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 AUTOMOTIVE
ELECTRIC/ELECTRONIC
SYSTEMS

BOSCH
Published by:
© Robert Bosch GmbH, 1988
Postfach 50, D-7000 Stuttgart 1.
Automotive Equipment Product Group,
DepartmentforTechnical Information (KH/VDT).
Editor-in-Chief:
Dipl.-lng. (FH) Ulrich Adler
Editor:
Dipl.-lng. (FH) Horst Bauer
Authors:
Dipl.-lng. F. Meyer, Dipl.-lng. A. Gerhard
(Power Supplies, Starter Batteries),
Dipl.-lng. H. Decker (Battery Ignition),
Dr.-lng. K.-D. Pohl (Spark Plugs),
Dr.-lng. H. Neu (Interference Suppression, EMC),
Dipl.-lng. G. Felger(LH-Jetronic),
Dipl.-lng. M. Lembke (Mono-Jetronic),
Dr. rer. nat. H. Schwarz, Dipl.-lng. (FH)
D. Gunther (Exhaust-Emission Engineering),
Dipl.-lng. B. Kraus (Exhaust-Emission Regula¬
tions, Exhaust Limits), Dipl.-lng. (FH) W. Dieter
(Exhaust-Emission Testing). All the remaining
chapters were produced with the support of the
responsible technical departments of Robert
Bosch GmbH.
Layout:
Dipl.-lng. (FH) Ulrich Adler,
Helmut Flaig (Zweckwerbung, Kirchheim).
Photographs:
Zweckwerbung, Kirchheim,
Robert Bosch photographic archives.
Translation:
Editor-in-Chief:
Peter Girling
Technical graphics:
Bauer & Partner, Stuttgart.
Unless otherwise stated,
the above are all employees of
Robert Bosch GmbH, Stuttgart.
This reference book is compiled from the most
important manuals in the publication series
“Bosch Technical Instruction” insofar as they are
relevant for the subject matter concerned.
Reproduction, duplication and translation of this
publication, including excerpts therefrom, is only
to ensue with our previous written consent and
with particulars of source. Illustrations, descrip¬
tions, schematic diagrams and other data only
serve for explanatory purposes and for presen¬
tation of the text. They cannot be used as the
basis for design, installation or scope of delivery.
We undertake no liability for conformity of the
contents with national or local regulations. We
are exempt from liability. We reserve the right to
make changes.
Printed in the Federal Republic of Germany.
Imprime en Republique Federale d’Allemagne.
1st Edition: May 1988.
The worldwide selling rights and the right to
issue foreign-language licenses for the original
German Edition (September 1987) are held by:
VDI-Verlag GmbH
D--4000 Dusseldorf 1
ISBN 3-18-419110-9
Approved Editions under license:
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers Inc.
ISBN 0-89883-509-7
Contents
Spark-ignition engine_4
Charge cycle
Powersupply_8
Electrical installation, lead-acid
batteries, vehicle electrical system
Starter battery_14
Battery versions,
operating modes,
battery maintenance
Alternators and generators_18
Basics, voltage regulators,
overvoltage protection, characteristic
curves, alternatorand generator
versions, circuitry, vehicleoperation
Starter installations_70
Starting process, starting condi¬
tions, basic design, starter types,
starter-system installation, starter
operation and maintenance
Battery ignition_100
Ignition in the spark-ignition
engine, coil ignition, transistorized
ignition (breaker-triggered, with
Hall or induction trigger), electronic
ignition, fully electronic distributor¬
less ignition, capacitor-discharge
ignition, knock control, connecting
elements, ignition test
Spark plugs_140
Spark plugs and the ignition
system, demands made on spark
plugs, design and construction,
heat rating, selection, operating
characteristics, spark-plug types,
spark-plug practice
Interference suppression _171
Interference-suppression devices,
classes of interference-suppres¬
sion, intensified interference
suppression in the vehicle
Electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC)_177
Terms, standards, regulations,
screening, partial screening
Gasoline injection_180
Fuel management, adaptation,
fuel-management systems
K-Jetronic_185
Fuel supply, fuel metering,
adaptation, supplementary
functions, electric circuitry
KE-Jetronic_206
Fuel supply, fuel metering,
adaptation, supplementary
functions, electric circuitry
L-Jetronic_232
Fuel supply, acquisition of
operating data, fuel metering,
adaptation, supplementary
functions, electric circuitry
L3-Jetronic_252
Fuel supply, acquisition of oper¬
ating data, fuel metering, adaptation
LH-Jetronic_255
Fuel supply, acquisition of
operating data, fuel metering,
adaptation, supplementary
functions
Mono-Jetronic_258
Fuel supply, acquisition of
operating data, fuel metering,
adaptation, supplementary
functions
Motronic_262
Ignition subsystem, fuel-injection
subsystem, adaptation,
supplementary functions, ECU,
data processing, electric circuitry
Exhaust-emissions
engineering_304
Fuel, toxic emissions, engine
concepts, operating conditions,
Lambda closed-loop control,
catalytic exhaust-gas aftertreat¬
ment, EGR, other measures,
regulations, testing, limit values
Graphical symbols, diagrams _ 341
Representation, identification
 Spark-
ignition
engine
Spark-ignition engine

The spark-ignition engine or Otto-
cycle engine1) is an internal-com¬
bustion engine with externally sup¬
plied ignition, which converts the
energy contained in the fuel to kine¬
tic energy.
On the spark-ignition engine, fuel-in¬
duction systems outside the combus¬
tion chamber form an air-fuel mixture
(on the basis of gasoline or gas). The
homogeneous mixture flows into the
combustion chamber, drawn in by the
downward-moving piston. It is then
compressed to approximately 15...25
bar during compression (compression
stroke). The resultant final compression
temperature of 400°C...600°C is still be¬
low the self-ignition temperature of the
mixture. Itisatimed, externally supplied
ignition through the spark plug which ac¬
tually causes ignition of the mixture. The
process of combustion which occurs in¬
side the combustion chamber is called
“internal” combustion. The combustion
gas (air-fuel mixture) is used in this case
directly as operating medium. The heat
of combustion which is released in¬
creases the pressure of the compres¬
sed gases. The combustion pressure
which is higher than the compression
pressure does mechanical work via the
piston and the crankshaft. After the
combustion stroke, the piston ejects the
combusted gases and draws fresh air-
fuel mixture into the combustion
chamber. This charge cycle occurs
primarily on the basis of the 4-stroke
principle in the case of vehicle engines.
One working cycle requires two revolu¬
tions of the crankshaft. Since mechani¬
cal work is to be done continuously, the
described processes occur cyclically.
If, as in the case in question, the operat¬
ing medium changes when it absorbs
heat, by specific components serving as
1) After Nikolaus August Otto (1832 to 1891) who demon¬
strated a gaseous-fuel 4-stroke engine with compres¬
sion, for the first time at the Paris International Exposition
in 1878.

Classification of combustion engines

Type of Open process Closed process
process control Internal combustion External combustion
Combustion gas corresponds to the Combustion gas does not
operating medium correspond to the operat¬
ing medium
Phase transition of the
operating medium
No | Yes
Type of combustion Cyclic combustion Continuous combustion
Method of ignition Self¬
Externally supplied ignition
ignition
Engine =
machineform¬ Diesel Hybrid Spark- Rohs Stirling Steam
ing the operat- ignition
Typeof ing chamber
machine Turbine^ Super¬
turbo¬ — — — Gas heated Steam
machine steam
Nature of the mixture Heterogenous Homogen. Heterogenous
4 (in the combustion cflamber) (in continuousflame)
oxidation agents for instance, a return to
the initial state can be achieved only by a
process of exchange. We then speak of
“ open process control ”.
Charge cycle
The charge cycle performs two decisive
tasks in the case of combustion engines
with open process control and internal
combustion:
1. The operating gas is returned to the
initial state of the cyclic process by ex¬
change.
2. The oxygen reguired forfuel combus¬
tion is provided in theform of fresh air.
If the charge cycle occurs with each
crankshaft revolution at the end of the
expansion phase in the region of bottom
dead center, we talk of a 2-stroke cycle.
If a separate charge cycle stroke, com¬
prising exhaust stroke and suction
stroke, is inserted between 2 consecu¬
tive combustion/power strokes, we talk
of a 4-stroke cycle.
4-stroke cycle
A control shaft, the camshaft, which
rotates at half the engine speed, is dri¬
ven for controlling the charge cycle. The
camshaft opens the charge-cycle val¬
ves, which are designed separately for
exhausting the spent gases and drawing
in the fresh gases, against the valve
springs. Shortly before bottom dead
1) Principle of the reciprocating engine.
TDC top dead center, Fh swept volume,
BDC bottom dead center, Vc compression
volume.
center (BDC), the exhaust valve opens Spark-
and, in the case of a supercritical ignition
pressure ratio, approximately 50% of engine
the combustion gases leave the com¬
bustion chamber during this pre-ex¬
haustion. The upward-moving piston
ensures that virtually all the exhaust
gases are removed from the combus¬
tion chamber during the exhaust stroke.
Shortly before top dead center of the
piston (TDC) the intake valve opens with
the exhaust valve still open. In order to
distinguish this position from the ignition
TDC (ITDC) during which combustion
occurs, this position of the crankshaft is
called the charge cycle TDC (CTDC) or
overlap TDC (OTDC) since the other¬
wise strictly separated intake and ex¬
haust processes overlap in this region.
Shortly after CTDC, the exhaust valve
closes and the downward-moving pis¬
ton is able to draw in fresh air through
the open intake valve. This stroke of the
charge cycle, the suction stroke, lasts
until shortly after BDC. The two other
strokes of the 4-stroke cycle, compres¬
sion and power (expansion), then
follow.
In throttle-controlled SI engines during
the overlap phase, and above all during
part-load operation, due to the high in¬
take-mainfold pressure exhaust gas
flows directly from the combustion
chamber and into the intake passage, or
from the exhaust passage back into the
2) 4-stroke charge cycle with a graph show¬
ing pressure as a function of volume.
E exhaust valve, EO exhaust valve opens, EC
exhaust valve closes, I intake valve, 1C intake
valve closes, 10 intake-valve opens.
5
 Spark- combustion chamber and from there
ignition into the intake passage. This “internal”
engine exhaust gas recirculation has an un¬
favorable effect, particularly during idle.
However, it cannot be entirely avoided
since a compromise has to be found be¬
tween satisfactory idle behavior on the
one hand and adequate valve-opening
areas as a function oftime on the other.
Advanced opening of the exhaust valve
permits high pre-exhausting and thus
guarantees low residual gas compres¬
sion by the upward-moving piston but
reduces the indicated (internal) work of
the combustion gases.
The time “intake valve closes” (1C) de¬
cisively influences the volumetric-effi¬
ciency curve (fresh charge actually pre¬
sent in the cylinder) as a function of the
engine speed. With premature closing
of the intake valve, maximum volumetric
efficiency will be in the lower engine
speed range. In the case of retarded
closing of the intake valve, it will lie in the
upperspeed range.
The intake and exhaust passages can
be assessed by steady-state flow tests
on the basis of the flow factor or the in-
take-and-exhaust-port efficiency. It is Disadvantages of the 4-stroke cycle:
advisable to assess the exhaust Complex valve control. The power den¬
passages in the lower valve stroke sity is reduced owing to the fact that only
range on the basis of supercritical every other shaft revolution is used to do
pressure conditions, such as those work.
occurring during pre-exhausting. The
usual intake-and-exhaust-port efficien¬ Working cycle
cies for intake and exhaust passages 1 st stroke: induction,
indicate that producing the swirl motion 2nd stroke: compression,
of the combustion air in the cylinders by 3rd stroke: combustion and work,
appropriate (compared to 2-stroke 4th stroke: exhaust.
cycle) design of the intake passages On the 4-stroke spark-ignition engine,
means a drastic impairment in intake- valves which open or close the intake
and-exhaust-port efficiency and, thus, and exhaust passages of the cylinder
volumetric efficiency. control the charge cycle.

Advantages of the 4-stroke cycle: Induction stroke:

