. Take for example the Washington
Monument in Washington D.C. While viewing this from above it can be difficult to discern
the shape of the monument, but with a shadow cast, this process becomes much easier.
It is good practice to orient the photos so that the shadows are falling towards the
interpreter. A pseudoscopic illusion can be produced if the shadow is oriented away from
the observer. This happens when low points appear high and high points appear low.
Tone/Color: Real world materials like vegetation, water and bare soil reflect different
proportions of energy in the blue, green, red, and infrared portions of the electro-
magnetic spectrum. An interpreter can document the amount of energy reflected from
each at specific wavelengths to create a spectral signature. These signatures can help to
understand why certain objects appear as they do on black and white or color imagery.
These shades of gray are referred to as tone. The darker, an object appears the less
amount of light it reflects.
100

Engineering Geology

Geospatial Information Centre (GIC), Dept. of Civil Engineering, SRKR Engineering. College Bhimavaram-534204
 Engineering Geology

Color imagery is often preferred because, as opposed to shades of gray, humans can
detect thousands of different colors. Color aids in the process of photo interpretation.
Texture: This is defined as the “characteristic placement and arrangement of repetitions
of tone or color in an image.” Adjectives often used to describe texture are smoothing
(uniform, homogeneous), intermediate, and rough (coarse, heterogeneous). It is
important to remember that texture is a product of scale. On a large scale depiction,
objects could appear to have an intermediate texture. But, as the scale becomes smaller,
the texture could appear to be more uniform, or smooth. A few examples of texture could
be the “smoothness” of a paved road, or the “coarseness” a pine forest.
Pattern: Pattern is the spatial arrangement of objects in the landscape. The objects may
be arranged randomly or systematically. They can be natural, as with a drainage pattern
of a river, or man-made, as with the squares formed from the United States Public Land
Survey System. Typical adjectives used in describing pattern are: random, systematic,
circular, oval, linear, rectangular, and curvilinear to name a few.
Height and Depth: Height and depth, also known as “elevation” and “bathymetry”, is one
of the most diagnostic elements of image interpretation. This is because any object, such
as a building or electric pole that rises above the local landscape will exhibit some sort of
radial relief. Also, objects that exhibit this relief will cast a shadow that can also provide
information as to its height or elevation. A good example of this would be buildings of any
major city.
Site/Situation/Association: Site has unique physical characteristics which might include
elevation, slope, and type of surface cover (e.g., grass, forest, water, bare soil). Site can
also have socioeconomic characteristics such as the value of land or the closeness to
water. Situation refers to how the objects in the photo or image are organized and
“situated” in respect to each other. Most power plants have materials and building
associated in a fairly predictable manner. Association refers to the fact that when you
find a certain activity within a photo or image, you usually encounter related or
“associated” features or activities. Site, situation, and association are rarely used
independent of each other when analyzing an image. An example of this would be a
large shopping mall. Usually there are multiple large buildings, massive parking lots, and
it is usually located near a major road or intersection.
Briefly, the elements of interpretation from photo or image as follows:
i. Location: coordinates: Latitude, Longitude and altitude; or easting and northing
ii. Size: length, width, area and perimeter / small, medium and large
iii. Shape: geometric characteristics- linear, circular, elliptical and radial
iv. Shadow: an outline caused by solar illumination from side
v. Site: elevation, exposure
vi. Tone/colour: grey, tone: light (bright), intermediate (grey), dark (black)
vii. Texture: characteristic placement and arrangement of repetitions of tone or colour
viii. Pattern: the spatial arrangement of objects on the ground; systematic,
unsystematic or random, linear, circular and etc
ix. Association: related phenomena are usually presented

101

Engineering Geology

Geospatial Information Centre (GIC), Dept. of Civil Engineering, SRKR Engineering. College Bhimavaram-534204
 Engineering Geology

Satellite Remote Sensing:

Remote sensing is the efficient technique that can capture the data of the earth feature depending
on the reflected energy when emitted on objects. The sensors which inbuilt in the cameras
mounted in the satellites which acted as platform store those reflected energies in the form of
pixels in Charged Coupled Devices (CCD’s).
Remotely sensed data are mainly collected through the platforms located in the space which is in
outside the atmosphere. These platforms are called space-borne or space platforms. Accordingly,
remote sensing is also referred to as space remote sensing or orbital remote sensing.
In space, remote sensing is conducted mainly from satellites, and it is called satellite remote
sensing. Satellites are objects which revolve around another object such as an earth. In this case,
manmade satellites including platforms that are launched for remote sensing, communication and
telemetry (location and navigation) purposes.
Remote Sensing Satellites: Satellites are devices that are use sensor to observe the earth and our
solar systems. Satellites are also used to observe the earth’s atmosphere, surface and oceans.
Satellites are generally categorized into two types. They are:
Geostationary satellites: these satellites orbit at an elevation of 35790 km. these satellites are
rotating in the orbit with the speed of earth because of this reason they always appears stationary.
These satellites provide a large information about the earth’s weather events and also used for
communication purpose.
Sun synchronous satellites: these are located at much lower altitudes than geostationary satellites,
generally a few hundred too few thousand kilometers from surface of the earth. These satellites
travel from north to South Pole. These satellites cover the same part of the earth roughly the same
time each day to making collection of various data and communication also. Most of the earth
resource satellites are generally sun synchronous. These are also called as polar orbiting
satellites.
Remote Sensing Sensors
Sensors are the remote sensing instruments having charged couple devices (CCD’s) design to
measure the photons and they are made up of light sensible materials. These are used to record
the reflected electro magnetic radiation from the objects of the surface of the earth. These sensors
convert the radiation into electrical signals.
Sensors are classified into two types. They are:
1. Passive sensors: These sensors receive the illuminated energy reflected by the objects
on the surface when natural light in the form of electro magnetic radiation emits on those
objects.
a. Imaging sensors
i. Natural colour
ii. Infrared
iii. Colour infrared
b. Non imaging sensors
i. Microwave radio meter
ii. Magnetic sensor

102

Engineering Geology

Geospatial Information Centre (GIC), Dept. of Civil Engineering, SRKR Engineering. College Bhimavaram-534204
 Engineering Geology

2. Active sensors: These sensors release the energy on the objects and receive reflected
energy by the objects.
a. Non scanning sensors
i. Microwave radiometer
ii. Microwave altimeter
iii. Laser water depth meter
iv. Laser distance meter
b. Non imaging sensors
i. Image plane scanning – Real Aperture Radar
ii. Object plane scanning – Synthetic Aperture Radar
Beyond these, sensors are again categorized into three types.
1. Optical – Visible region
2. Thermal – Infrared region
3. Microwave – Microwave region
These are application oriented sensors. Among three, microwave sensors are more efficient to
remote sensing because they penetrate through any atmosphere. These are mainly used for ocean
and atmospheric applications.
Remote Sensing Data Products:
Remote sensing data products are available in a wide variety of media and formats. The different
types of data products are:
1. Analog data products
a. FCC (False Colour Composition): these are nothing but the reflectance
characteristics of the surface features in different bands. The reflectance
characteristics of the same feature in different bands are assigned different
colours. Thus giving composite image called false colour composites.
b. Dia positives: these are the silver halide prints of the earth features. Aerial
photographs are the actual dia positives. They may be either black and white or
colour in nature.
2. Digital data products:
These are available in
a. Colour Compatible Tapes (CCT’s)
b. Compact Diskette (CD’s)
c. Magnetic tapes
d. Multiple floppy disks etc

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM – GIS

The GIS is a computer based information system used to digitally represent and analyze the
geospatial data or geographic data. Geospatial means the distribution of something in a
103

Engineering Geology

Geospatial Information Centre (GIC), Dept. of Civil Engineering, SRKR Engineering. College Bhimavaram-534204
 Engineering Geology