Very good cylinder charge in the entire Intake valve: open,
engine speed range, largely insensitive Exhaust valve: closed,
to pressure losses in the exhaust sys¬ Piston movement: downwards,
tem and relatively good possibilities for Combustion: none.
influencing the curve of volumetric effi¬ The downward-moving piston in¬
ciency by selecting the timing after creases the volume in the cylinder and
adapting the intake system. draws in fresh air-fuel mixture through
6 the open intake valve.
Compression stroke
Intake valve: closed,
Exhaustvalve: closed,
Piston movement: upwards,
Combustion: commencement phase
(ignition).
The upward-moving piston reduces the
volume in the cylinder and compresses
the air-fuel mixture. Shortly before TDC
is reached, the spark plug ignites the
compressed air-fuel mixture and thus
initiates the combustion process. The
compression ratio eis approximately 1:7
to 1:13, dependent upon the engine de¬
sign. The thermal efficiency r]th of a
combustion engine increases with in¬
creasing compression ratio. A higher
compression ratio also means better
utilization of the fuel. Increasing the
compression ratio from 1:6 to 1:8 for
instance results in a 12% increase in
the thermal efficiency. The extent of
compression is restricted by the knock
limit. Knocking means uncontrolled
combustion of the mixture with a high
pressure rise. Knocking leads to en¬
gine damage. The knock limit can be
shifted in the direction of greater com¬
pression by selecting suitable fuels and
by appropriate design of the combus¬
tion chamber.
4) Working cycle of the 4-stroke spark-ignition engine.
1st stroke: 2nd stroke:
induction compression
Working stroke (power stroke) Spark-
Intake valve: closed, ignition
Exhaustvalve: closed, engine
Piston movement: downwards,
Combustion: burn-through phase.
After the ignition spark at the spark plug
has ignited the compressed air-fuel
mixture, the temperature increases as
the result of combustion of the mixture.
The pressure in the cylinder increases
and forces the piston downwards. The
piston transfers power to the crankshaft
via the connecting rod. This power is
available as engine power, and in¬
creases with increasing engine speed
and increasing torque (TV = M x co). A
gearbox is required in order to provide
optimum torque on the basis of the en¬
gine speed for the particular driving
situation.
Exhaust stroke
Intake valve: closed,
Exhaustvalve: open,
Piston movement: upwards,
Combustion: none. The upward-mov¬
ing piston expels the combusted gases
(exhaust gas) through the open ex¬
haust valve. After this 4th stroke, the
cycle is repeated. The opening times of
the valves overlap slightly, thus util¬
izing gas flow and gas oscillations in
order to achieve better charging and
discharging of the cylinder.
3rd stroke: 4th stroke:
combustion/power exhaust
7
Electrical
power
supply
Electrical power supply
Electrical system
The availability of electrical power in a
motor vehicle must be such thatthe vehi¬
cle can be started at any time and that
adequate electrical power is available
during operation. It must also be possible
for electrical equipment (power conver¬
ters) to be operated for a reasonable
period of time when the engine is
switched off, without it being impossible
to start the engine again because the
battery has been discharged. The stor¬
age battery, starter, alternator and vehi¬
cle electrical system must be inter-
matched for the particular application.
The criteria are: low weight or small vol-
umeorlowfuel consumption. Generally,
low fuel consumption is more important.
The following influences are important:
Starting temperature
The temperature at which the engine can
still be started is dependent, amongst
other things, upon the battery (Ampere-
1) Possible starting temperature as a func¬
tion of the state of battery charge.
p Minimum state of charge.
8
hour capacity, internal resistance and
state of charge etc.) and starter (size, with
or without intermediate transmission,
excitation electrical/permanent etc.). If
theengineistobestartedatatemperature
of -20°C for instance, the battery must
have a minimum state of charge/?.
Alternator current delivery
The current delivery of the alternator is
dependent upon engine speed. At en¬
gine idling speed wL, the alternator is only
able to deliver a part of its rated current.
If the current drawn bytheequipment/w
is greater than the alternator current /G,
e.g. when the engine is idling, the
battery is discharged. The voltage in the
electrical system drops.
Driving
The engine speed with which the alter¬
nator is driven depends upon the use of
the vehicle. The cumulative frequency
curve of the engine speed specifies how
frequently a specific engine speed is
reached or exceeded when operating
2) Alternator current delivery IG as a func¬
tion of the alternator speed.
/w equipment current, rcLengine idling speed.
the vehicle. In rush hours, acar’sengine
will idle quite frequently, owing to traffic
jams or stopping at traffic lights. When
driving on the motorway, the idling rate is
generally low. Regular-line bus engines
also idle at bus stops. Equipment or sys¬
tems which are switched on with the en¬
gine switched off (e.g. at the terminus)
have an u nfavorable effect upon the state
of battery charge. Tourist or long-haul
buses generally have a low idling rate.
Equipment power ratings
The connected electrical devices have
differing on times. We distinguish be¬
tween equipmentwhich isonallthetime
(ignition, fuel injection etc.), equipment
which is on for long periods (lights, heat¬
ed rear window etc.) and equipment
which is on for short periods (turn-signal
lamps and stop lamps etc.). Use of many
electrical devices is dependent upon the
season (air-conditioning system in the
summer, seat heating in the winter). The
switch-on frequency of electrical radiator
fans is dependent upon both tempera¬
ture and vehicle operation. In winter,
most drivers drive with their lights on in
the rush hours.
Charging voltage
The charging voltage of a storage battery
must be higher under low-temperature
conditions and lower under high-temp¬
erature conditions owing to the chemical
3) Cumulative frequency of engine speed
for urban and motorway driving.
processes which occur in the battery. Electrical
The maximum permissible voltage at power
whichthestoragebatterydoesnot “gas” supply
is shown on the curve of the voltage at
commencement of gassing. Electrical
equipment requires as constant a vol¬
tage as possible. The voltage must have
a close tolerance for lamp bulbs in order
to ensure that the service life and lumin¬
ous intensity lie within the given limits.
The regulator restricts the upper voltage
limit. It influences the under-voltage limit
if the possible alternating current is
higherthan the required equipment cur¬
rent. Regulators are generally attached
to the alternator. In the case of large devi¬
ations between alternator intake air
temperature(regulatortemperature)and
storage-battery electrolyte temperature,
it is advantageous if the temperature for
voltage regulation is sensed directly at
the storage battery.
Dynamic system characteristic curve
The interaction of the components stor¬
age battery, alternator, electrical equip¬
ment, temperature, engine speed and
transmission ratio engine/alternator re¬
sults in the system characteristic curve. It
is specific to every combination and ev¬
ery operating condition and is thus a dy¬
namic “statement”. The dynamic sys¬
tem characteristic curve can be plotted
with an xy recorder at the terminals of the
storage battery.
4) Dynamic system characteristic curves.
Envelope curves for urban driving:
1 With large alternator and small storage battery.
2 With small alternator and large storage battery.
9
Electrical Charge-balance calculation
power The charge-balance calculation must
supply allow for the above influencing variables.
The state of battery charge at the end of a
typical driving cycle is determined with
the aid of a computer program. A normal
cycleforpassengercarsisdrivingin rush
hours (low engine speed) combined with
winter operation (low charging current
consumption of the storage battery). For
vehicles with air-conditioning system
(high current consumption), summer
operation may be less favorable under
certain circumstances.
Lead storage battery
The active materials of the lead storage
battery are the lead peroxide (Pb02) of
the positive plate, the spongy, highly
porous lead (Pb) of the negative plate
and the electrolyte, dilute sulphuric
acid (H2S04). The electrolyte simul¬
taneously acts as the ion conductor for
charging and discharging. Pb02 and Pb
each assume typical electrical voltages
(individual potentials) with respect to
the electrolyte and, by subtracting
these potentials, we obtain the exter¬
nally measurable cell voltage. This is
approximately 2 V in open-circuit con¬
dition. It rises during charging and
drops during loading. When discharg¬
Directions for mixing
Required specific gravity of electrolyte kg/I
Volume ratio concentrated sulphuric acid (96%)
to distilled water
Electrolyte values of dilute sulphuric acid
State Battery
of charge version
Charged Normal
Fortropics
Half-charged Normal
Fortropics
Discharged Normal
Fortropics
1)At20°C: the specific gravity ofthe electrolyte
drops with increasing temperature and rises with
decreasing temperature by approximately
10 0.01 kg/I per 14°C change in temperature.
ing, Pb02 and Pb react with H2S04 to
form PbS04 (lead sulphate) and for this
reason, the electrolyte loses S04 (sul¬
phate) ions and, the specific gravity of
the electrolyte drops. During charging,
the active materials Pb02 and Pb are
reconstituted from PbS04.
Pb02 + 2H2S04 + Pb^5 PbS04 +
2H20 + PbSOzj1)
If charging is continued after a full
state of charge has been reached,
only electrolytic decomposition of wa¬
ter occurs, thus forming explosive gas
(oxygen at the positive plate and hyd¬
rogen at the negative plate). The
specific gravity of the electrolyte can
be taken as a measure of the state of
charge. This is subject to uncertainty
owing to the design (see Table with
scatter band) and as the result of
electrolyte stratification and battery
wear with, in some cases, irreversible
sulphation and/or intense sloughing
off of sedimentfrom the plates.
Behavior at low temperature
The lower the state of charge, the lower
is the specific gravity of the electrolyte.
This increases the freezing point. A stor¬
age battery with frozen electrolyte is
only able to deliver low currents and
cannot be used for starting.
b—► Discharging, <—Charging
1.23 1.26 1.28 1.30 1.34
1 :3.8 1 :3.2 1 :2.8 1 :2.6 1 :2.3
Specific gravity of Freezing
electrolyte kg/I1) threshold °C
1.28 -68
1.23 -40
1.16/1,202) -17...-27
1.13/1.162) -13...-17
1.04/1.122) -3..-11
1.03/1.082) -2...-8
2) Low value: high electrolyte utilization, high
value: low electrolyte utilization.
Mixing fresh electrolyte
In order to avoid splashes, always pour
concentrated sulphuric acid into distilled
water and never vice versa. At the same
time, stir the mixture with an acid-resis¬
tant rod (glass or plastic). The table below
shows how certain conventional electro¬
lyte concentrations can be obtained by
mixing. The figures can be interpolated in
linearfashion for other values.
Battery characteristic
values
Designation
In addition to mechanical features such
as dimensions, mounting type and ter¬
minal post design, it is chiefly the electri¬
cal values which are characteristic and
these are measured in accordance with
test standards (e.g. German Industrial
Standard DIN 43539, Part 2). The starter
batteries manufactured in the Federal
Republic of Germany are identified in
accordance with DIN 72310, 72311 by a
5-digit type number, the nominal volt¬
age, the nominal capacity and the cold-
discharge test current (only in the case
of starter batteries).
Example: 56618,12 V66 Ah 300 A.
Ampere-hour capacity
The ampere-hour capacity is the
amount of electricity which can be taken
from a battery under specific conditions,
5) Battery-voltage curve as a function of
the discharge time at various discharge
currents.
expressed in Ah. It drops with increas¬ Electrical
ing discharge current and decreasing power
temperature. supply
Nominal capacity K2o
German Industrial Standards DIN de¬
fine nominal capacity K2q as the quan¬
tity of electricity which can be taken
from a battery within 20 hours down to a
final discharge voltage of 1.75 V/cell
with constant discharge current. Nomi¬
nal capacity results from the quantities
of active material used (positive and
negative materials and electrolyte) and
is only relatively slightly dependent on
the numberof plates.
Cold-discharge test current /«p
This identifies the ability of the battery
to provide electrical energy for the
starting motor at low temperatures.
German Industrial Standards DIN
state that when a battery is dis¬
charged at -18°C at /Kp, the terminal
voltage must be at least 1.5 V/cell
after 30 seconds of discharge and
must be at least 1 V/cell after 150 sec¬
onds of discharge. The factors which
crucially influence the short-time
behavior identified by /Kp are the
number of plates, the plate area, the
plate spacing and the separator ma¬
terial. One other variable which ident¬
ifies the starting behavior is the inter¬
nal resistance AT
6) Available capacity as a function of the
discharge current and temperature.
11
Electrical The following applies to -18°C and
power fully charged battery (12 V):
supply R\ = (21 00...2400)//kp (mfl),
where /Kp is in A.
The internal resistance of the storage
battery, together with the other resis¬
tances of the starter circuit, determines
the cranking speed when starting.
Vehicle electrical system
The nature of the wiring between alter¬
nator, storage battery and electrical
equipment also influences the voltage
level and, thus, the state of battery
charge. If all electrical devices are con¬
nected at the battery, the total current
= + A/V
flows through the charging cable.
The charging voltage is lower owing to
the high voltage drop. Conversely, if all
electrical devices are connected at the
alternator side, the voltage drop is less
and the charging voltage is higher. This
may have a negative effect upon de¬
vices which are sensitive to voltage
peaks or high voltage ripple (electronic
circuitry). It is thus advisable to connect
voltage-insensitive equipment with
high power consumption to the alter¬
nator and voltage-sensitive equipment
with low power consumption to the
battery. Suitable line cross-sectional
areas and good connections whose
contact resistances do not increase
7) Correction factor for the battery internal
resistance as a function of the electrolyte
temperature and discharge state.
12
even after a long period of operation
keep voltage drops low.
Vehicles are generally equipped as
standard with storage batteries which
easily provide the power required by
the electrical system under normal
traffic conditions and steady climatic,
conditions. If additional electrical de¬
vices are to be fitted or if special operat¬
ing conditions apply, check whether
the existing battery can be replaced by
a battery with a higher rating (possibly
even interchangeable or identical-fit¬
ting). When carrying out such modifica¬
tions, it is advisable to follow the rele¬
vant instructions of the vehicle manu¬
facturer or to consult a Bosch service
specialist. If the new battery has too
high a rating, the voltage drop when the
starter is switched on will be substan¬
tially lower than with the battery used
before. This means that the voltage at
the start terminals is excessive.
Fuel consumption
A small part of the fuel consumption is
required to drive the alternator and
move the weights of starter, storage
battery and alternator (approx. 5 % on a
mid-size car). Average fuel consump¬
tion for 100 km: for 10 kg weight approx.
0.1 I, for 100 W power input approx.
0.1 I. Although slightly heavier, alterna¬
tors with a higher part-load efficiency
thusconservefuel.
8) Electrical system with connection of elec¬
trical devices atthe alternator and battery.
Voltage-insensitive devices with high power
consumption must be connected to the alter¬
nator. Voltage-sensitive devices with low power
consumption must be connected to battery.
9) Schematic diagram of the vehicle electrical system with starting system. Electrical
The sequences of functions follow the direction shown by the arrows. power
supply

Installed electrical loads allowing for the on-time

Electrical loads Power Mean

consumption power

Ignition 40 W 40 W
Radio 10W 10W

Side-marker lamp 8W 7W
Lower beam now 90 W
License-plate lamp, tail lamp 30 W 25 W
Indicatorlamp, instrument-panel lamps 7W 5W
Heated rearwindow 80 W 34 W
Vehicle heating 120 W 50 W
Electric radiatorfan 60 W 25 W

Wipers 30 W 5W
Stop lamp 42 W 11 W
Turn-signal lamp 42 W 6W
Fog lamp 110W 20 W
Fog warning lamp 21 W 2W

Total
Installed electrical loads 710W
Mean consumed power 330 W
13
Starter
battery Starter battery

Task
The starter battery in the electrical sys¬
tem performs the function of a chemical
storage device for electrical energy
generated by the alternator. It must be
capable of briefly supplying high cur¬
rents for cold starting (particularly at low
temperatures) and powering other im¬
portant electrical loads of the electrical
system either partially or entirely for a
limited period, in particular when the
engine is idling or switched off. The
lead-sulphuric acid accumulator is gen¬
erally used for this purpose. Typical
electrical supply voltages are (6 V),
12 V, 24 V, (48 V). The usual battery
voltage is 12 V. Higher voltages are ob¬
tained by connecting several 12 V
batteries in series. 6 V electrical sys¬
tems are nowadays encountered only
on oldervehicles.
Requirements
In addition to the requirements for start¬
ing power, ampere-hour capacity and
charging current consumption over a
temperature range of approximately
-30°C ... +70°C, matched to the rele¬
vant electrical system, there are also
other conditions which have to be met in
specific applications (freedom from
maintenance and vibration resistance
etc.).
Design
A modern 12 V starter battery consists
of 6 series-connected cells fitted in a
polypropylene battery case subdivided
by means of partitions. One cell com¬
prises one negative set of plates and
one positive set of plates, consisting of
plates (lead grids and active material)
and microporous insulating material

1) Maintenance-free starter battery.

1 Cover
2 Terminal-post cover
3 Intercell connector
4 Post
5 Frit
6 Plate strap
7 Battery case
8 Bottom rail
9 Positive plates jacketed
in plastic separators
10 Negative plates

14
(separators) between plates of different
polarity. Dilute sulphuric acid which fills
the free cell space and the pores of
plates and separators serves as the
electrolyte. Terminal posts, intercell
connectors and plate straps consist of
lead. The intercell connectors pass
through the cell partition tightly. At the
top, the battery is sealed by the cover
which is heat-sealed onto the battery
case. In conventional batteries, each
cell has a plug which serves to initially fill
the battery, service it and dissipate the
charging gases. Maintenance-free
batteries are frequently supplied appar¬
ently completely closed. Despite this,
they do also require holes to allow ex¬
change and escape of gas.
Types of starter battery
Maintenance-free battery
Metallurgical measures have been
taken to reduce the decomposition of
water in the event of overcharging under
electrical system conditions (U = con¬
stant) to such an extent that the supply
of electrolyte above the plates suffices
for the entire service life. The usual
method of doing this is to greatly reduce
the antimony content of the positive grid
alloy or to replace the antimony by other
metals, e.g. calcium. On conventional
batteries, freedom from maintenance
can be achieved by using catalytic, so-
called recombination plugs. If a mainte¬
nance-free battery is recharged outside
the electrical system, the charging vol¬
tage must be limited to (2.3 ... 2.4 V)/
cell. If charging with constant current or
chargers with “W” characteristic curve
(see “Charging characteristic curves”),
water is also necessarily consumed
even in the case of maintenance-free
batteries.
Cycle-proof battery
Owing to their design (plate thickness,
separator material), starter batteries are
only conditionally suited to applications
with repeated exhaustive discharge
since this involves intense wear of the
positive plates (in particular owing to
loosening and sedimentation of the ac¬ Starter
tive material). In cycle-proof starter battery
batteries, the positive material is
supported by separators with an addi¬
tional glass-fiber mat inlay, thus pre¬
venting premature sedimentation. The
service life measured in charging/dis¬
charging cycles is approximately twice
as long as is the case on standard
batteries. Cycle-proof starter batteries
are identified by the letter “Z”.
Vibration-proof battery
In vibration-proof batteries, relative mo¬
tion of the elements with respect to the
battery case is prevented by fixing
them in position with casting resin or
plastic. German Industrial Standards
DIN prescribe that such a battery must
withstand a 20-hour sinusoidal vibration
test with a frequency of 22 Hz and a
maximum acceleration of 6 x g in the
vertical direction. This requirement is
approximately 10 times more stringent
than that made of standard batteries.
Vibration-proof batteries are used
chiefly in commercial vehicles, con¬
struction machinery and tractor vehi¬
cles etc. They are identified by the let¬
ters “Rf”.
HD battery
The HD battery (Heavy Duty) is a com¬
bination of cycle-proof and vibration-
proof battery. It is used in commerical
vehicles subject to both high vibration
stress and cyclic stress. This type
of battery is identified by the letters
“HD”.
“S” type battery
The design of the “S” type battery is
similar to that of cycle-proof batteries
but it has thicker and correspondingly
less plates. No cold-discharge test cur¬
rent is specified for “S” type batteries.
Their starting power is substantially
lower (35 ... 40% lower) than starter
batteries of identical size. They are
used in applications subject to very
cyclic stress, sometimes even for trac¬
tion purposes. 15
Starter Battery states
battery
Discharging
Shortly after the start of discharging, the
battery voltage drops to a value which
changes only relatively slowly if the dis¬
charging process is continued.
It is not until directly before the end of
discharging, which is determined by the
exhaustion of one or more of the active
components positive material, negative
material and electrolyte, that the voltage
breaks down rapidly.
Charging
The battery is charged in the vehicle
electrical system using voltage limiting.
This corresponds to the so-called IU
charging method (“Charging charac¬
teristic curves”). The charging current
is reduced automatically as soon as at
least one electrode is fully charged.
This prevents harmful overcharging
and ensures a long battery service
life.
Conversely, workshop chargers and
domestic chargers sometimes operate
with constant current or on the basis of
a W characteristic curve (see “Charg¬
ing characteristic curves”). In both
cases, charging is continued with only
slightly reduced current or even con¬
stant current when the fully charged
state is reached. This results in consid¬
erable water consumption and erosion
of the positive grids.
Self-discharge
Batteries discharge themselves over
the course of time even if they are not
required to supply power. Modern
batteries with a low antimony content,
or no antimony, lose approximately
0.1 ...0.2 % of their charge every day at
room temperature when new. As the
battery ages, this value may rise to 1 %
per day or more owing to antimony
migration to the negative plate and
owing to other impurities, and may
finally result in battery failure. A rule of
thumb for the influence of temperature
is as follows: every 10°C increase in
16 temperature doubles self-discharge.
Battery care
On low-maintenance batteries, the elec¬
trolyte level should be checked once per
year or every 25000 km and, if neces¬
sary, the battery should be topped up
with distilled watertothe maximum mark
specified by the battery manufacturer. In
order to minimize self discharge, the
battery must be kept in a clean and dry
condition. Before onset of the cold sea¬
son, it is advisable to recheck the state of
charge by measuring the electrolyte
specific gravity or, if this is not possible,
by measuring the open-circuit voltage. If
specific gravity is less than 1.20 g/ml or
the open-circuit voltage less than 12.2 V,
the battery should be recharged. Termi¬
nal posts, cable terminals and securing
elements must be greased with acid-
proof grease. When fitting the battery,
connect the positive cable first and then
the negative cable. When removing the
battery, disconnect the negative cable
first and then the positive cable (with
negative ground). Disconnect the
ground cable before working on the vehi¬
cle electrical system. Batteries which are
to be temporarily taken out of service
must be stored in a cool and dry location.
The specific gravity of the electrolyte or
the open-circuit voltage must be
checked every 3...4 months. If the values
are less than 1.20 g/ml or 12.2 V, the
battery must be recharged. When charg¬
ing, connectthe battery positive terminal
tothe positive terminal of thechargerand
the battery negativeterminal tothe nega¬
tive terminal. IU charging with a max¬
imum voltage of 14.4 V is the bestform of
charging for low-maintenance and
maintenance-free batteries since this
means that a charging time of 24 hours
for instance can be set for reliable full
charging with no risk of overcharging. If
charging with constant current or W
characteristic, thecurrentshould not ex¬
ceed 1/10 of the nominal capacity in A
when visible gassing occurs, e.g. 6.6 A in
the case of a 66 Ah battery. Charging
mustthen be switched off (after approxi¬
mately 1 hour). Air the room in which
charging takes place (formation of explo-
sive gas, risk of explosion, no naked
lights. Take care that no sparks occur due
to battery short circuits).
Battery defects
Malfunctions caused by damage inside
the battery (e.g. short circuits due to
separator wear or active material failure,
open circuits of cell connectors or plate
straps etc.) can generally only be rem¬
edied by replacing the battery. One
symptom of internal shorts are major
specific gravity fluctuations between
cells (difference between minimum and
maximum max. 0.03 g/ml). If connectors
have open circuits, the battery can fre¬
quently still be discharged and charged
with low currents but voltage breaks
down immediately when starting even if
the battery is fully charged.
If no battery defect can be established
but the battery is in a permanent state of
exhaustive discharge despite this
(symptom: low specific gravity in all cells,
no starting power), or if it is overcharged
(symptoms: high water consumption),
there is a fault in the electrical system
(defective alternator, electrical loads re¬
main switched on owing to defective re¬
lays when the engine is switched off,
voltage regulator set too high or too low
ornotfunctioning). In batteries which are
left in exhaustive discharge state for long
periods, the PbS04 crystals in the active
material become coarse. This makes
2) Battery charging: W characteristic.
1 Charging voltage, 2 Charging current.
recharging more difficult. To regenerate Starter
the active material, the battery must be battery
charged with alowcharging current, ap¬
proximately 1 /40 of the nominal capac¬
ity in A, for approximately 50 hours.
Charging characteristics
A battery is mostfrequently charged with
the W characteristic, generally with non-
regulated chargers. The charging cur¬
rent continually decreases with increas¬
ing battery voltage owing to the internal
resistance of the unit (charging times of
12...14 hours). Such devices are only
conditionally suitable for maintenance-
free batteries because there is no facility
for limiting charging voltage. Mainte¬
nance-free batteries should be charged
with chargers operating with an IU or WU
characteristic. When charging with the IU
characteristic, the battery is charged with
constant current (protecting the device
against overload) up to its gassing volt¬
age (2.4 V/cell). The charging voltage
then remains constant (protecting the
battery against overcharging) and the
current is greatly reduced. With a high
enough initial charging current, IU charg¬
ers can achieve charging times of <5
hours. Special variants of the IU and the
W characteristic are available (e.g. Wa,
WOW, IUW). Specific requirements for
charging time, charge factor and free¬
dom from maintenance can be achieved
with these contiguous characteristics.
3) Battery charging: IU characteristic.
1 Charging voltage, 2 Charging current.
17
Alternators/
generators Alternators/generators
On-board electrical power
In orderto supply the power required for
ignition, lighting and starting motor etc.,
motor vehicles need their own efficient,
reliable and constantly available source
of energy.
Whereas, when the engine is stopped,
the battery represents the vehicle’s
energy store, the alternator is the on¬
board “electricity-generating plant”
when the engine is in operation. The
task of the alternator is to supply power
to all current-consuming loads and sys¬
tems.
Generator output, battery capacity and
power demand of all electrical loads and
systems (power converters) must be
matched to each other as ideally as
possible sothatthe entire system is reli¬
able and trouble-free in operation.
For example, the ignition system must
always be ready for operation. So too
1) The task of the alternator is to provide
rectified alternating currept for supplying
the loads or systems (power converters)
and for storage in the battery.
18
must the electric radiator fan and the
electric fuel pump. In darkness, power
must be supplied to the headlamps, in¬
strument lighting, license-plate lamps
and tail lamps. When there is poor visi¬
bility owingto fog, thefog lamps and rear
fog-warning lamps are additional loads
on the system.
When braking, the stop lamps should
light up, and when changing direction,
the turn-signal lamps should flash. The
horn and the hazard-warning system
mustsignal danger in critical situations.
In rain, the windshield wipers are also
switched on.
The blower must provide ventilation,
either for heating or cooling depending
on the season.
In winter, the heated rear window
guarantees clear vision to the rear.
During the vacation periods, it is quite
possible for a caravan to be hitched to
the vehicle together with various electri¬
cal loads.
The car radio also provides entertain¬
ment as well as, in many cases, impor¬
tant information on the current traffic
situation.
And finally, of course, the battery must
also be regularly charged. This is the
versatile task which the alternator is cal¬
led upon to perform. Millions of motor¬
ists expect their vehicle to be constantly
ready to drive and they demand trouble-
free operation of the on-board electrical
system. For many thousands of miles -
both summerand winter.
Requirements to be met
by automotive alternators
The type and construction of a vehicle
alternator are, therefore, determined by
the task of providing electrical power for
2) Power demand of current-consuming loads or systems (power converters) Alternators/
in motor vehicles (average values). generators

Alternator/generator Battery

Energy producer Energy store

r 'r Charging
vehicle 1 With
operation engine stopped

Loads or systems which Loads which are on Loads which areon

areon continuously for prolonged periods for brief periods

Ignition Car radio Turn-sig¬ Fog lamps

4 nal lamps
35...55W
4
10... 15 W 21 W each each
20 W
Side- Stop lamps Backup
marker lamp
Electric 18...21 W
lamps -4
each
fuel
pump 21 ...25 W
4 W each each
Interior
50... 70 W lamp -4
Instru¬ Wipers
ment- 5W
Electronic
gasoline panel
60...90W
injection -4 lamps Power
2 W each windows
70...100W Starting
motorfor
License- passenger
plate 150 W
cars
lamp(s) -4
800...3000W
Electric
10 Weach radiator
fan Wash-wipe
system for
Parking headlamps
lamp 200 W
4-
3... 5 W Blower
each motorfor
heating 60 W
and/or
Head¬ cooling 4-
lamps, Cigarette
lower 4 lighter
beam
80 W ►
55 Weach
100W
Heated
Head¬ rear
lamps, window 4-
Auxiliary
upper driving
beam lamps
120 W ►
60 W each
55 Weach
Rear-
Tail lamps window
wiper Supple¬
-4 mentary
brake
30...65 W lights
5 Weach
21 Weach
Hornsand
Vehicle fanfares
heater In diesel
25...40 W vehicles:
each glow plugs
20...60W for starting
►
Electric
antenna 4
60 W lOOWeach
19
Alternators/ supplying the loads (power converters)
generators and for storage in the battery.
Alternators generate alternating current,
but the car electrics work on direct cur¬
rent. Without direct current it is not poss¬
ible to charge the battery. Nor would it
be possible to operate electronic
assembliesand devices. Consequently,
the vehicle electrical system must have
DC voltage at its disposal. The require¬
ments to be met by an alternator are,
therefore, many and varied.
The most important requirements
are:
- Supplying all connected loads with
DC voltage.
- Additional power reserves for fast
charging of the battery - even when
continuous loads are switched on and
when the engine is only idling.
- Keeping the alternator voltage con¬
stant over the entire engine speed
range.
- As maintenance-free as possible in
operation.
- Rugged construction to withstand all
external loading, vibration, changes in
temperature, dirt, damp, fuel and lubri¬
cants.
- Low weight and compact dimen¬
sions.
- Low noise.
- Longlife.
20
Generation of electricity
by DC generators
The lead-acid battery customary in
motor vehicles led to the development
of the DC generator, and for a long time
this generator system was able to meet
most of the demands made of it. Conse¬
quently, the majority of motor vehicles
manufactured in past decades have
been equipped with DC generators.
Here is a summary of the main compo¬
nents of a DC generator:
- Stationary stator frame (1) with elec¬
tric terminals (3), with poleshoes (7) and
excitation winding (8).
- Commutator end shield (5) and drive
end shield (6).
- Rotating armature (2) with shaft, iron
core, laminated core, armature winding
and commutator (4).
- Pulley with fan (notshown).
- Brush holders with the carbon
brushes (9).
- Regulator (notshown).
With DC generators, it is practical to
allow the winding system to rotate and to
house the electrically excited magnet
system in the stationary housing. Thus,
the alternating current produced in the
rotating winding system can be rectified
relatively simply by mechanical means
with a so-called commutator. The direct
current thus obtained is then supplied to
 4) Construction of a DC generator.
1 Stator frame, 2 Armature, 3 Terminal, 4 Commutator, 5 Commutator end shield, 6 Drive end shield,
7 Pole shoe, 8 Excitation winding, 9 Brush holderand carbon brush.
the vehicle electrical system or to the
battery.
However, these quite typical compo¬
nents of the DC generator are at the
same time also its drawbacks:
- The possible RPM range is severely
restricted.
The allowable maximum speed must not
be exceeded since, otherwise, the com¬
mutator, due to the principle of mechani¬
cal rectification - will overheat and there
will be a considerable decrease in the
service life of the carbon brushes. The
loading on the armature winding as a re¬
sult of centrifugal forces must also be
borne in mind.
- In many cases no energy is supplied
when the engine is idling. Atthis engine
Alternators/
generators
4 5
speed, the voltage provided by the DC
generator is too low, i.e. the “charging
voltage ” necessary for battery and vehi¬
cle electrical system is not reached.
- The need for maintenance is rela¬
tively great due to the heavy wear of the
carbon brushes on the commutator.
- Raising the power output of a DC
generator involves a disproportionate
increase in dimensions and weight.
21
Alternators/ Reasons for the introduction
generators of alternators
The constantly increasing power de¬
mand, the changed traffic conditions as
well as the ever-more frequent occurr¬
ence of a number of different adverse
driving conditions simultaneously, led
to tougher requirements which the DC
generator was no longer able to meet.
The increasing power demand is at¬
tributable to the growing number of
electrical and electronic devices instal¬
led in motor vehicles. Figure 5 shows
the rise in the demand for electric
power over a number of decades.
There has also been an increase in the
proportion, of town driving involving
long waiting times with engine idling
(Figure 6). In rush hours, the proportion
is often above 50%.
Congestion due to increasing traffic
density as well as the many stops at
traffic lights result in the battery being
insufficiently charged, particularly when
there is no possibility of making up for
this deficiency through long overland
trips. Furthermore, the battery must
cover the entire power demand as long
as the generator is still unable to supply
electricity to the system (Figure 7).
5) Development of generator/alternator
output for mid-size passengercars.
1960 1980 2000
Year
22
If, in the worst possible case, these cir¬
cumstances coincide in darkness, poor
weather conditions, low temperatures
etc., the DC generator is no longer cap¬
able of providing the necessary power
under prevailing space conditions.
The development of the alternator
brought a decisive improvement in this
respect. The successful introduction of
the alternator was, however, only made
possible by the advance in semicon-
ductortechnology.
This is because the alternator itself
generates 3-phase current which must
be rectified for output. In this case by
means of rectifier diodes.
These rectifier diodes are integrated in
the alternator, and because they are to¬
tally insensitive to rotational speed and
are not subject to wear they have con¬
siderable advantages over the com¬
mutator used with the DC generator.
Thanks to its considerably wider RPM
range in contrast to the DC generator,
the alternator as a synchronous
machine is able to deliver electric
power even when the engine is idling.
Owing to the possibility of matching the
alternator speed to the engine speed
through an appropriate transmission
ratio, the battery can be kept in a good
6) Development of average proportion of
waiting times in town driving.
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year
state of charge even in winter and when
driving in town with frequent stops.
Figure 6 shows that in most cases the
DC generator only delivers power
above the idling speed of the engine,
while the alternator delivers approxi¬
mately 1/3 of its rated power output
even at idle.
The alternator is likewise much better
equipped to deal with further conditions
of stress, such as long operating times,
mechanical-dynamic influences and
high temperatures in the engine com¬
partment etc.
The first mass-produced Bosch alter¬
nators came onto the market in 1963.
Since then the alternator has become
firmly established - in passenger cars
with an alternator voltage of 14 V and in
commercial vehicles predominantly
with 28 V.
DC generators are thus a thing of the
past as far as new vehicles are con¬
cerned.
Here once again are the essential
features of the alternator:
- The alternator delivers power even at
idle. This guarantees a sufficient supply
of currentto the electrical loads.
7) Comparison of generator/alternator
current characteristics.
1 Alternator. Start of power delivery even below
idle speed.
2 DC generator. Start of power delivery often
only at speeds above idle.
Engine speed n
- Electronic rectification of the 3-phase Alternators/
current through stationary diodes. generators
Therefore, no occurrence of the prob¬
lems which can be expected at high
speed with mechanical rectification
through a commutator.
- The diodes perform the function of a
cutout relay. They isolate the alternator
from the battery and the vehicle electri¬
cal system, should the alternator vol¬
tage drop below the battery voltage.
- Alternators are considerably lighter
than DC generators since they permit
greater machine efficiency.
- Long life which is determined only by
the bearings as well as (if fitted) the car¬
bon brushes and collector rings:
In the case of alternators for passenger
cars, the service life is approximately as
long as that of the engine (approxi¬
mately 100000 km) with the result that
no maintenance is required during this
time.
In the case of alternators for commer¬
cial vehicles, relubrication facilities are
provided or use is made of bearings
with grease reserve chambers:
- Alternators can withstand external in¬
fluences, such as high temperatures,
damp, dirt and vibrations.
- Operation in either direction of rota¬
tion is readily possible as long as the
shape of the fan is adapted to the re¬
spective direction of rotation.
23
Alternators/
generators
Basic principles
Electromagnetic induction
principle
The basis for the generation of electricity
is electromagnetic “induction” (Latin in-
ducere = to introduce1) which takes
place as follows: when an electric con¬
ductor (wire or wire loop) cuts through
the lines of force of a magnetic field, a
voltage is induced in the conductor. It is
immaterial whether the magnetic field
remains stationary or whether the con¬
ductor moves.
Let us imagine that the wire loop is ro¬
tated between the north and south
poles of the magnetic field. If the ends
of the loop are now connected via col¬
lector rings and carbon brushes to a
voltmeter, it will be possible to read off
an alternating voltage owing to the con¬
stantly changing position of the loop
with respect to the poles.
If the rotation of the “rotor” is uniform,
the voltage curve will be sinusoidal.
The maximum values will occur after
each half revolution. If the circuit is
closed, an “alternating current” flows
through it (Figure 8).
b In the sense of: to introduce a conductor into the
magnetic fieid; but also to move, to bring about.
24
Furthermore, the induced voltage is all
the greater when the magnetic field is
strengthened (i.e. when the lines of
force become more densely packed)
and when the speed with which the
lines of force are cut is increased.
This phenomenon is put to work in an
alternator or generator.
How is the magnetic field
produced?
The magnetic field can be generated by
fixed permanent magnets. These have
the advantage that they are simple in
design and therefore present no great
technical problems. They are used in
small generators (e.g. bicycle dy¬
namos).
However, electromagnets are normally
used for producing the magnetic field
since they allow considerably higher
outputs.
The term electromagnetism also in¬
cludes the physical phenomenon that
current-carrying conductors or wind¬
ings are surrounded by a magnetic field
(the induction which has already been
discussed is also an effect of the inter¬
relationship between electricity and
magnetism). The strength of the elec¬
tromagnetic field results from the
number of windings and the magnitude
of the current flowing through them.
This magnetic field can be even further
strengthened with the aid of a mag¬
netizable iron core. As regards the ap¬
plication of this principle to the
generator or alternator, it is of decisive
advantage that by increasing or reduc¬
ing the (excitation) current in the (exci¬
tation) winding, it is possible to streng¬
then or weaken the magnetic field and
(indirectly) thus also to increase or re¬
duce the induced voltage.
Furthermore, after the excitation cur¬
rent is switched off, the electromagnet
in the form of the excitation winding
loses its magnetism except for a slight
residual or remanent magnetism.
If the excitation current comes from an
external source of energy, e.g. the
battery, this is known as “external exci¬
tation”. If the excitation current is
branched from the machine’s own
electric circuit, this is known as “self¬
excitation”.
In order to multiply the induction effect,
not only one wire loop is subjected to
the alternating magnetic field but,
rather, a number of loops which, in all,
produce the “winding”. On electric
machines, the overall rotating winding
system is also generally termed the
“armature”.
Principle Alternators/
of the alternator generators
Just like alternating current (single¬
phase alternating current), the genera¬
tion of 3-phase current (3-phase alter¬
nating current) in alternators also takes
place in conjunction with a rotary mo¬
tion. An advantage of 3-phase current
is that, in contrast to single-phase
alternating current, it allows more
efficient use of the alternator’s poten¬
tial.
In this case there are three identical, in¬
dependent windings (u, v, w) which are
arranged at 120° from each other.
According to the law of induction, as
the rotor rotates, sinusoidal alternating
voltages and alternating currents of
identical magnitude and frequency are
generated in the windings. Owing to
the fact that the windings are offset
from each other by 120°, the alternating
voltages produced in them are likewise
120° out-of-phase with each other and
are thus also out-of-phase as regards
time (Figure 9).
The result is a constantly recurring rota¬
tion. The resulting 3-phase alternating
current is simply known as “3-phase
current”.
In technical applications the three indi¬
vidual windings are replaced by three
25
Alternators/ winding phases each with several 10) The alternator generates 3-phase AC
generators windings. voltage.
Normally, an alternator would require 6 The phases u, v, w are connected to a rectifier
since the loads powered by the vehicle electri¬
wires for passing on the electrical
cal system require DC voltage.
energy which has been produced.
However, by interconnecting the 3 cir¬
cuits it is possible to reduce the
number of lines from 6 to 3. This joint
use of conductors is achieved by the
“star connection” and “delta connec¬
tion”.
With the star connection which has a
certain similarity with series connec¬
tion, the ends of the winding phases
are joined up to form a star point. 11) Alternator connections.
Since the sum of the 3 currents at any
one instant is always 0, it is possible to
dispense with a neutral conductor.
Conversely, the delta connection re¬
sembles a parallel connection.
In automotive alternators it has proven
advantageous to house the 3-phase
winding system with star or delta con¬
nection in the stationary housing part-
the stator (for this reason also it is also
known as the stator winding). Star connection:
The poles of the magnet with the exci¬ Alternator voltage f/and phase voltage Up
tation winding are on the rotating part- (component voltage) differ by the factor
tf3~= 1.73.Thegeneratorcurrent/isequalto
the rotor. As soon as direct current, the
the phase current Ip.
“excitation current”, flows through this The following equationsthus apply:
winding the magnetic field of the rotor is
built up. When the rotor rotates, the
magnetic field thus excited induces a 3-
U- Up■ |/3~ /=/p
phase alternating voltage in the stator
windings. This voltage provides the 3-
phase current (Figure 10).
Delta connection:
With the delta connection, the phase voltage Up
is identical to the alternator voltage U. However,
there are two types of current: the generator
current and the phase current. Accordingly, the
following equationsapply:

U=Up /= /p-/3“

/ = alternator current
Ip = phase current
U = alternator voltage
Up = phase voltage