geographic sense. It refers to entities that can be located by geographic coordinate system. Every
object present on the earth surface can be geo referenced and geo referencing refers to the
location of a feature or coverage in space defined by the geographic coordinate referencing
system.
In a general sense, the term describes any information system that integrates stores, edits,
analyzes, shares, and displays geographic information. GIS applications are tools that allow users
to create interactive queries (user-created searches), analyze spatial information, edit data in
maps, and present the results of all these operations. Geographic information science is the
science underlying geographic concepts, applications, and systems.
Remote Sensing and GIS applications:
1. Planning and Engineering: large or medium scale maps and models are used
mainly in civil engineering.
a. Urban planning
b. Regional planning / rural development / rural planning
c. Route location of highways
d. Development of public facilities
2. Environmental and Natural Resource Management: medium or small scale maps
and overlay techniques in combination with aerial photographs and satellite
images are used for management of natural resources and environmental impact
analysis.
a. Suitable study of agricultural cropping
b. Management of forests and agricultural lands, water resources, wet lands
etc
c. Environmental impact analysis
d. Disaster management and mitigation
e. Waste facility site location (Dumping yard)
3. Street Network: large or medium scale maps and spatial analysis are used for
vehicle routing, locating house and streets etc
a. Car navigation
b. Location of houses and streets
c. Site location
d. Transportation planning
4. Facilities Management: large scale and precise maps and network analysis are
used mainly for utility management. Automated mapping / facility management
(AM/FM) is frequently used in this area.
a. Locating underground pipes and cables
b. Telecommunication network services
c. Energy use tracking and planning
5. Land Information System: large scale cadastre maps or land parcel maps and
spatial analysis are used for cadastre administration, taxation and etc
104

Engineering Geology

Geospatial Information Centre (GIC), Dept. of Civil Engineering, SRKR Engineering. College Bhimavaram-534204
 Engineering Geology

a. Zoning of land use

b. Land acquisition
c. Taxation
d. Cadastre administration
Remote sensing observations provide data on earth’s natural resources in a spatial format. The
remote sensing (RS) data has the advantage of synoptic view and large area coverage. The
information required in the field of civil engineering is derived mainly from analysis of image
patterns present in the data. These patterns reflect the influence of the type of parent material,
geological processes undergone, the climatic, biotic and physiographic environment and man’s
activity. Thus applications of remote sensing to engineering involve the recognition of basic
landforms as indicated by the pattern elements on the image.

Spatial data can be efficiently handled using Geographic Information System (GIS), a tool which
allows synergism of map data and tabular data. GIS also allows the integration of these data sets
for deriving meaningful information and outputting the information derivatives in map format or
tabular format.

In civil engineering projects, RS and GIS techniques can become potential and indispensable
tools. Various civil engineering application areas include regional planning and site investigation,
terrain mapping and analysis, water resources engineering, town planning and urban infrastructure
development, transportation network analysis, landslide analysis, etc.

Regional Planning and Site Investigations: Site investigations in general require topographic
and geologic considerations. Remote sensing data permits such an assessment. In case of dam
site investigation, information on topography is essential. Geological consideration involves the
different soil and rock types and physical properties.

In selecting river-crossing sites for bridges and pipelines, an important consideration is the stability
of slopes leading down to and up from the water crossing. Such slopes include riverbanks, terrace
faces and valley wall. History of river erosion and sedimentation would give clues needed for
locating the sites where scour is likely to occur. High spatial resolution satellite data with stereo
vision capability can facilitate depth perception in the above said investigations and also for
regional planning of large commercial airports, harbors, industrial towns and recreational sites. The
hydro geological and geomorphologic information along with geological structures derived from
satellite data are very useful in sitting the ground – water bore holes.

Terrain Mapping and Analysis: Assessment of the performance of the terrain for specific
developmental activities can be made through terrain evaluation. For this, terrain information can
be acquired from RS data and by generating the Digital Terrain Model (DTM). A DTM is an ordered
array of numbers representing the spatial distribution of terrain characteristics stored in a computer
so as to enable the determination of any quantitative data pertaining to terrain. DTMs facilities
investigation of a number of alternative horizontal and vertical alignments of canals, roads,
pipelines or corridors for any such applications. In engineering construction like dam, the
knowledge of material comprising the terrain is essential for proper planning, location, construction
and maintenance of engineering facilities. For computation of hydrograph parameters like peak

105

Engineering Geology

Geospatial Information Centre (GIC), Dept. of Civil Engineering, SRKR Engineering. College Bhimavaram-534204
 Engineering Geology

runoff rate, time of concentration and time to peak, the height and slope information derived from
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) are useful.

The information on regional engineering soils is essential for general planning and site evaluation
purposes. High spatial resolution satellite data can be analyzed to delineate various landforms,
mapping of soil classes of significance to engineering construction, delineation of landforms –
engineering, soil relationships and grouping of landforms with various physiographic setting or
terrain associations.