26 The index p signifies the phases u, v, w.

Rectification of the AC
voltage
The alternator generates 3-phase AC
voltage. However, alternating current
has the disadvantage that it cannot be
stored in a battery, nor is it suitable for
supplying electronic components. To
do this, it mustfirst of all be rectified.
How is this done?
Semiconductor diodes are an important
means of trouble-free rectification. This
is why the alternator had to wait until the
introduction of the semiconductor de¬
vices before firmly establishing itself on
the market.
Bridge circuitforthe rectification
of 3-phase current
In alternators, the alternating current
produced in three winding phases is re¬
ctified in a built-in bridge circuit equip¬
ped with 6 diodes.
The operating principle of the diode in
the rectification of an alternating current
phase is shown in Figure 12.
The rectifier diode causes negative
half-waves to be suppressed and
allows through only positive half-waves
so that the result is a pulsating direct
current. This method is applied to each
of the three phases of the 3-phase cur¬
rent.
In order to make use of all half-waves,
including the suppressed negative half¬
waves, there are two diodes per phase
- one diode on the positive side (at ter¬
minal B + ) and one diode on the nega¬
tive side (atterminal B-).
This so-called “bridge circuit” with 6
diodes provides full-wave rectification.
The positive half-waves pass through
the diodes in the positive plate and the
negative half-waves through the diodes
in the negative plate and are thus rec¬
tified.
Finally, full-wave rectification causes
the addition of the positive and negative
envelope curves of the half-waves into
a rectified, slightly rippled generator
voltage (Figure 12). Even the direct cur¬
rent which the alternator supplies to the
vehicle electrical system through termi¬
nals B+ and B- when there is an elec¬ Alternators/
tric load is not ideally “smooth”, but generators
has a slight ripple. These fluctuations
are further smoothed by the battery
which is in parallel with the alternator
and any ripple in the circuit is smoothed
by capacitors.
The excitation current which has the
task of magnetizing the poles of the ex¬
citer field is tapped from the 3-phase
circuit and likewise undergoes full-
wave rectification before being supplied
to the rotor. This is done with the aid of
three diodes in the negative plate at ter¬
minal B- and three further diodes at
terminal B + , the so-called “exciter
diodes” (Figure 13).
Reverse-current block
The rectifier diodes in the alternator not
only rectify the excitation current and
the generator current, but they also
prevent the battery from discharging
through the 3-phase winding in the
stator.
When the engine is stopped or if it is
being operated at such a low speed
(e.g. cranking speed) that the alternator
is not yet self-excited, battery current
would flow through the stator winding if
the diodes were not there. With respect
to the battery current, the diodes are
polarized in the reverse direction, i.e.
the arrows of the diode assemblies
point toward positive. Thus, current can
only flow from the alternator to the
battery, but not vice versa.
Rectifier diodes
When a voltage is applied across a rec¬
tifier diode, the diode allows current to
pass only in one direction (the direction
of the arrow in the symbol indicates the
forward direction) and stops current
from flowing in the opposite direction
(reverse direction). Rectifier diodes can
be compared with a non-return valve
which allows a liquid or gaseous
medium to pass in one direction only
and prevents it from flowing back in the
other.
Diodes in the positive and negative
plate are fully identical with other 27
Alternators/ 12) Rectification of the AC voltage. 1) 3-phase AC voltage, 2) Formation of the
generators 1 Battery, 2 Excitation winding (G), 3 Stator generator voltage by the envelope curves of the
winding, 4 Rectifierdiodes. positive and negative half-waves, 3) The
rectified generatorvoltage is formed by addition
a) Diode single-wave connection for rectifica¬ of both envelope curves.
tion of single-phase AC voltage.
£/w AC voltage before the diode,
UG Pulsating DC voltage after the diode (nega¬
tive half-wave suppressed).

b) 3-phase bridge circuit for full-wave rectifica¬

tion of the positive and negative half-waves.
Up phase voltage, UG generatorvoltage.

0° 180° 360° 540° 720° 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

Degrees of rotor rotation Degrees of rotor rotation

28
13) Silicon diodes for alternators. Alternators/
Power diodes are pressed into the heatsinks ofthe rectifier bridge circuit, generators
a) Power diode, b) Exciter diode.

diodes in their operation. The differ¬ 14) Tapping-off and rectification of the
ence lies merely in their special design excitation current.
for use in an alternator. The knurled 1 Battery, 2 Excitation winding (G),
3 Stator winding, 4 Diodes in positive plate,
metal casing of the diode in the positive 5 Diodes in negative plate,
plate acts as a cathode and is pressed 6 Exciter diodes.
into the heat sink which is connected to
the positive pole of the battery; the
diode thus allows current to pass to the
battery terminal B+.
By contrast, the knurled metal casing of
the diode in the negative plate acts as
an anode and is connected via the heat
sink to ground. The leads are in each
case connected to the ends of the
stator windings (Figure 14).
Owing to the low excitation current, the
relatively small exciter diodes in the ex¬
citer circuit consume only about 1 W,
whereas the larger and higher-rated
power diodes in the charging circuit
take up to 25 W per diode.
29
Alternators/ The circuits of the alternator
generators
In an alternator there are the following
three circuits:
- Pre-excitation circuit
(External excitation by battery current)
- Excitation circuit (self-excitation)
- Generator or main circuit.
Pre-excitation circuit
When the ignition or driving switch (4) is
switched on, first of all, as shown in Fig¬
ure 16 (top), battery current (/B) flows
via the generator warning lamp (3) to
the excitation winding (d) of the rotor
and from there via the regulator (2) to
ground. In alternators with a body-
mounted regulator, the current flows
first of all through the regulator and only
then to the excitation winding (Figure
16). In this way, the battery current pre¬
excites the alternator.
Why is pre-excitation necessary in the
first place?
The reason is that, in normal alter¬
nators, the residual magnetism (rema-
nence) in the iron core of the excitation
15) Polarity and field of force of the 12-pole claw-pole rotor for an alternator, the voltage
regulator of which is mounted on the alternator itself.
In cases where the voltage regulator is mounted on the vehicle body, the polarity and field of force are
reversed.
30
winding is not sufficient at the instant of
starting or at low engine speed to cause
the self-excitation required for building
up the magnetic field and, thus, to gen¬
erate the required voltage.
In the excitation circuit of an alternator
there are a power diode (negative
diode) and an exciter diode connected
in series for each phase. Self-excitation
cannot start until the alternator has at
least overcome the voltage drop (2 x
0.7 V = 1.4 V) of these two diodes. This
is precisely what the pre-excitation cur¬
rent does. With sufficient current con¬
sumption of the generator warning
lamp, it causes a sufficiently large
magnetic field to, so to speak, help the
self-excitation to “get going”. Even
with the engine idling, the excitation
field is then so strong that the alternator
can excite itself without external excita¬
tion from the battery current and is able
to deliver power.
Generator warning lamp
The generator warning lamp (3) is in the
pre-excitation circuit and acts as a resis¬
tor when the ignition or driving switch (4)
is switched on.
16) Pre-excitation circuit.
Top: with regulator for mounting on alternator.
Bottom: with regulator for mounting on body.
1 Alternator, a) Exciter diodes, b) Diodes in
positive plate, c) Diodes in negative plate,
d) Excitation winding, 2 Regulator, 3 Generator
warning lamp, 4 Ignition switch, 5 Battery.
During cranking, with sufficient current Alternators/
flowing through the lamp, the pre-exci¬ generators
tation current causes a strong enough
magnetic field to initiate the necessary
self-excitation.
17) Excitation circuit.
Top: with regulator for mounting on alternator.
Bottom: with regulatorfor mounting on body.
1 Alternator, a) Exciter diodes, b) Diodes in
positive plate, c) Diodes in negative plate,
d) Excitation winding, 2 Regulator, 3 Generator
warning lamp, 4 Ignition switch, 5 Battery.
31
Alternators/ As a result of the potential difference be¬
generators tween the alternator and the battery, the
pre-excitation current flows from the
positive pole of the battery via the
generator warning lamp to the positive
pole of the alternator. As long as the
lamp lights up, no current is flowing in
the excitation circuit. The lamp goes out
as soon as self-excitation is initiated and
the alternator is feeding the vehicle
electrical system.
The normal ratings for generator warn¬
ing lamps are:
2 W for 12V systems,
3 W for 24 V systems.
sidual magnetism-aided by pre-excita¬
tion - induces a slight voltage in the
statorwinding.
This voltage retroactively causes a small
flow of current in the rotor winding and,
18) Alternator circuit (main circuit).
Top: with regulatorfor mounting on alternator.
Bottom: with regulatorfor mounting on body.
1 Alternator, a) Exciter diodes, b) Diodes in
positive plate, c) Diodes in negative plate,
d) Excitation winding, 2 Regulator, 3 Generator
warning lamp, 4 Ignition switch, 5 Battery.

Excitation circuit
The task of the excitation circuit is to pro¬
duce a magnetic field in the “excitation
winding” of the rotor and thus to induce
the required voltage in the 3-phase
winding of the stator throughout the en¬
tire operating time.
Since alternators are “self-excited”, the
current produced in the 3-phase wind¬
ing is tapped-off in the following manner
as shown in Figure 17 (with regulator for
mounting on alternator):
Some of the current of the phase wind¬
ings flows through the three exciter
diodes and is supplied as excitation cur¬
rent via the carbon brushes and collec¬
tor rings to the excitation winding and
the regulator (terminal DF). The further
path leads finally via terminal D-andthe
power diode (1c) back to the stator
winding. If the regulator used is for
mounting on the body, the path taken by
the current differs from the above-de¬
scribed example. After the exciter
diodes, the excitation current flows first
of all via terminal D+ to the regulator and
leaves the regulator via terminal DF. The
circuit is then completed via excitation
winding, power diodes and stator wind¬
ing.
When the alternator is in operation, no
external power source is required for
self-excitation; the alternator excites it¬
self. Self-excitation is initiated by the re¬
sidual magnetism (remanence) in the
iron core of the excitation winding.
32 When the alternator starts up, the re¬
thus, a strengthening of the magnetic
field, as a result of which the stator vol¬
tage is again increased.
This interaction is repeated continu¬
ously as the rotational speed increases
until the alternator is fully excited andthe
generator voltage is reached.
Generator circuit
The alternating voltage induced in the
three phases of the alternator must be
rectified by the power diodes in the
bridge circuit. It is then delivered to the
battery and power converters, i.e. the
generator current is divided into load
current and battery current.
The path of the generator or main cur¬
rent can be seen from Figure 18.
If, for example, we observe a rotor with 6
pole pairs at an angle of rotation of 30°
(Figure 19), at this point in time, the vol¬
tage at the end of winding v is positive,
whilst it is negative at w and zero at u (no
voltage with respect to the star point).
The path of the current is then as follows
as shown in Figure 19:
End of winding v, power diode (1 b), al¬
ternator terminal B + , battery or power
converter, ground, alternator terminal
B- (normally the alternator housing),
power diode (1 c), end of winding w, star
point.
At 45°, a current of the same intensity
flows from the ends of the windings v
and w via the associated power diodes
19) Voltage curve in the stator windings
(u, v, w) as a function of the angle of rota¬
tion of a rotor with 6 pole pairs.
(1 b) to battery and loads and then back Alternators/
to the star point via the power diode (1 c) generators
and phase u. In this case, none of the
phases is at 0 voltage.
Both examples, however, relate only to
instantaneous situations which have
been chosen at random. In reality, the
phase voltages are constantly changing
their magnitude and direction. Con¬
versely, the direct current which is sup¬
plied (atterminal B + and terminal 15) for
charging the battery and for the electri-
caHoads always maintains the same di¬
rection. This is possible because, irres¬
pective of the position of the rotor, all
diodes are simultaneously involved in
the process of rectification. For current
to flow from the alternator to the battery
(this might be compared with pumping),
the alternator voltage must be higher
than the battery voltage.
Basic construction
of an alternator
The theoretical principles discussed so
far are mirrored in the technical con¬
struction of present-day alternators.
However, it is possible for individual ver¬
sions to differ from each other in certain
details depending onthefield of applica¬
tion.
The claw-pole alternator with compact
diode assembly is currently installed in
most motor vehicles. It is therefore
taken as an example in explaining the
construction of an alternator.
The basic construction of an alternator is
determined by the following assemblies
(illustration Pages 34/35):
- Stator (6) with the 3-phase stator
winding. The stator consists of mutually
insulated, grooved laminations which
are pressed together to form a solid
laminated core. The turns of the stator
winding are embedded in the grooves.
- Rotor (7) with a shaft which carries
the magnet poles, the excitation winding
and, in most alternators, two collector
rings. The excitation winding consists of
a single circular coil which is enclosed
by the claw-pole halves.
33
Alternators/ Only a comparatively small excitation citation current to the rotating excitation
generators current is supplied via carbon brushes winding.
which are pressed against the collector - Regulator for mounting on body (not
rings. Alternators with a windingless shown). Such a regulator is mounted
rotor operate even without carbon away from the alternator at a protected
brushes or collector rings. location on the vehicle body and is con¬
- Also mounted on the rotor shaft are nected to the brush holder by means of
the pulley (9) for the belt drive and the electric plug-in connections.
fan (8) for cooling the alternator. The - Whereas regulators for mounting on
rotors in alternators can be operated in the body are connected to the brush
either direction of rotation. The direction holder by means of electric plug-in con¬
of rotation is merely laid down by the nections, regulators for mounting on the
selection of the appropriate type of fan alternator form one single unit together
for clockwise or counterclockwise rota¬ with the brush holder (5). This type of
tion. regulator is gaining in popularity.
- The stator is clamped between the
collector-ring end shield (1) and the
drive end shield (10). The rotor shaft
runs in bearings in both housing
halves.
- Rectifier (with heat sink as diode
plate) (2) with six power diodes and
three exciter diodes for converting the
3-phase current into direct current.
- Brush holder (5) with carbon brushes
which are pressed against the collector
rings of the rotor, thus supplying the ex¬

34
20) Basic construction of an alternator taking the example of a claw-pole alternator. Alternators/
1 Collector-ring end shield, 2 Rectifier, 3 Powerdiode, 4 Exciterdiode, 5 Regulator, brush holderand generators
carbon brushes, 6 Stator, 7 Rotor, 8 Fan, 9 Pulley, 10 Drive end shield.
Alternators/
generators
Voltage regulators
Why is a voltage regulator
necessary?
In our discussion of basic principles, we
have, so far, failed to deal with an impor¬
tant aspect of alternators in motor vehic¬
les: the voltage regulator.
The regulator has the task of keeping
the generator voltage constant over the
entire engine-speed range irrespective
of the load on the alternator or its rota¬
tional speed.
Automatic regulation of the voltage is no
easy task because the variations in the
speed of the engine and the fluctuations
in the connected loads are consider¬
able. Despite these constantly changing
operating conditions, it must be ensured
that, at high engine speeds and with low
electrical loading due to loads, the vol¬
tage is limited to a set value. This pro¬
tects the loads against over-voltage and
prevents the battery from being over¬
charged.
36
In addition, the electro-chemical proper¬
ties of the battery must be taken into
account when it is being charged.
Therefore, the charging voltage must be
higher in cold weather than in warm
weather. The voltage regulator allocated
to each alternator ensures that this re¬
quirement is complied with. A distinction
is made between regulators for mount¬
ing directly on the alternator and those
for mounting on the vehicle body.
Principle of voltage
regulation
The voltage generated in an alternator
increases along with its rotational speed
and also the strength of the excitation
current. If an alternator were operated
with constant full excitation without
loads and without battery, the voltage
would rise linearly with the rotational
speed and, for example, at 10000 min-1,
would be approximately 140 V.
The principle of voltage regulation is
based on regulating the excitation cur¬
rent-and thus the excitation field in the
22) Diagram of a single-element single¬
contact regulator.
1 Regulator, 2 Alternator, 3 Electromagnet,
4 Regulating contact, 5 Regulating resistor,
6 Excitation winding (G).
rotor of the alternator - as a function of
the voltage generated in the alternator.
The generator terminal voltage UG (be¬
tween terminals B+ and B-) is thus
kept constant despite changing engine
speed and variations in electrical load¬
ing up to the maximum current. Vehicle
electrical systems with 12 V battery vol¬
tage are regulated in the 14 V tolerance
range, those with 24 V battery voltage
in the 28 V tolerance range. As long as
the voltage generated by the alternator
remains below the regulated voltage,
the regulator is not in operation.
When the voltage exceeds the toler¬
ance range, the regulator reduces it,
depending on the load on the alter¬
nator, by interrupting the excitation cur¬
rent. The excitation of the alternator
then decreases, and so too does its
voltage.
When the voltage then drops below the
set value, the excitation of the alter¬
nator is increased again by the reg¬
ulator and its voltage rises until the set
value is exceeded again. The cycle
then begins anew.
This all takes place so fast (in a matter of
milliseconds) that the generator vol¬
tage is regulated to the required mean
value.
23) Diagram of a single-element double¬ Alternators/
contact regulator. generators
1 Regulator, 2 Alternator, 3 Electromagnet,
4 Regulating resistor, 5 Regulating contact,
6 Excitation winding (G).
Stepless adaption to the various rota¬
tional speeds is automatic. At low
speed, the excitation current is allowed
to flow for a relatively long time and is
reduced only briefly; its mean value 7m1
is high. Conversely, at high speed, the
excitation current flows only briefly and
is reduced for a comparatively long
time. In this case, its mean value Im2 is
low.
The alternator is therefore regulated by
the periodic switching on and off of the
excitation voltage. This is expressed by
the saw-tooth nature of the excitation
current curve (Figure 25). The relation¬
ship between the on and off times is
decisive with regard to the magnitude
of the mean excitation current.
But, with all this switching on and off,
why does the excitation current not
undergo abrupt increases and de¬
creases?
This is because the excitation winding
of the alternator represents a high in¬
ductive load. When it is switched on,
the current increases gradually in the
on-time Ton along with the build-up of
the magnetic field. When it is switched
off, the excitation current decays
during off-time T0ff along with the de¬
cay of the magnetic field (the time 37
Alternators/ 24) Single-element double-contact regulator open.
generators 1 Suppressor, 2 Armature, 3 Electromagnet, 4 Regulating contact for high excitation currents,
5 Regulating contact for low excitation currents.
curve of the decay current is identified
as zA).
Whereas the regulator for DC
generators fulfills three functions,
namely voltage regulator, current-limi¬
tation regulator and cutout relay, the
considerably more simple regulator for
alternators requires only one element
for regulating the voltage.
The function of the cutout relay is fulfil¬
led by the diodes. Current limitation is
likewise unnecessary since the arma¬
ture reaction limits the maximum cur¬
rent permissible for full load. A “low”
voltage is also induced in the armature
winding (excitation winding) and this
counteracts the resultant generator
voltage.
38
Electromagnetic
vibrating-type regulators
Vibrating-type regulators which were
subsequently superseded by transistor
regulators were fitted in older vehicles.
Vibrating-type regulators regulate the
generator voltage by electro-mechani¬
cal means.
The excitation current is varied alter¬
nately by the opening and closing of a
moving contact which is pressed by a
spring against a fixed contact. When the
rated voltage is exceeded, the contact is
lifted off by an electromagnet. This relay
switches as a function of the generator
voltage.
The size and characteristics of vibrating-
type regulators only allow them to be
mounted on the vehicle body.
The vibrating-type regulators used for
alternators are of the single-element
type, i.e. regulators with one voltage-
regulator unit consisting of electromag¬
net, armature and regulating contact.
In the single-element single-contact tation winding are connected in series Alternators/
regulator (Figure 22), the contacts are and, therefore, reduce the excitation generators
opened and closed in the following current. In position (c), the excitation
manner: winding is short-circuited; the excitation
The regulator armature is exposed both current is almost zero.
to the magnetic force (of the magnetic Through the use of appropriate com¬
core) as well as to the force of a suspen¬ pensating resistors, the vibrating-type
sion and adjusting spring. regulator is also temperature-compen¬
As soon as the generator voltage ex¬ sated, so that, with rising ambient tem¬
ceeds the set value, the magnetic force peratures, the regulated voltage de¬
of the electromagnet pulls in the arma¬ creases and overcharging of the battery
ture and opens the contact (position b). is prevented. At low temperatures, the
This switches a resistor into the excita¬ regulated voltage rises in order to
tion circuit which results in a reduction of guarantee sufficient charging of the
the excitation current and, thus, adropin battery.
the generator voltage.
When the generator voltage drops be¬
low the set voltage, the magnetic force
decreases. The force of the spring pre¬
dominates and closes the contact again
(position a).
This cycle is repeated continuously.
The single-element double-contact reg¬
ulator (Figure 24) employs a second pair
of contacts with which three switching
positions are possible:
In position (a) (Figure 23), by bypassing
the regulating resistor, it is possible for a
high excitation current to flow. In posi¬
tion (b) the regulating resistor and exci¬