Remote sensing based inventory of construction material such as boulders, quarry rock, sand –
clay mixtures etc., would help to locate suitable sites of construction materials for building up of
water resources engineering projects like dams, bridges, etc., across the rivers.

Water Resources Engineering: By analyzing multidate RS data, it would be possible to monitor

the effects of dam construction. Remotely sensed data of pre and post dam construction can
reveal the forest and other land at different water levels. This would also help in preliminary
investigation of finding suitable areas for human resettlement.

To study the feasibility of inter basin transfer of surplus flood flows, RS data can be cost effective.
In large area reconnaissance studies, various technically feasible and economically viable
alternatives in locating surplus flow diversion routes to water deficient basins can be arrived at.
Also, reservoir sites to store the surplus flows in these basins could be identified. Such projects of
large dimensions require considerations of land use / land cover, soil and geological mapping,
terrain evaluation, construction material inventory etc. the latter are derived from satellite remote
sensing data of particular resolution depending upon the scale on which such information is
required.

The water storage built in through reservoirs, tanks, etc., are often reduced due to sedimentation.
Remotely sensed data can be used to monitor the water bodies over time and assess the silting
condition. In case of gauged reservoirs of medium to large sizes, RS data can provide an
assessment of sediment volume and reduction in the capacity of sediment volume and reduction in
the capacity of the reservoir. In case of small water bodies such as tanks, it is possible to come out
with a list of problematic tanks with symptoms of heavy siltation and loss of water holding capacity.
The condition of tank bunds, fore shore encroachment, etc., also can be analysed with the help of
high spatial resolution RS data.

Characterization of water bodies in terms of geological, geomorphological, hydro geological, soil

and land use / land cover parameters carried out using RS data enables conservation of land and
water resources. The RS based input integrated with ground based information through GIS is
useful for broad reconnaissance level interpretation of land capability, irrigation suitability, potential
land use, water harvesting areas, monitoring the effects of soil and water conservation measures,
estimation of run off and sediment yields and monitoring land use change including land
degradation.

The commercial areas of irrigation projects are fed by different sources of irrigation like reservoir,
tanks, ponds and wells. Assessment of command areas and crops would be highly useful in water

106

Engineering Geology

Geospatial Information Centre (GIC), Dept. of Civil Engineering, SRKR Engineering. College Bhimavaram-534204
 Engineering Geology

release policy or conjunctive use of water in the overall project command area. Satellite data has
been advantageously used to obtain such information on surface irrigation projects.

In case of floods, appropriate flood management work has to be executed to reduce the damages
and utilize the floodwaters. For this purpose satellite RS provides comprehensive, reliable and
timely information (multidate) on flood inundated and drainage congested areas, extent of damage
to crops, structure etc., river configuration, silt deposits and vulnerable areas of bank erosion.
Flood mapping and damage assessment, using satellite data, is being done in India for more than
two decades.

Satellite derived snow cover assessment is being extensively used as an important input in snow
melt runoff prediction models to assist in multipurpose reservoir operations. Seasonal snow melt
inflow forecasts for Bhakra reservoir in Sutlej basin are being operationally issued every year with
the accuracy better than 90% to Bhakra Beas Management Board.

Town Planning and Urban Development: The unprecedented growth of urbanization in India has
given rise to problems of housing, sanitation, power, water supply, disposal of effluents and
environmental pollution. Systematic mapping and periodic monitoring of urban land use is therefore
necessary for proper planning, management and policy making (with the help of RS and GIS
optimal master plan for development and management of urban settlements can be prepared).

For sustainable development of urban agglomeration, optimal urban land use plans and resources
development models need to be generated by integrating the information on natural resources,
demographic and socio – economic data in a GIS domain with the currently available satellite data.

Transportation Network Analysis: With the help of high spatial resolution data, mapping of road
and rail network can be accomplished. This facilitates in deciding optimal routing for transport of
construction materials. Even, identification of village roads is possible in certain cases.

Landslide Studies: Landslides are the most common and recurring hazards in mountainous areas
causing enormous loss of life and property every year. The parameters that contribute directly or
indirectly include lithology and structure, landform, slope, aspect, relief, vegetation cover, climatic
and human activities. Information on these aspects can be collected and integrated for preparing a
landslide hazard zone map that can be done through RS and GIS.