25) Excitation current /exc as a function of on-time Ton and off-time roff.
The relationship between on-time and off-time is decisive with regard to the magnitude of the result¬
ing mean excitation current/m. The excitation current rises along curve a and decays (decay current
iA) along curve b.

Condition at speed n-j Condition at speed n2

Regulator
WTT WIT TTlTTT ii i ii 11 i m 111
On Off On Off On Off On Off On
.min. .min. .mm ... mini liiiiin

o
X 'max
01 'max

c
CD

T,cm2 -TrOff 2
o
c
o
to
-*—* /
X
o /
T,off 1 -T(om

0
0
Time/

39
Alternators/ Transistor regulators tem. The brush holder and regulator to-
generators getherform one unit.
Increased demands in terms of service
life, regulating accuracy and freedom EE regulators are manufactured in large
from maintenance have led to the de¬ numbers and are part of the standard
velopment of the transistor regulator original equipment program for
which has neither contacts nor any other passenger cars and commercial vehic¬
moving parts. Owing to its compact di¬ les.
mensions, low weight and insensitivity Body-mounted regulators are now only
to vibration, this regulator can even be used for alternators with high excitation
mounted directly on the alternator. The currents or where there are special re¬
advantages of the transistor regulator quirements.
are so significant that is has become an
item of standard equipment in conjunc¬ Important semiconductor devices
tion with alternators (Figure 26). in the transistor regulator
Particularly important semiconductor
What are the advantages offered devices in the transistor regulator are
by transistor regulators? transistors and Zener diodes.
The advantages of the transistor reg¬
ulator are attributable to the semicon¬ Transistor
ductor devices which are installed in the The transistor has the function of a
form of single (discrete) and in some switch which switches the excitation
cases integrated components on a small current on and off in rapid sequence.
printed-circuit board, thus forming a The transistor has many advantages
simple, reliable unit. The most important over the mechanical switch in the vibrat-
components are transistors and Zener ing-type regulator:
diode. It can switch far higher currents quietly
The essential advantages of the break¬ and almost instantaneously because
erless transistor regulators: there are no mechanical parts to be
- Shorter switching times permit moved. Furthermore, it is maintenance-
narrow regulation tolerances,
- no wear and thus maintenance-free, 26) Alternator type K1 (1) with integral
transistor regulator type EE 14V3 (2).
- high switching currents allow a re¬
duction in the number oftypes,
- spark-free switching prevents radio
interference,
- insensitive to shock, vibration and 1
climatic effects; therefore high reliability
and low failure rate,
- electronic temperature compen¬
sation also guarantees narrow regula¬
tion tolerances,
- compact construction permits
mounting on the alternator; connecting
cables are therefore not necessary.
The reduced number of regulator types
also facilitates stock-keeping for the re¬
tailer because many of the former vibrat-
ing-type regulators have been replaced
byjustafewtransistor regulators.
Bosch has developed types EE 14V3 for
12 V vehicle electrical systems and EE
40 28V3 for the 24 V vehicle electrical sys¬
27) Transistor regulator type EE 14V3 as unit with brush holder (without protective cap).
1 Carbon brushes, 2 Brush holder, 3 Pressure contact, 4 Printed-circuit board with conductors and
soldered joints, 5 Control stage, 6 Power stage, 7 Diodes, 8 Resistors on ceramic plate, 9 Capacitor.
free, weighs very little and is very com¬
pact.
In this way, the transistor acts as a
switch with two working phases “on”
and “off”.
Zenerdiode
The Zener diode, named after its inven¬
tor, is a special type of diode.
Semiconductor diodes do not form an
absolute barrier in the reverse direction.
When the breakdown voltage is ex¬
ceeded, the breakdown current rises
suddenly and steeply. If this breakdown
current is excessive, the diode is des¬
troyed owing to the sharp rise in temper¬
ature. This situation is remedied by the
use of the Zener diode. Zener diodes
are installed in the regulator for control¬
ling the transistors.
Alternators/
generators
Construction and operating
principle of the transistor regulator
Transistor regulator type EE 14V3 for
mounting on the alternator is to serve as
an example for describing the construc¬
tion and operating principle of the trans¬
istor regulator. This model is currently
the most frequently used type of regu¬
lator in passenger cars and trucks
(Figure 27).
The most important part of the regulator
is formed by the two integrated assemb¬
lies:
TWZ (transistor T1 - resistor R4 - Zener
diode ZD) as control stage and
TWT (transistor T2 - resistor R5 - trans¬
istor T3) as power stage.
All other resistors are accommodated
on a ceramic plate using thick-film
techniques. Diodes and capacitors are
intheform of single components.
This construction is simple and reliable.
Figures 28 and 29 with the simplified cir¬
cuit diagrams show what happens in a
transistor regulator when the excitation
current is switched “on” and “off”.
The mode of operation becomes clear
when one considers what happens as 41
Alternators/ the alternator terminal voltage rises and
generators falls:
The actual value of the alternator voltage
between terminals D+ and D- is de¬
tected by a voltage divider which is
formed by resistors R1, R2 and R3.
Connected in parallel with R3 is a Zener
diode which acts as the setpoint
generator of the regulator. Constantly
applied to this diode is a partial voltage
which is proportional to the alternator
voltage.
Condition “on” (Figure 28)
As long as the actual value is below the
set value for the alternator voltage, and
the breakdown voltage of the Zener
diode is not yet reached, no current
flows through the branch of the circuit
containing the Zener diode. Nor, for this
reason, can any current reach the base
of transistor T1. T1 is, like the Zener
diode, in the non-conducting state.
With transistorTI in the non-conducting
state, however, control current can flow
from the exciter diodes and terminal D+
via resistor R6 to the base of transistor
T2 and switch it on. Transistor T2 now
makes the connection between terminal
DF and the base of T3. Therefore, if T2
conducts, so too does T3. The excitation
current /exc- now flows through T3 and
the excitation winding and increases
during the on-time, causing the alter¬
nator voltage UG to rise. At the same
time, there is also a rise in the voltage
across the voltage divider and the
Zenerdiode.
Condition “off” (Figure 29)
When the alternator voltage finally ex¬
ceeds the set value, the Zener diode
starts to conduct when the breakdown
voltage is reached. Current now flows
from D+ via R1, R2, D4 and ZD to the
base of transistorTI which now likewise
conducts. The result is that the voltage
at the base of T2 drops to approximately
zero with respect to the emitter and the
base current stops flowing. The two
transistors T2 and T3 which are con¬
nected in the so-called “ Darlington ” cir¬
42 cuit are blocked. The excitation circuit is
thus interrupted, the excitation of the al¬
ternator is suppressed and the alter¬
nator voltage drops again. The interrup¬
tion of the excitation current would now
lead, as a result of the self-induction of
the excitation winding (stored magnetic
energy) to a voltage peak which might
destroy transistors T2 and T3. To pre-
ventthis, the decaying excitation current
iA is discharged via the “free-wheeling
diode” D3 which is connected in par¬
allel with the excitation winding.
As soon as the alternator voltage has
dropped below the set value and the
Zener diode has returned to the non¬
conducting state, the excitation current
is switched on again.
This cycle in which the excitation wind¬
ing is alternately supplied with the alter¬
nator voltage, or is short-circuited
through the free-wheeling diode, is re¬
peated in periodic sequence. The on/
off ratio depends essentially on the ro¬
tational speed of the alternator and on
the load current.
The capacitor C smooths the rippled
DC alternator voltage. Resistor R7 en¬
sures fast, precise switching of transis¬
tors T2 and T3 and also reduces the
switching losses.
Although the various versions of reg¬
ulator may differ in appearance and in
their circuitry, their operating principle
is basically always the same. For exam¬
ple, there are regulators for high excita¬
tion currents which are fitted in a spe¬
cial housing for mounting on the body,
and are provided with cooling ribs for
heat dissipation.
Influence of ambient
temperature
The most important task of a regulator is
to match the vehicle electrical system
voltage to the requirements of the sys¬
tem, and to keep the voltage constant
irrespective of speed and loading. This
requirement can only be met fully if
account is also taken of the influence of
the ambient temperature. For example,
the charging voltage must be higher in
cold weather than in hot weather.
28) Circuit diagram of attached-type transistor regulator type EE 14V3. Alternators/
Excitation current switched generators
on by T3.
1 Output stage
2 Control stage
3 Voltage divider
4 Temperature-
compensation diodes
C Capacitor for voltage
smoothing
D3 Free-wheeling diode
I | Integrated
components

29) Circuit diagram of attached-type transistor regulator type EE 14V3.

Excitation current switched
off by T3.
Decay current z'A through
free-wheeling diode D3.
1 Output stage
2 Control stage
3 Voltage divider
4 Temperature-
compensation diodes
C Capacitorfor
voltage smoothing
D3 Free-wheeling diode
I | Integrated
components

30)Circuitdiagram of an alternator with hybrid regulatortype EL.