*****

107

Engineering Geology

Geospatial Information Centre (GIC), Dept. of Civil Engineering, SRKR Engineering. College Bhimavaram-534204
 Engineering Geology

GEO PHYSICAL METHODS

The most reliable methods that can be used economically and readily for exploration of subsurface
geology are based on application of some well known principles of physics. Such geophysical
methods are extensive applications in prospecting for ore deposits, oil reserves, ground water
bearing strata and for determining structural and lithological make up of the strata. The methods
are:
1. Electrical method
a. Self potential method
b. Equipotential method
c. Electromagnetic method
d. Resistivity method
2. Seismic method
a. Refraction method
b. Reflection method
3. Magnetic method: these surveys are based on the measurement of value of magnetic
anomalies. In his method the vertical component of earth is measured. These methods are
widely used fro exploration of magnetic ore bodies like magnetite, ilmenite and pyrrhotite
and generally used for oil exploration.
4. Gravity method: the gravity survey is based on the measurement of density contrast
between the anomaly producing body and the surrounding rock. These methods are
chiefly used for oil and gas exploration and also used for metallic ore bodies.
Among the four methods, the most useful geophysical methods that are frequently used for
engineering applications are:
 Electrical Resistivity method
 Seismic method
These two are mostly used for
1. Determination of bed rock profile beneath the cover of unconsolidated material by using
resistivity and seismic method
2. Detection of faults and zones of weathered or fractured rock beneath the cover of drift by
using resistivity and seismic method
3. The outlining of large buried channels and sedimentary basins by using seismic refraction
or reflection measurements
4. Mapping of ground water salinity variations by using resistivity measurements
Resistivity Method:
Different materials of earth crust possess widely different electrical properties. Certain minerals like
pyrite, chalcopyrite are acts as very good conductors while non metallic minerals are acts as bad
conductors. There are three basic quantities; they are potential, current and resistance involved in
electrical measurements. These three elements forms a well known ohm’s law i.e,
I=V/R

Then R = V / I
108

Engineering Geology

Geospatial Information Centre (GIC), Dept. of Civil Engineering, SRKR Engineering. College Bhimavaram-534204
 Engineering Geology

Where I = Current, V = Electromotive Force and R = Resistance

Resistivities of rock formations vary over a wide range depending upon the material, density,
porosity, pore size, shape, water quality and temperature of the water. Igneous and metamorphic
rocks yield values in the range 102 to 108 ohm-m, sedimentary rocks and unconsolidated rocks
yielding values in the range 100 to 104 ohm-m. The resistivity is controlled more by water content
and quality within the formation than by rock resistivity. If the water content is more the resistivities
are less. The resistivity some times depends on the total dissolved salts which present in water.
Wenner method: Resistivity procedure involves measuring a potential difference between two
electrodes resulting from an applied current through other electrodes outside but in line with the
potential electrodes. If the resistivity is same every where in the subsurface zone beneath the
electrodes, an orthogonal network of circular arcs will be formed by the current and equipotential
lines.

d d d
C1 C2
P1 P2

Thus, the measured current and potential differences yield an apparent resistivity over an
unspecified depth. If the spacing between electrodes is increased, a deeper penetration of the
electrical field occurs and different resistivity is obtained.

d Or d
Where
 = resistivity in ohm – m; d = distance between adjacent electrodes; R = resistance (R = V / I)
Formation Resistivity (ohm - m)
Sand with saline water <5
Sand with fresh water 80-200
Clay 1-50
Sandstone 100-200
Limestone 100-1000
Shale 50-200
Massive igneous rocks >3000
Jointed igneous rock 500-1500

Applications of Resistivity Method in Civil Engineering:

109

Engineering Geology

Geospatial Information Centre (GIC), Dept. of Civil Engineering, SRKR Engineering. College Bhimavaram-534204
 Engineering Geology

1. Depth of bed rock: Important projects like dams, buildings and bridge foundations, where it
would be desirable that the structure should rest on sound hard rocks rather than on
overburden or soil.