1 Thick-film substrate

and resistors
2 Power stage TWT
3 Free-wheeling diode
I | Integrated
components

43
Alternators/ 31) Regulator characteristic for 14 V
generators alternator voltage.
Permissible tolerance range of the alternator
voltage Uas a function of the intake air
temperature #Aatthe regulator.
Measurement conditions in the example:
n = 6000 min-1,1=5 A,
Measuring time t = 1 min.
-30 0 +30 +60
Temperature §A
Therefore, the transistor regulator is
provided with electronic temperature
compensation.
In the heat of summer, the regulated
voltage is slightly reduced so that the
water losses of the battery remain within
limits. Conversely, in the winter, the
battery needs a slightly higher charging
voltage whereby the voltage-dependent
life of the bulbs must be borne in mind.
Temperature compensation is achieved
through a suitable choice of the Zener
diode, the resistors and the diodes D1
and D2 which are connected in the for¬
ward direction. Figure 31 shows a
characteristic curve with the permissible
tolerance range of the generator voltage
as a function of intake air temperature
and under precisely defined measure¬
ment conditions.
Hybrid regulators
The use of hybrid techniques involves
the compact arrangement on a Figure 32 the construction of hybrid reg¬
ceramic plate of interconnected
discrete components, such as resis¬
tors, capacitors etc., using film techni¬
ques, and active components such as
44 transistors and integrated circuits
32) Hybrid regulator.
1 1C control stage, 2 Power stage TWT,
3 Series resistors, 4 Free-wheeling diode,
5 Electricterminal leads.
°C
(ICs).
In addition to the advantage of compact
construction, this offers the further be¬
nefit of reducing the number of connec¬
tions (e.g. soldered joints).
The hybrid regulator is a further de¬
velopment of the transistor regulator.
The heart of the hybrid regulator is an in¬
tegrated circuit (1C) which combines all
the control functions, i.e. comparison of
set values and actual values, tempera¬
ture compensation etc., as well as the
triggering of the output stage. This
technique makes it possible to minimize
the number of components and internal
connections. This results in the follow¬
ing characteristic features:
- Compact construction, very small
housing dimensions,
- Few components and connections,
making for high production integrity,
- High reliability under extreme operat¬
ing conditions.
Figure 30 shows the circuit diagram and
ulator type EL 14V4. All components are
arranged in a sturdy metal housing
which is filled with protective gas. The
electric leads are brought out through
glass-insulated metal pins. The power
components of the output stage (Dar¬
lington transistor and free-wheeling
diodes) are attached directly to the steel
plate and this provides good heat dissi¬
pation. The integrated circuit and resis¬
tors are arranged on a small ceramic
substrate using thick-film techniques.
As with regulator type EE, in this case
the regulator is also mounted on a
made-to-fit brush holder and fastened
directly to the alternator without any
wiring.
External temperature sensor
In order to permit adequate charging
current to be supplied continually to the
battery, the EL regulator may also be ad¬
ditionally connected to a special outside
temperature sensor. This temperature
sensor measures the temperature of the
battery at its base. It contains a semicon¬
ductor circuit which utilizes the physical
properties of diodes. The forward
characteristic of the diode changes with
temperature. Low battery temperatures
require a higher charging voltage for re¬
33) Table of transistor regulators,
also showing which alternator sizes they can be used with.
Regulatortype EE
Regulator mounting Alternator-mounted
For use with alternator size G1.K1.N1
Figure (1)
charging the battery whilst the charging Alternators/
voltage must be reduced with increas¬ generators
ing battery temperature in order to pre¬
vent gassing in the battery.
The regulator still contains its own temp¬
erature sensor. Since the temperature
of the regulator is higher than that of the
battery, this causes the voltage and
temperature conditions to change. In
this case, the regulator must allow for
two different voltage and temperature
curves: one for the regulator tempera¬
ture and oneforthe battery temperature.
The higher the temperature at the
battery, the lower will be the regulated
voltage.
A logic circuit in the regulator also de¬
tects if the temperature sensor lead has
become detached or has a short circuit.
Itthen switches over to an internal temp¬
erature sensor, thus maintaining a nor¬
mal regulator function with negative
temperature coefficient.
EL EF ED
Body-mounted
G1,K1,N1
(2) (3)
45
Alternators/
generators
Over-voltage
protection
With a correctly connected battery, it is
not usually necessary under normal
driving conditions to provide additional
protection for the electronic compo¬
nents used in modern vehicles. The
very low internal resistance of the
battery damps all voltage peaks occur¬
ring in the vehicle electrical system.
Over-voltage protection is often a sens¬
ible, preventive measure against abnor¬
mal operating conditions or malfunc¬
tions in the vehicle electrical system.
Reasons for over-voltage
and the consequences of
over-voltage
Firstly, over-voltage may occur in the
vehicle electrical system as a result of
regulator failure, the influence of the ig¬
nition, switching off of loads with predo¬
minantly inductive loading (electric-
motor drives), loose contacts and
breaks in cables. It is frequently a ques¬
tion of so-called “voltage peaks”, i.e.
over-voltages which last only a matter of
milliseconds. The highest voltage peaks
stem from the coil ignition systems and
may reach approximately 350 V.
Secondly, voltage peaks also occur if,
with the engine running, the connection
between alternator and battery is in¬
terrupted (starting with another battery
which is outside the vehicle or discon¬
necting the vehicle battery by mistake)
and loads are switched. To prevent
dangerous voltage peaks, a vehicle al¬
ternator must not, under normal driving
conditions, be operated without a
battery.
In certain situations, however, brief op¬
eration or emergency operation without
a battery must be expected which
necessitates over-voltage protection.
This applies to following circumstances:
- Driving away of newly manufactured
vehicles from the final assembly line to
46 the parking ground without battery.
- Loading onto a train or ship without
battery (the battery is not installed until
just before the vehicle is delivered to the
customer).
- During service work etc.
- Also with tractors etc., occasional op¬
eration without battery cannot (always)
be avoided.
Without special protective measures,
voltage peaks are a source of danger
mainly to semiconductor devices such
as diodes, transistors and thyristors in
alternator, regulator or, for example, in
electronically-controlled gasoline-injec¬
tion systems.
Over-voltages cause electric punctures
in the thin semiconductor and insulating
films and, as a result, these components
are adversely affected in their operation
orfail completely.
Adequate protection against over-vol¬
tage requires additional circuitry or the
connection of a protection device.
Over-voltage protection
in the 12V vehicle electrical
system
The Zener diode offers simple, low-
cost, yet very effective over-voltage
protection for the electronic compo¬
nents in the alternator. As shown in Fig¬
ure 34, the Zener diode is connected
between terminal B+ and ground in the
reverse direction to the battery voltage
and, due to its properties, limits the vol¬
tage. The response voltage is between
20 and 24 V in 12 V systems. The vol¬
tage is thus limited to about 30 V. A
further reduction in voltage limitation is
not practical since this would adversely
affect the operation of the regulator.
As long as there is over-voltage in the
vehicle electrical system, current 7Z
flows through the conducting Zener
diode to ground (Figure 34).
The Zener diode, suitable for alter¬
nators up to 35 A rated current, can also
be retrofitted. As shown in Figure 35, it
is screwed onto the mounting hole for
the suppression capacitor on the out¬
side of the collector-ring end shield.
Located in this position, the Zener
 34) Protective circuits in 12 V vehicle
electrical system.
1 Alternator, 2 Regulator, 3 Capacitoralsofor
intensified interference suppression. When Z-
diode (4) responds, breakdown current /z flows.
35) Installation of the Zener diode (1) on the
alternator with integrated transistor regulator.
diode is cooled by the intake flow of the
cooling air. The cathode terminal leads
via the connecting lead to terminal B + .
Further protection is offered by using
semiconductor devices of higher elec¬
tric strengths up to 400 V in alternator
and regulator. In addition, a capacitor is
connected between B + and ground
(also for intensified interference sup¬
pression- Figure 34).
Alternators and regulators with high
electric strength only offer self-protec¬
tion, i.e. they do not afford any protec¬ Alternators/
tion to other voltage-sensitive loads. generators
Over-voltage protection in
the 24 V vehicle electrical
system
In the 24 V vehicle electrical system, in
addition to diodes of higher electric
strength, electric over-voltage protec¬
tion devices offer adequate protection
against voltage peaks and over-voltages
from the alternator. They also provide
protection against the effects of these
peaks on the semiconductor devices in
alternator, regulator and electrical
-equipment.
Apart from diodes and transistors, the
thyristor is a further important semicon¬
ductor device in such protection de¬
vices.
In the over-voltage protection device,
the thyristor is triggered by a voltage
peak or an over-voltage. The thyristor
cannot be extinguished again until cur¬
rent ceases to flow in it, i.e. until the en¬
gine is stopped and the ignition and
starting switch has been switched off.
Over-voltage protection device
with automatic cut-out
The protection device which is suitable
for G1, K1 and N1 alternators is
accommodated together with a transis¬
tor regulator in a common housing for
body mounting.
Figure 36 shows the circuit diagram of
such acombined unit.
This automatic protection device re¬
sponds to correspondingly high voltage
peaks or over-voltages. The automatic
cut-out circuit, comprising the current
relay S and a parallel contact, then extin¬
guishes the thyristor.
After the response voltage has been ex¬
ceeded and after the response time (ap¬
proximately 0.5 ms), the thyristor Th is
triggered via Zener diode ZD which acts
as the setpoint generator, transistor T
and resistor R1. The thyristor now con¬
ducts and causes short-circuit current to
flow from terminal D+ via the relay
winding to terminal D-. Voltage peaks 47
Alternators/ lasting for less than the response time
generators are absorbed by capacitor C2 and do not
lead to triggering of the thyristor. This
provides reliable protection against
over-voltage for both alternator and reg¬
ulator while, at the same time, the pro¬
tection device does not switch too fre¬
quently.
With a further short delay, the relay con¬
tact closes and the short-circuit current
now bypasses the thyristor. The thyris¬
tor therefore now returns to its non-con¬
ducting state. The relay does not open
again until the alternator current in the
relay winding (i.e. the short-circuit cur¬
rent of the alternator) has dropped to ap¬
proximately 3 A. Thus, the alternator
short-circuit is automatically removed.
The alternator can excite itself again in¬
sofar as the load is nottoo high. The pro¬
tection device is once again ready to re¬
spond.
In the past, despite over-voltage pro¬
tection, there have been repeated
failures of alternators and regulators,
accompanied by a “boiling dry” of the
battery. The cause of such damage was
confusion of the leads to terminals D +
and D- on the protection device during
installation or after repair. A device
which is incorrectly connected in this
way provides no over-voltage protec¬
tion. With the normal connection con¬
48
figuration of the generator warning
lamp, this fault is not indicated, and
therefore not noticed. To increase
safety, therefore, a safety diode DS is
connected between terminals D+ and
D-. This diode is housed in the regu¬
lator as shown in Figure 36. When the
leads are confused, this diode is
polarized in the forward direction; the
lamp lights up continuously irrespective
of whether the alternator is delivering
power or not.
Further conceivable sources of trouble,
such as false connection of the vehicle
battery which occur in practice only in
exceptional cases can only be safe¬
guarded against with elaborate relay
circuits. Such circuits ensure that the
alternator is only switched in if the
battery has the correct polarity.
Protective circuits of this kind are not
manufactured as standard and must be
matched to the respective application.
Free-wheeling diode
The “free-wheeling” or “decay diode”
has already been referred to in the
functional description of transistor
regulators. When switching to “off”
condition, a voltage peak is generated
in the excitation winding as a result of
self-induction when the excitation cur-
rent is interrupted. If no preventive ac¬
tion is taken, this might damage sensi¬
tive semiconductor devices. In order to
offer effective protection against this, a
free-wheeling diode is connected in the
regulator in parallel with the excitation
winding. This permits the decay of the
residual current without any negative
consequences on sensitive loads.
On vehicles which are equipped with
further inductive loads (devices with
windings) located away from the alter¬
nator-regulator, a similar effect can
occur. Thus, switching off of elec¬
tromagnetic door-closing valves, con¬
37) View of over-voltage protection device with automatic cut-in, combined with
ED regulatorfor vehicle-body mounting.
trol relays, magnetic clutches, motor Alternators/
drives, relays, and running-down of the generators
fan etc. leads to high voltage peaks in
the windings of such equipment as a
result of self-induction, and these vol¬
tage peaks are a source of danger to
diodes and other semiconductor de¬
vices.
These induced voltages can be ren¬
dered harmless by a free-wheeling
diode which is additionally connected in
the vehicle electrical system.
49
Alternators/
generators
Characteristic
curves
Characteristic curves show the current
produced by an alternator at various
rotational speeds.
Motor vehicle alternators operate at
greatly differing speeds as a result of
the constant transmission ratio be¬
tween alternator and engine.
As the engine takes the alternator from
rest up to maximum speed, the alterna¬
tor passes through certain speeds
which each have a specific name and
are of particular importance with regard
to an understanding of the alternator.
It is therefore usual to plot the
characteristic curves for power input
and alternator current as a function of
speed (Figure 38).
The characteristic curves of an alterna¬
tor are always based on precisely defi¬
38) Characteristic curves of alternator type N1.
50
ned temperature conditions and con¬
stant alternator voltage.
Current characteristic curve (I)
ne Minimum speed
The minimum speed n0 (approximately
1000 min-1) is the so-called 0-Ampere
speed at which the alternator reaches
the rated voltage. The alternator can
only deliver power at higher speeds.
nL Speed when engine idling
/(_ Current when engine idling
As the speed increases, the alternator
reaches the speed nL when the engine
is idling. In the graph, this speed is
given as a band because the precise
value depends on the transmission
ratio between engine and alternator. At
this speed, the alternator must at least
deliver the current for the prolonged
loads (approximately corresponds to
kW
3
CL
C
4 v_
CD
$
O
Q.
the type-code value at 1500 min-1). As
a rule, the alternator is dimensioned
such that I\_ is greater than the neces¬
sary current by a factor of 1.1...1.4,
depending on the type of vehicle and
the application.
n2/3 Speed at 2/3 rated current
Before 1983, the speed n2/3 was given
in hundreds in the type code (e.g. 25
= 2500 min-1). At this speed, 2/3 of
the rated current /N is reached. This
point on the characteristic curve is
used exclusively to describe the curve
shape (steep or gradual rise).
In various types of alternator, the
speed n\_ is identical with n2/3 for a
given transmission ratio; current IL is
therefore also identical with 2/3/N.
Speed at rated current
/N Rated current
The next important point is the alterna¬
tor speed «N at which the alternator
can deliver the rated current /N (also
contained in the type code). The value
should always be higher than the total
current required by all loads together.
39) Example of a type code as from early 1983.
K 1 () 14V 23/55 A
\ Current at n - 1500 min-1
\ Alternator voltage in volts
«max Maximum speed Alternators/
/max Maximum current generators
/max is the maximum obtainable cur¬
rent at the maximum alternator speed
«max- The maximum alternator speed is
limited by the rolling bearings and the
carbon brushes as well as the fan. It is
between 10000 and 15000 min-1, and
is even higher for special versions.
Characteristic curve of power input
(P)
The characteristic curve of the power
input is decisive for the calculation of
the drive belt. This curve provides infor¬
mation on the maximum power which
must be produced by the vehicle en¬
gine to drive the alternator at a given
speed. The example in Figure 38
shows that, after a gradual rise in the
medium-speed range, the curve rises
again considerably at high speed.
Explanation of the type code
Each alternator has a nameplate which,
in addition to the ten-digit part number
which always starts with 012...., also
contains information on the most im¬
portant technical data.
Rated current in A
measured at n = 6000 min-1
Direction of rotation
(—») or R clockwise rotation
(<—) or L counterclockwise rotation
(—) or RL clock- or counterclockwise rotation
1 Claw-pole alternator
2 Salient-pole alternator
3 Alternator with windingless rotor
Stator O.D.
G 100...109 mm
K 120...129 mm
N 130...139 mm
T170..,199mm
U above 200 mm
51
Alternators/
generators
Versions of
alternator
Design criteria
The following criteria are decisive with
regard to the design of alternators:
- Vehicle type and the associated
working conditions,
- Size, type and rpm range of the
engine with which the alternator is to be
used,
- Voltage of the vehicle electrical sys¬
tem,
- Power requirement of the connected
devices or systems (loads),
- Environmental influences (heat, dirt,
damp, vibration etc.),
- Specified service life,
- Available installation space.
The requirements to be met by an
alternator can, therefore, differ quite
considerably depending on the applica¬
tion. The criteria with regard to econ¬
omy also change with the field of appli¬
cation. It is not, therefore, possible to
have an all-purpose alternator which
meets all requirements.
These considerations led to the devel¬
opment of different types of alternator
which, with their wide variety of models,
provide users with a suitable selection
to chose from.
Electrical data and sizes
The selection of a specific alternator is
governed primarily by
- the generator voltage (14 V, 28 V),
- the rated/maximum current and
- the possible power output which
results from multiplying the current by
the voltage.
With these electrical data, it is possible
to determine the electrical layout and,
thus, the required size of alternator.
The different sizes are each identified
by a letter of the alphabet. The sizes
increase in alphabetical order. In addi¬
52 tion to the size, a further principal
feature is the rotor system (claw-pole,
salient-pole or windingless rotor). This
is identified by code numbers.
Apart from the important electrical
characteristics, an alternator is thus
specified by size and rotor system
together with the design features such
as diameter and length etc. This then
results, for example, in the number and
letter combinations G1, K1, N1, (N3,
T1, T2, T3 and U2 specifically for
buses, commercial vehicles and spe¬
cial-purpose vehicles with diesel en¬
gine, U3 for rail vehicles). Further pos¬
sible variations are the type of mount¬
ing, shape of fan, pulley, bearings,
electrical connections, regulator and
additional variants.
Basic versions
Different basic versions of alternator
have been developed in line with the
service conditions and power ranges of
the various vehicle types and their
engines. The related versions for
spark-ignition engines are described in
detail below.
Claw-pole alternators
with collector rings
Claw-pole alternators with collector
rings offer compact construction with
favorable power characteristics and low
weight. The spectrum of possible appli¬
cations is correspondingly wide.
Application
Claw-pole alternators with collector
rings are particularly suitable for a large
number of applications in passenger
cars, commercial vehicles and tractors
etc. Vehicles with spark-ignition en¬
gines are virtually all equipped with
types G1, K1 and N1.
Features
For a given ratio of length to diameter,
coupled with a low outlay on materials,
a maximum of electric power is
achieved. This results in the compact
form which is typical of this type of
alternator; the diameter is large and the
length is short. This form also permits
good heat dissipation. The name
“claw-pole alternator” comes from the
shape of the rotor. Located on the rotor
shaft is the pole wheel which consists
of the two oppositely poled pole halves.
Their claw-shaped pole fingers inter¬
mesh in the form of north and south
poles. They cover the toroidal excitation
winding which is situated on the pole
body between the two claw-pole halves
(Figure 40).
The possible number of poles is limi¬
ted, A low number of poles results in
low machine efficiency whereas a
higher number would lead to excessive
magnetic leakage. For this reason,
these alternators are in the form of 12,
14 or 16-pole machines depending on
the power range.
Operating principle
Figure 42 shows an alternator of type
K1 whose pole wheel is formed by a
total of 12 poles (6 north and 6 south
poles = 6 pole pairs). The magnetic
flux flows through the pole body, the
left-hand pole half and its pole fingers,
over the air gap to the stationary lami¬
nated stator core with the stator winding
and through the right-hand pole-wheel
half back to the pole body, thereby
completing the magnetic circuit. As the
rotor rotates, this force field (field for
short) cuts the three phases of the
stationary stator winding, as a result of
which there are 12 pole passes in one
revolution (360°).
40) Parts of a 12-pole claw-pole rotor
(6 north and 6 south poles).
The polarization shown applies to alternator
versions with integral regulator.
Each pole pass induces a voltage half¬ Alternators/
wave which is alternately positive and generators
negative. Consequently, in one revolu¬
tion of the rotor, there are 12 x 3 = 36
voltage half-waves in the three phases
of the stator, i.e. six sinusoidal waves
per revolution of the pole half in each
phase.
Construction
Claw-pole alternators with collector
rings are built with compact diode as¬
semblies. The stator core is not accom¬
modated in a cylindrical housing, but is
clamped between the drive end shield
and the collector-ring end shield. The
rotor is also held in these two housing
parts in two rolling bearings. The fan
and the pulley are mounted on the rotor
shaft on the drive end side.
The excitation winding receives the
excitation current through the carbon
brushes. These are accommodated in
the collector-ring end shield and are
pressed against the collector rings by
springs.
In the heat sinks of the collector-ring
end shield, there are usually 6 power
diodes for rectifying the phase currents.
In addition, there are 3 exciter diodes
for rectifying the excitation current. In
most cases, the transistor regulator is
integral with the brush holder and is
mounted directly on the end face of the
collector-ring end shield (Figure 42). If,
conversely, the regulator is body-
mounted, the same place is taken up by
the terminals for the connecting lead to
the regulator.
41) Basic construction of the claw-pole
alternator with collector rings.
53
Alternators/ Special features in the construction of
generators alternators for commercial vehicles:
The collector-ring space is encapsula¬
ted to prevent the effects of water and
dust on the carbon brushes and collec¬
tor rings.
There is a post-lubrication facility or
appropriate bearing-grease supply
chambers are provided. Additional
diodes are reguired for the high power.
The following versions of alternator are
generally not used for spark-ignition
engines and are thus not described in
further detail.
Alternators with windingless rotor
(without collector rings)
These alternators are used on engines
reguiring a long service life. One typical
feature is that even the inner pole with
the excitation winding is a stationary
part of the machine. The rotating sec¬
tion is restricted to the windingless
rotor with pole wheel (no excitation
winding or collector rings).

Salient-pole alternators with

collector-rings
These alternators are primarily used on
large engines with a high electrical
power demand. One typical feature is
the form of the salient-pole rotor: it
bears only 4 or 6 oblong salient poles
which are each wound with one excita¬
tion winding.

42) Claw-pole alternator K1 (compact-diode-assembly type) in cross-section.

1 Pulley, 2 Fan, 3 Drive end shield, 4 Stator core, 5 Excitation winding, 6 Collector-ring end shield,
7 Collector rings, 8 Swivel arm, 9 Attached-type regulator tpye EL (hybrid regulator).

54
Cooling
The heat radiated and conducted from
the engine, exhaust etc., as well as
the heat losses of various electrical
components in the alternator itself,
has a very great effect on the alter¬
nator. The influence of heat is even
greater when the engine compartment
is additionally encapsulated for sound¬
proofing. To guarantee functional relia¬
bility of the alternator, the total heat
must be removed because, apart from
the insulation and soldered joints, this
might also damage the heat-sensitive
semiconductors. For this reason, the
maximum permissible ambient tempe¬
rature is 70 or 80°C depending on the
version of the alternator. Adequate
cooling of the alternator can be
achieved in various ways.
Internally ventilated alternators
Internal ventilation is the most com¬
mon method of cooling in motor ve¬
hicle alternators which are subjected
to normal service conditions. Use is
made of fans for one or also both
directions of rotation.
Since the fan is driven together with
the alternator shaft, a rise in rotational
speed is also accompanied by an in¬
crease in the throughput of cooling
43) Internally ventilated alternatortypeGI.
Withfanforclockwise rotation.
air. Therefore, the necessary cooling Alternators/
is guaranteed for all load conditions. generators
For various types of alternator, the fan
blades are arranged asymmetrically.
This prevents unpleasant whistling
noises which would otherwise occur
at certain speeds.
In claw-pole alternators, a fan bearing
a ring of fan blades is fitted on the
outside to the drive end of the alter¬
nator shaft (example in Figure 43 with
fan for clockwise rotation). The air en¬
ters at the collector-ring/diode end,
passes through the alternator and es¬
capes through openings in the drive
end shield. The cooling air is drawn
through the alternator by the fan.
In another version, the ventilation
openings are replaced by a special
air-intake fitting so that, with the aid of
a hose, cool air with a low dust con¬
tent can be drawn in from outside the
engine compartment. This is very
important particularly when the am¬
bient temperature in the engine
compartment exceeds the permissible
limit of 70 or 80°C.
More rarely, the fan is installed inside
the alternator on the collector-ring end
of the rotor shaft. In this case, the air
is drawn in through openings in the
drive end shield and is blown out
through slots in the collector-ring end
shield.
44) Enclosed alternatortype G1.
Externally cooled, with deflection fan.
55
Alternators/ Externally cooled alternators 45) Principle of the dual heat-sink
generators Alternators which must frequently assembly for semiconductor diodes.
operate in dusty conditions or which 1 Power diodes,
2 Exciter diodes,
are exposed to moisture and dirt (e.g. 3 Heat sink.
in farm tractors and construction ma¬ a Arrangement on the heat sinks,
chinery) have an enclosed housing b Circuit diagram.
and can, therefore, only be cooled
from outside. For this purpose, their
housing has cooling ribs between a
which the cooling air flows. The flow
of cooling air is supported by a de¬
flection fan with which the air is drawn
through openings in the fan cover
(Figure 44).

Cooling of the diodes

Semiconductor diodes must not ex¬
ceed a certain temperature. For this
reason, the heat loss generated in
them must be dissipated. This applies
both to power diodes and to exciter
diodes.
For this reason, the diodes are installed
in heat sinks which, thanks to their large
surface area and good thermal conduc¬
tion, are able to transmit the heat to the
flow of cooling air.
Types G1, K1 and N1, in addition to T1,
generally have a dual heat-sink assem¬
bly for the power diodes. 3 diodes (or b
more) are mounted with the cathode
end on a heatsink which is connected to
the B+ battery terminal. The other
diodes are mounted with the anode end
on a heat sink connected to B-.
Both heatsinks are on the DC side of the
3-phase bridge circuit whilst the free
wire ends of the diodes are connected in
pairs to the 3 phases of the 3-phase
stator winding (Figure 45). The exciter
diodes which lie between the 3 phases
and D+ are either separate or arranged
in athird exciterdiode heatsink(in some
cases in alternators for commercial ve¬
hicles).

56
Alternator and
vehicle electrical
system circuitry
Sometimes, the alternator or ve¬
hicle electrical system circuitry is
confronted with requirements
which cannot always be fully met
by the conventional series-produc¬
tion versions.
For such cases, there are special
circuitry variants which may occur
individually or in combination.
Parallel-connected
power diodes
As we learned from the section on
semiconductor devices, diodes can
only be loaded up to a certain current
without suffering damage.
This fact is of particular importance with
regard to the power diodes of the
bridge-type rectifier circuit through
which the entire generator current
flows. However, a limitation on the
maximum possible generator current
also limits the obtainable power output
of an alternator.
46) Circuit diagram of an alternator with special circuitry variants.
1 Exciter diodes, 2 Parallel-connected power diodes, 3 Additional diodes at star point,
4 Suppression capacitor, 5 Terminal “W”.
In large high-output alternators, there is
a high generator current which could
Alternators/
generators
not be handled by the 6 power diodes
of the normal bridge-type rectifier cir¬
cuit. For this reason, these alternators
have two or more power diodes con¬
nected in parallel per phase. The alter¬
nator current can thus be divided
amongst the number of parallel-con¬
nected power diodes with the result
that the individual diodes are not over¬
loaded. Figure 46 shows such a circuit
of an alternator in which the bridge-type
rectifier is formed by 12 instead of 6
power diodes.
Additional diodes
at the neutral point
In 3-phase current generation with a
star connection, the ends of the 3
winding phases are combined into a
star point. Since, at least theoretically,
the addition of the three phase currents
or phase voltages always results in
zero, it is possible to dispense with a
neutral conductor.
Owing to slight differences in the geo¬
metry of the claw system, of the win¬
dings, leads and terminals etc., it is,
however, possible in practice for the
star point to assume a potential. This
57
Alternators/ potential which changes periodically
generators from positive to negative is caused by
the so-called “third harmonic” (Figure
47); this is superimposed on the sinu¬
soidal fundamental wave at 3 times the
frequency of the latter. The energy
contained therein would normally be
lost. Thanks to two additional diodes
which are connected as power diodes
to the star point (Figure 46), this current
can be rectified and, as of a speed of
approximately 2000 min-1, can be used
to increase the power output (by up to
15%).
Terminal “W”
For certain applications, terminal “W”
can be connected to one of the three
phases as an additional terminal (Fig¬
ures 46 and 48).
This terminal delivers pulsating direct
current (i.e. half-wave rectified alter¬
nating current) which is required for
indirect measurement of engine
speed.
According to the following equation, the
pulses transmitted per second depend
47) Voltage between the phases with “third harmonic”.
Increasing the power output by means of additional diodes at the star point. U\ phase voltage,
U3 third harmonic.
0° 180°
Rotor angle of rotation
58
on the number of pole pairs and on the
rotational speed of the alternator.
f — p ' Tl
J 60
/ = Frequency (pulses per second)
p = Number of pole pairs
(6 on types G1, K1 and N1,
8 on type Tl)
n = Alternator speed (min^1)
Interference suppression
Of the electrical equipment in a motor
vehicle, the ignition system in spark-
ignition engines is the chief source of
interference. The alternator and regula¬
tor, in addition to various electrical
loads, are also minor sources of inter¬
ference.
So-called intensified interference sup¬
pression of the alternator is necessary
when there is a 2-way radio system, a
car telephone or a car radio in the
immediate vicinity or in the vehicle
itself. For this purpose, alternators can
be equipped with a suppression capa¬
citor (if not already connected as stan-
360° 0° 180° 360°
Rotor angle of rotation

48) Terminal “W” delivers pulsating direct cur-
rent for indirect measurement of engine speed.
dard) which is fitted to the outside of the
collector-ring end shield (Figure 49).
Conversely, vibrating-type regulators
are combined with an interference sup¬
pression filter or are replaced by an
50) Intensified interference suppression
through the fitting of an interference-
suppression filter to the existing vibrating-
type regulator or through the use of an
interference-suppressed version of
regulator.
Alternators/
generators
49) Suppression capacitor for intensified inter¬
ference suppression of alternators, fitted to the
outside of the collector-ring end shield.
interference-suppressed version of re¬
gulator (Figure 50). Transistor regula¬
tors (e.g. types EE, EL) do not require
any additional interference suppres¬
sion. There are also shielded cables for
alternators and regulators. If a terminal
“W” is provided, this can be suppres¬
sed by a resistor which is connected
additionally into the lead (Figure 46)
Parallel operation
of alternators
Alternators of the same voltage can
readily be connected in parallel. Special
balancing is not necessary. Owing to
the action of the rectifier, an equalizing
current can flow between the 2 parallel-
connected alternators, and unequal
loading of the alternators does not
result in unequal wear since there is no
commutator.
59
Alternators/
generators
Alternators in
vehicle operation
The engine, alternator, battery and
electrical loads of a motor vehicle
must be considered as an interrel¬
ated system. It is, therefore, ap¬
propriate at this point to consider
the alternator in vehicle operation.
Energy balance
in motor vehicles
In specifying or checking the size of the
alternator, the following must be taken
into consideration:
- Battery capacity,
- Loads in the vehicle electrical sys¬
tems and
- Driving conditions.
Motor-vehicle manufacturers specify
the appropriate size of alternator, and
the capacity of the battery, in accor¬
dance with the electrical loads fitted as
standard in the vehicle, and in accord¬
ance with the usual driving conditions.
However, circumstances may change,
firstly because additional electrical
equipment has been installed by the
vehicle owner and, secondly because
the vehicle is operated under extreme
driving conditions.
The following observations are in¬
tended to illustrate that the sum of the
power demands, and the respective
driving conditions, are of decisive im¬
portance with regard to the loading of
alternator and battery.
The sufficient state of charge of the
battery is the most important thing. This
decides whether, once the engine has
been stopped, there is sufficient energy
available to start it again. The battery
represents a reservoir which has to
supply various loads and must, there¬
fore, be “filled up” repeatedly by the
alternator which acts as the energy
supplier. If, however, more energy is
taken out than is put in, even a high-
capacity battery will gradually become
60 “flat”. The ideal state is a balanced
input and output of energy (Figure 51).
Thus, the correctly dimensioned alter¬
nator is of primary importance with
regard to adequate supply of on-board
energy. An overloaded or underrated
alternator is not capable of fully charg¬
ing the battery. The result is that the
battery capacity is not fully utilized.
If there is a high energy demand, for
example owing to the installation of
additional loads, it would be advisable
to replace the standard alternator by a
more powerful version. When checking
a vehicle electrical system, it is impor¬
tant to make a note of all electrical loads
(including those not fitted as standard)
with their power or current consump¬
tion and their average on-time (brief or
continuous operation). This includes an
estimate of the traffic situation (e.g. low
alternator speed during town driving
with many stops, highway driving with
congestion etc., or medium to high
alternator speeds on clear first-class
roads) and account must also be taken
of the time of day (driving predomin¬
antly in daylight or in darkness) as well
as the seasonal weather conditions
(e.g. summer driving or winter driving
with periods of bad weather and low
temperatures etc.).
The following example is intended to
illustrate the load placed on the energy
balance by electric loads under a var¬
iety of different conditions:
Operation of driving lamps
Driving lamps are used mainly on over¬
land trips at high engine speed and with
low traffic density. When there is on¬
coming traffic, auxiliary lamps are
switched off. In city traffic when the
engine speed is low, the traffic density
high and the distance driven is short,
auxiliary lamps are not required. Loads
of this type cause no problem since
they are usually operated in an alter¬
nator speed range in which all power
converters are supplied with enough
power and the battery can be charged.
In this case, therefore, all factors co¬
incide favorably.
51) Flow of current between alternator,
battery and electrical devices or systems
(power converters); power demand of
loads constant, operating conditions of
alternator changing.
In general, the following applies:
Where:
IG Alternator current
Ts— Aw “h If} /w Equipment current
IB Battery current
The battery current may be positive or nega¬
tive, depending on whether the battery is
being charged or is discharging.
Unfavorable situation: Low alternator speed
Favorable situation: Medium/high
Operation of fog lamps Alternators/
Conversely, the operation of fog lamps generators
is not so favorable. They are usually
switched on in the lower speed range in
which the alternator is not able to
deliver its full power. This is because
fog leads necessarily to slow driving
whether in town or in the country.
And even when there is oncoming
traffic, the fog lamps remain on. The
on-time is, therefore, long. In this ex¬
ample, the interplay between the decis¬
ive factors is unfavorable.
In many cases, the load on the energy
balance in the motor vehicle is also
dependent upon the attentiveness of
the driver.
Operation of rear-window heating
Although the heated rear-window is a
relatively high current consumer, it is
not usually switched on constantly. It
only remains switched on until the rear
screen is clear. If, however, the driver
forgets to switch off the heated rear
window afterwards, this will have a
considerable effect on the energy avail¬
able from the alternator and the battery.
Conversely, the horn and warning
lights etc. are insignificant consumers
of electricity.
Let us recap as follows:
The output of the alternator must be
such that even under difficult conditions
all electrical loads can be supplied and
the battery can still be charged so that
the vehicle is always ready to start.
An expert must always be consulted
regarding the final selection of the ap¬
propriate size of alternator and its
matching to the battery.
61
Alternators/ Determining the prolonged periods (for 14 V).
generators correct alternator The sum yields the consumed power
P wi = 350 W.
In the following way, it is possible to 2. Calculate the power demand of all
check whether the version of alter¬ loads on for a brief period (for 14 V).
nator installed in a vehicle is suffi¬ The sum yields the consumed power
cient for supplying the vehicle elec¬ PW2 = 134 W (rounded up).
trical system: 3. By adding PW1 and PW2, one ob¬
1. Calculate the power demand of all tains the total consumed power Pw =
loads which are on continuously or for 484 W.

52) Checking the size of alternator. Example: alternator K1-14 V 23/55 A.

1. Power demand (for 14 V) of all loads 2. Power demand (for 14 V) of all loads switched
switched on either continuously or for pro¬ on for brief periods.
longed periods.

Electrical devices Power Electrical devices Actual Factor*) Estima¬

or systems and systems value ted con¬
(loads) (loads) sumed
Factor 1.0 W W power W
Ignition system 20
Blower for heating
Electric fuel pump 70 and/or ventilation 80 0.5 40
Electr. gasoline injection 100 Heated rear screen 120 0.5 60
Car radio 12 Wipers 60 0.25 15
Lower beam 110 Electr. radiator fan 0.1
Side-marker lamps 8 Aux. driving lamps 0.1
Tail lamps -10 Stop lamps 42 0.1 4.2
License-plate lamps 10 Turn-signal lamps 42 0.1 4.2
Instrument-panel lamps 10 Fog lamps 70 0.1 7
Power 1 /Jw i = 350 W Fog warning lamps 35 0.1 3.5
Power 2 PW2 = 134W

Total power
A/v = A/vi + Aa/2 Pw = 484 W

T
A/v <250 250... 350... 450... 550... 675... 800...
(for 14 V) w <350 <450 <550 <675 <800 <950
A A 28 35 45 55 65 75 90

Alternator characteristic curve (K1-14 V 23/55 A)

Current of all devices (loads) switched on

either continuously or for prolonged 55 A
periods c
-> 4
CD
A/Vi / _ of; a 51——
A/VI - f W1 — 2o A 13
14 V O
i—
o
-4—*
CCS
c
36 A
CD
Calculated demand: 33 A -4-'
4. 4.
<
-►
'VI *2000 min-
4_— 1 -3- A/vi
(Approximation)
0
0 «0 «L* «n
*) Actual value of load x factor Alternator speed n
= estimated consumed power
62
With the aid of a reference table, it is
now possible to determine the
minimum necessary rated current
/N = 55A (the value of this rated cur¬
rent or a higher rated value appears
again in the type designation if the
correct size of alternator is installed -
55 A in the example).
4. Another possible means of check¬
ing is to calculate the alternator current
4 with the engine idling.
4 can be taken from the characteristic
curve of the alternator if the alternator
speed nL with engine idling is known
(in the example nL = 2000 min-1 co¬
incides with the speed at 2/3 rated
current contained in the type designa¬
tion; thus4 = 2/3 /N).
Practical experience has shown thatthe
alternator current at idle 4 should, in the
case of passenger cars, be at least a fac¬
tor of 1.3 (for stop-and-go driving)
above the current 4vi resulting from
consumed power PW1. This guarantees
that the battery is still sufficiently
charged in the idle speed range.
In the example: at idle, the alternator
has a current output of 4 = 36 A. From
consumed power PW1, there results
4vi = 25 A and, from this, the power
demand of 33 A. Since 4 = 36 A, the
power demand is safely covered.
Installation and drive
Installation
The operator of a motor vehicle usually
has little say in the installation of the alter¬
nator and regulator. In each vehicle, the
installation position is dependent on the
conditions prevailing in the engine com-
partmentdue to construction and design.
However, certain basic factors must al¬
ways be borne in mind concerning the
installation position:
- Good accessibility for readjusting the'
tension of the V-belt and for any
maintenance work,
- Adequate cooling both for the heat
from the alternator as well as for the
heat conducted and radiated from the
engine,
- Protection against dirt, moisture, Alternators/
shock, impact, fuel and lubricants etc. generators
(if gasoline enters the alternator, there
is a danger of fire and explosion; en¬
gine oil and diesel oil will damage car¬
bon brushes and collector rings).
Swivel-arm mounting (Figure 53) has
become generally established
amongst the alternators of the lower
power range. In addition to solid
mounting on a swivel bearing, an ad¬
juster is provided which makes it
possible to readjust the tension of the
V-belt.
Large alternators are cradle-mounted.
In this version, the alternator housing
is held down firmly against the mount¬
ing cradle by rugged hold-down
clamps. If the alternator is driven by a
V-belt, it can be cradled on a swivel
bed (Figure 54).
Irrespective of the type of mounting,
all alternators must have good electri¬
cal connection to the engine block. Of
course, there must also be a good
ground connection of sufficient cross-
section' between engine and chassis.
This is because the return from the
vehicle electrical system is in most
cases through the chassis. Only om-
53) Alternator with swivel-arm mounting and
adjuster for the V-belt tension.
63
Alternators/ nibuses and special-purpose vehicles
generators often have additional ground return
leads in order to minimize voltage
losses.
Alternators must only be operated
with suitable, specially matched regu¬
lators so that there is smooth co¬
operation between alternator and
regulator and so that damage to the
electronic components is prevented.
Of course, separately attached regu¬
lators as well as electric terminals and
leads must likewise be protected
against dirt, moisture, fuel, lubricants,
heat and vibration.
54) Alternator with cradle mounting.
Electric leads only provide a reliable
connection if they are provided with
properly attached terminals or plug
connectors (Figure 58).
64
Drive
Alternators are driven directly by the
vehicle engine. Drive is usually by
means of V-belt and less frequently by
means of flexible couplings. Being an
important component in the transmis¬
sion of power, the V-belt must meet ex¬
acting requirements:
- The material must have great bend¬
ing strength,
- In the course of aging, the
longitudinal expansion of the V-belt
should be as low as possible; this
largely prevents slip which causes
heat and flank wear.
55) V-belt damage is one of the most frequent
causes of breakdown.
Investigations (conducted by the
largest German automobile club) have
revealed that V-belt damage is a fre¬
quent cause of breakdown (Figure 55).
It is, therefore, important to use V-belts
which meet these requirements and
permitalong service life.
By contrast with conventional rubber-
jacketed V-belts, newly developed V-
belts are of “open-flank” design. This
gives then greater transverse rigidity,
they bend better and are considerably
more resistant to wear (Figure 57).
Small alternators are usually driven by
one V-belt. Large alternators which put
greater load on the drive due to their
higher power consumption are predo-
minantly driven by two V-belts. For the alternator nGmax. is not exceeded at the Alternators/
various applications, there are pulleys maximum speed of the engine nMmax.\ generators
and fan wheels which are either
stamped or turned and can be com¬
• < n Gmax-
bined as required (Figure 59). Cast
^Mmax-
aluminum fan wheels are available with
either one or two grooves.
The correct diameter of the pulley de¬
pends on the transmission ratio bet¬
ween engine and alternator. Since the
speed ranges of the many different en¬
gines are not uniform, there are also
different diameters for alternator
pulleys. The transmission ratio i must
be such that the maximum speed of the

58) Common cable connections:

1 Soldered cable-lug connection, 2 Solderless blade-receptacle connection, 3 Clamping tool.
Plug connectors from alternatorto regulator for body mounting:
4 Plug connectorfor regulator, 5 Plug connectorforalternator.