2. Location of geological structure: like folds, buried valleys, crushed and fractured zones due
to shearing and faulting
3. Location of aquifers: water bearing zones which could be easily interpreted on the basis of
known resistivity values of moisture rich rocks and dry rocks.
Seismic Method:
Shocks or explosions within the earth’s crust are always accompanied by generation of elastic
waves, which travel in all directions from the point or place of shock known as the focus. The
seismic waves reveal a great deal of information about the internal constitution of the earth. In civil
engineering point of view, it is concerned only with the longitudinal waves or P waves have been
broadly established for different rock types.
Typical velocities of longitudinal (P) waves in common rocks as follows:
a. For igneous rocks, the velocity is vary from 5.0 to 6.7 km/ sec
b. For metamorphic rocks, the velocity is vary from 3.5 to 7.0 km/sec
c. For sedimentary rocks, the velocity is varying from 1.5 to 7.0 km/sec
Method: Truck mounted drilling rigs and recording systems are used in these procedures. Small
charges of explosives are detonated in shallow boreholes drilled in the surface rock. The waves so
produced are recorded at different distances from the shot point with the help of geophones or
special detectors carefully spaced along a line of traverse.

Recording points/geophones

Shot point

110

Engineering Geology

Geospatial Information Centre (GIC), Dept. of Civil Engineering, SRKR Engineering. College Bhimavaram-534204
 Engineering Geology

The vibrations received by the detectors / geophones are recorded on rapidly moving photographic
papers. The instant of explosion is also recorded on the same paper to know the distance. It is
possible to calculate the velocity of the elastic waves through the rocks. From this seismogram the
time-distance curves are prepared.
V=x/t
Where, x = distance and t = time

Instant of Shot

2.00

V2
1.50 t2

V1
1.0 t1

x2
0.5 x1

1000 ft. /sec 6000 ft. /sec 12000 ft. /sec

The horizontal scale is the distance from the shot point to the detector; the vertical scale is the time
that elapses between the elapses of shot and arrival of the first elastic wave. The less the slope of
the curve indicates the higher in the velocity. The velocity can be determined directly from the
curve by the equation.

V = (x2-x1) / (t2-t1)
Where
V = Velocity, x1, x2 = distance represented by two points on the curve and t 1, t2 = the time
represented by the same two points
The velocities of seismic waves differ in different kinds of rocks. Hence from the velocity
data, the structure of subsurface rocks can be worked out. The seismic methods are of
two types: refraction and reflection methods.
Refraction method:
In the refraction method only the refracted waves are recorded and used for determining
the structure of rocks. It involves the creation of small at the earth surface either by the
111

Engineering Geology

Geospatial Information Centre (GIC), Dept. of Civil Engineering, SRKR Engineering. College Bhimavaram-534204
 Engineering Geology

impact of heavy instrument or by exploding a small detonator charge and measuring the
time required for the resulting shock to travel known distance. The travel time of wave
depends upon the media. Velocities are greatest in solid igneous rocks and least in
unconsolidated rocks. In the case of sedimentary rocks porosity tends to decrease wave
velocity but water content increases the velocity.

The seismic wave velocities may vary with the material. In the soils and highly weathered
materials / formations the velocity of P waves is commonly in the range 500 to 2500 m/s.
The order of the magnitude of the velocity is of 5000 m/s in hard rocks. The velocity
reduces if the rocks are jointed. The velocity improves in a formation when it is saturated.

Formation P wave velocity S wave velocity

Massive granite 5000-7000 m/s 2500-4000 m/s
Weathered granite 800-2500 m/s 450-1500 m/s
Sandstone 1500-4000 m/s 1000-2500 m/s
Limestone 2500-6000 m/s 1600-4000 m/s
Sand 300-800 m/s 200-450 m/s

By using refraction method

1. Determining the structure of rocks lying at relatively shallow depth. It is widely
used for civil engineering explorations.
2. the location of shallow salt dooms and the oil pools associated with them
Reflection method:
The reflections are recorded by detecting instruments responsive to ground motion. They
are laid along the ground at a distance from the shot point. The reflection waves from a
reflecting surface are recorded and used for determining the rock structure. The
reflection survey is generally used for deep explorations (more than 600 meters). Hence
it is widely used for oil exploration. This method accurately delineates the subsurface
structural traps and salt domes.

*****

112

Engineering Geology

Geospatial Information Centre (GIC), Dept. of Civil Engineering, SRKR Engineering. College Bhimavaram-534204