65
Alternators/ Notes on operation
generators
The alternator must only be operated
with the regulator and battery connec¬
ted. In this normal operating case, the
semiconductor devices work properly
and reliably.
Emergency operation without the bat¬
tery results in high voltage peaks so
that damage to the rectifier and the
regulator must be expected. Trouble-
free emergency operation is only pos¬
sible by means of additional measures.
There are three alternatives (see also
the section on “Over-voltage protec¬
tion”):
- Protection by a Zener diode (only for
14 V alternators up to 35 A rated
current),
- Alternator and regulator of high volt¬
age strength,
- Over-voltage protection devices,
possibly combined with consequential-
damage protection.
If, with the engine either stationary or
running, the battery is connected to the
vehicle electrical system with the incor¬
rect polarity, the diodes in the alternator
will be destroyed immediately. The
regulator is also liable to be damaged.
The same damage can occur if an
outside source of power is used for
starting the engine and the terminals
59) Combination of pulley and fan wheel.
Pulley: 1 Stamped, 2 Turned, 1-groove, 3 Turned, 2-groove;
Fan wheel: 4 Stamped, 5 Cast aluminum.
66
are connected the wrong way round.
To safeguard against this possibility, it
is possible to provide circuits which
prevent the starter from being switched
on if the battery is incorrectly connec¬
ted, thereby protecting the alternator
and regulator.
As mentioned in Section “The circuits
of the alternator”, the generator warn¬
ing lamp acts as a resistor. If there is
sufficient current consumption of the
lamp, the pre-excitation current during
starting causes a sufficiently strong
magnetic field to initiate self-excitation.
If the lamp lights up, this tells the driver
that the ignition or driving switch is
switched on, but that the alternator is
not yet delivering any power. The lamp
goes out as soon as sufficiently high
speed is reached and the alternator is
self-excited and is supplying the vehic¬
le electrical system. The lamp therefore
provides an indication that the alter¬
nator is functioning correctly and that it
is connected to the vehicle electrical
system.
However, the generator warning lamp
does not indicate whether and as of
what speed the battery is actually being
charged. If there is a heavy load on the
system, it is quite possible that, despite
the generator warning lamp having
gone out, the battery is no longer being
charged, but is discharging. Therefore,
the lamp does not provide any infor¬
mation on the state of charge of the
battery although it is very often referred
to as “charge indicator lamp”.
If the lamp is defective, there is no pre¬
excitation; self-excitation then only
takes place at high engine speed. The
fault can be detected while the engine
is stationary since, of course, the lamp
no longer lights up.
If, during engine operation, a break
occurs in the exciter circuit, in the
alternator ground line (in the case of
flexibly mounted alternators) or in the
pre-excitation lead, and there is a fail¬
ure of the alternator current, the driver
is not warned even if the lamp is intact.
Only the installation of an additional
resistor guarantees that the generator
warning lamp lights up to inform the
driver of a defect in the exciter circuit
(Figure 60). If, on the other hand, the
generator warning lamp fails to go out
even at high engine speed, there must
be damage to cable, regulator, alterna¬
tor or V-belt.
Service life and maintenance
intervals
Using statistics and taking into account
typical operating conditions, it is possi¬
60) Circuit for fault indication in the event
of an open circuit in the exciter circuit.
1 Alternator, 2 Generator warning lamp,
3 Resistor^, 4 Ignition switch, 5 Battery.
ble to calculate quite specific average Alternators/
service lives and/or mileages for the generators
various categories of vehicles (passen¬
ger car, commercial vehicle, long-dis¬
tance truck, town buses, long-distance
buses and construction machinery
etc.).
The different fields of application of
these vehicles also lead to differing
requirements and criteria with regard to
the economic efficiency of alternators.
There are, therefore, alternators for
various service lives and maintenance
intervals.
Smaller alternators without grease cups
can reach service lives between
100000 km and 200000 km without
relubrication, depending on the version
and type of duty.
If it is assumed that the life of an engine
up to its replacement or reconditioning
is as long as that of the alternator, then
it is not necessary to perform any
special maintenance work on the alter¬
nator. The quantity of grease in the
bearings is sufficient.
Larger alternators (e.g. for commercial
vehicles and buses) have longer aver¬
age service lives of 200000 to 300000
km. This is achieved through the use of
particuarly hard-wearing components.
It is important in this case that the
alternator bearings be relubricated at
certain intervals via the built-on grease
cups and grease channels or that the
bearings are appropriately designed.
Engines which are designed to cover
the exceptional distance of over
300000 km up until the first general
overhaul require alternators with a
windingless rotor which are fitted with
appropriately rated rolling bearings.
It becomes apparent from the above
information that, provided their instal¬
lation position is generally free from dirt
and grease, there is very little wear on
the carbon brushes as a result of the
low excitation current.
67
Alternators/ Testers and test equipment
generators
Alternators can only be properly tested
using suitable testers and test equip¬
ment.
Figure 61 shows a selection of Bosch
workshop testers which every good
workshop must have in order to provide
effective after-sales service.
This equipment has measuring instru¬
ments which make it possible to pro¬
perly check or identify faults in wind¬
ings, diodes or regulators.
As one of the leading manufacturers of
motor vehicle equipment, Bosch also
produces workshop equipment, parti¬
cularly for motor vehicle after-sales
service organizations. Production be¬
gan as early as 1928. Today, the ex¬
ceptionally wide range extends from
the pocket motor tester to the large
chassis dynamometer.
The reasons behind Bosch’s commit¬
ment in this field are obvious: Bosch is,
itself, the manufacturer of most of the
equipment being tested. Consequently,
Bosch has ample knowledge of what
must be tested and how it must be

61) Test benches and testers for alternators.

1 Combination test bench for alternators/generators, diodes, starting motors, ignition distributors
and ignition coils, 2 Alternator test bench, 3 System trolley with Compac tester (e.g. motor tester,
oscilloscope, exhaust-gas analyzer etc.), 4 Volt-ammeter with loading resistor and alternator tester
for testing diodes, rectifier assemblies, as well as stator and rotor windings.

68
tested. This know-how is incorporated
in the development of workshop equip¬
ment. This is why these testers are
especially reliable and designed so that
all important components and assemb¬
lies in the motor vehicle can be tested
quickly and reliably.
Detecting and remedying Alternators/
faults generators
If faults occur in the power-generating
system, the cause need not necessarily
lie with the alternator or the regulator.
Further possible sources of trouble are
the battery, cabling, generator warning
lamp and V-belt etc.
The following table makes it possible to
trace the causes of faults and to take
the appropriate corrective action.

Fault Cause Corrective action

Battery not being charged or not 1. Open circuit or
being sufficiently charged
Generator warning lamp not lit
up when engine stationary with
driving switch in on position
Generator warning lamp still lit 1. LeadD+/61 has short circuit to
up brightly at high engine speed
With engine stationary, the
generator warning lamp lights
up brightly, but still lights up less
brightly or glows when the
engine is running
contact resistance in the
charging circuit
2. Battery defective
3. Alternator defective
4. Regulatordefective
5. V-belt loose
1. Generator warning lamp bulb
blown
2. Battery discharged
3. Battery defective
4. Leads loose or defective
5. Regulatordefective
6. Short circuit ofadiodeinthe
positive plate (in the alternator)
7. Carbon brushes worn
8. Oxide layer on collecting rings,
open-circuit in excitation wind¬
ing
ground
2. Regulatordefective
3. Over-voltage protection device
defective or lead connections
wrong way wound
4. Rectifier defective,
collector rings fouled,
short circuit in lead DFor
rotorwinding
5. V-belt slipping or
broken
1. Contact resistances in charging
circuit or in lead to generator
warning lamp
2. Regulatordefective
3. Alternator defective
1. Eliminateopencircuitor
contact resistance
2. Replace battery
3. Have alternator repaired by
specialist workshop
4. Replace regulator
5. ReadjustV-belt
1. Fit new bulb
2. Recharge battery (on battery
charger)
3. Replace battery
4. Replace leads, tighten connec¬
tions
5. Replace regulator
6. Have alternator repaired by
specialist workshop
7. Replace carbon brushes
8. Have alternator repaired by
specialist workshop
1. Replace lead or eliminate short
circuit
2. Replace regulator
3. Replace over-voltage protection
device or connect leads properly
4. Have alternator repaired by
specialist workshop
5. ReadjustV-beltor
replace
1. Eliminate contact resistances
2. Replace regulator
3. Have alternator repaired by
specialist workshop
 Starting
systems Starting systems
Starting
Internal-combustion engines must be
started by a separate system because
they cannot self-start like electric
motors or steam engines. When starting
these engines, considerable resistance
resulting from compression, piston fric¬
tion and bearing friction (static friction)
must be overcome. These forces de¬
pend greatly on engine type and
number of cylinders, as well as on lub¬
1) Starting requirements for self-sustaining operation of an internal-combustion engine.
70
ricant characteristics and engine temp¬
erature. Frictional resistance is highest
at low temperatures.
The starter must crank the engine at a
specified minimum speed (starting
speed) in order to generate the air-fuel
mixture necessary for self-sustained
operation of spark-ignition engines,
even under adverse conditions, and
must support the engine as it runs up to
minimum self-sustained speed after ini¬
tial ignition. Electric motors (DC, AC and
 three-phase), as well as hydraulic and
pneumatic motors are used as starting
, motors for internal-combustion engi¬
nes.
The DC series-wound electric motor is
particularly well-suited for use as a
starting motor, however, because it
generates the high initial torque re¬
quired to overcome cranking resistance
and to accelerate the power transmis¬
sion components. In the majority of
cases, starting motor torque is transmit¬
ted to the engine via a starter pinion
and a ring gear on the crankshaft fly¬
wheel of the engine. However, V-belts,
toothed belts and chains are also used,
as is direct transmission to the
crankshaft. As a result of the high gear
ratio between the starter pinion and the
ring gear on the engine flywheel, the
“pinion-type starter” can be designed
2) General starting-system design.
1 Starter, 2 Battery, 3 Starter switch, 4 One or more relays (usually only in large starting systems).
for low torque and high speed, thus Starting
allowing small, lightweight starters to be systems
used.
An additional advantage is that the
energy required to start the engine can
be supplied by the same battery nor¬
mally used to operate the other electrical
devices in the vehicle electrical system.
For this reason, the starter cannot be
viewed as an independent component,
but, rather, must be discussed as an in¬
tegral part of the electrical system.
Both starter and battery are sized such
that even under adverse operating con¬
ditions cranking power is available long
enough to start the engine. The starter
often determines the capacity of the
battery, as it is the largest electrical
power converter in a vehicle. The starter
itself must meet the following require¬
ments:
71
 Starting - continuous readiness for starting
systems - sufficient starting power at different
temperatures
- long service life for a high number of
starts (particularly if the vehicle is used
primarily for in-city driving)
- robust design to withstand meshing,
cranking, vibrations, corrosion due to
dampness and road salt, dirt, tempera¬
ture cycles within the engine compart¬
ment etc.
- low weightand small size, and
- longest possible maintenance-free
service life.
The starter must be designed for the
other components of the starting sys¬
tem and the engine with which it is used,
because starting requirements vary
widely and the effect of temperature is
highly significant.
Starting requirements
In designing a starting system, starting
requirements must be considered in ad¬
dition to engine specifications. These
requirements include:
- Starting limit temperature, i.e. lowest
engine and battery temperature at which
it must still be possible to start the en¬
gine,
- Engine cranking resistance, i.e. the
crankshaft torque required to crank the
engine (including all permanently con¬
nected auxiliary equipment) at the start¬
ing limittemperature,
- Minimum required engine speed at
the starting limittemperature,
- Starter pinion/ring gear ratio,
- Rated voltage of the starting system,
- Characteristics of the starter battery,
- Length and resistance of the cable
from the battery to the starter (voltage
drop),
- Torque, speed and capacity of the
starter (starter characteristic curve),
etc.

3) Starting limit temperature (example). 4) Internal-combustion engine starting

a) Starter speed; decreases as the temperature
drops due to increased internal resistance of the
battery, b) Minimum required initial engine
speed; increases as temperature drops due to
increased cranking resistance. The intersection
of both curves yields the starting limit tempera¬
ture (here-23°C). This is the lowest tempera¬
ture at which the engine can be broughtto self-
sustaining speed under the given conditions.
procedure.
1 Theoretical engine torque assuming smooth
combustion. 2 Starter torque. 3 Theoretical total
torque (sum of curves 1 and 2). 4 Actual total
torque as a result of irregular combustion.
A Irregular combustion begins.
B Uniform engine speed.
C Self-sustaining engine operation.

min-1

140
a
120
s
■O
ee
o
o

Q.
CO
80

60
Starting limit
^ temperature
40 l_l
-25 -23 -20 -15 °C
Temperature t Speed n
72
Of particular importance in this respect In Europe, starting systems are gener¬ Starting
is the starting limit temperature, i.e. the ally designed for the following starting systems
lowest temperature at which an engine limittemperatures:
with a given electrical system, a defined
state of battery charge and given oil vis¬ Engine use Starting limit
temperature
cosity can be brought to self-sustaining
speed. The lowest temperature at Passenger cars -18. .—25°C
which it must still be possible to start Trucks and buses -12. -20°C
the engine is determined by the clima¬ Tractors -12. .—15°C
tic conditions at the place of use, the
conditions under which the engine The cranking resistance, i.e. the torque
must operate and economic considera¬ required to crankthe engine, is primarily
tions (the power required of a starting dependent upon engine swept volume
system, as well as its costs, increase and engine oil viscosity (which, in turn,
rapidly the lower the starting limit temp¬ determines the internal friction of the
erature). engine oil). Cranking resistance is also
In the example below a 2.2 kW starter affected by engine type and number of
and a 12 V, 90 Ah, 450 A battery are re¬ cylinders, ratio of stroke to bore, com¬
quired for a starting limit temperature of pression ratio, speed, the mass of the
-23°C. In this example, the nominal moving power-transmission compo¬
capacity of the battery has dropped by nents and their bearings, as well as addi¬
20%. Starting and cranking tests of this tional dragging loads imposed by the
type are frequently performed at Bosch clutch and transmission etc.
in the cold chamber of the Technical
Center for Automotive Electrical Sys¬ The minimum cranking speed varies
tems. widely depending upon the engine type
and the way in which the air-fuel mixture
5) Engine torques (cranking resistances) is formed. Significant empirical values
and starter torques. are as follows:
Ms starter torque for a 55 Ah battery. Nominal
capacity has dropped by 20% at various tem¬
peratures (referred to the starter-motor shaft). Required cranking Speed
Mm torque of a 3-liter spark-ignition engine at speeds at-20 °C min-1
different temperatures. The intersection of the
CD
O

O
CD

Reciprocating-piston
appropriate curves determines the speed at spark-ignition engine
which the engine is cranked at-25°C, -18°C
and-10°C. ' Rotary-piston spark-ignition 150...180
engine

Rated voltage
Starting systems are available with vari¬
ous rated voltages:
Passenger cars today generally have
12Vsystems.
Tractors, small auxiliary power units and
marine engines also usually have 12 V
systems. Systems designed for 24 V are
used in some engines of this type as
well as in special-purpose vehicles.
Trucks and buses use 12 V and 24 V
systems. The standard rated starter vol¬
tage in large buses and trucks is 24 V
because the less significant voltage
drop allows the use of smaller starters
for a given output. 73
 Starting Rated output nal resistance of the battery, the higher
systems Rated output is a precisely defined vari¬ the starter output.
able which can be determined on the
test bench by using a battery of max¬ 6) Basic circuit diagram of a starting
system.
imum capacity for the starter in ques¬
1 Battery, 2 Starter cable, 3 Starter.
tion which exhibits a 20% discharge at Rl line resistance. RB internal battery resi¬
a temperature of -20°C, and which is stance, Rs internal starter resistance.
connected to the starter via a cable
with a resistance 1 mQ. These criteria
guarantee that the starter will operate
even under adverse conditions. The
actual output of the starter is then mea¬
sured at the pinion under operating
conditions and corresponds to the
power drawn internally by the starter
minus the iron, copper and friction
losses.
Starter output is therefore highly depen¬
7) Arctic conditions can be simulated
dent upon line resistance and internal in cold chambers for testing automotive
battery resistance. The lower the inter¬ equipment.

74
Starting systems for
passenger cars
According to ISO, a passenger car is
any motor vehicle which is designed for
carrying persons and their luggage and
which has available a maximum of up to
nine seating places including the driving
seat.
Passenger-car starting systems gener¬
ally have pre-engaged-drive starters
with a rated output of approximately
2 kW. The standard rated voltage is
12 V. These systems can start spark-
ignition engines up to a swept volume
of approximately 7 liters. The required
cranking power greatly depends on
the type of combustion: a diesel engine
requires a more powerful starter
than a spark-ignition engine of equal
size.
Passenger-car starter circuits are usu¬
ally very simple. The engine is located
in the vicinity of the driver, who is usu¬
ally easily able to hear when the engine
starts. The driver is therefore not likely
to attempt to restart an engine which is
already running, thereby possibly
damaging the starter pinion as it
attempts to engage the ring gear on the
engine flywheel. For this reason,
8) Diagram of a passenger-car starting system for vehicles with spark-ignition engines.
Switching stages:
passenger cars usually do not have Starting
start protection and monitoring devices. systems
Many passenger car models, though,
have ignition/starter switches which in¬
corporate additional start repeating
blocks to avoid any possibility of acci¬
dental starter operation.
Starting systems
for passenger cars with
spark-ignition engines
The basic circuit for this starting system
is shown in Figure 8. The starting sys¬
tem is usually activated by a multiple-
position ignition/starter switch. The
ignition system is switched on before
the key reaches the “start” position,
because the ignition system must be
on for the spark-ignition engine to
start, and must remain on for the en¬
gine to run. Ignition continues after
the starter is switched off, and allows
the spark-ignition engine to continue
running.
In systems with breaker-triggered igni¬
tion coils with dropping resistors, start¬
ing can be facilitated by increasing the
available voltage. This is done by bridg¬
ing the ignition coil dropping resistor,
and requires starters with an additional
terminal (15 a).
75
 Starting Stop-start system
systems As a further step in efforts to improve
engine economy, several passenger car
models are fitted with a so-called stop-
start system (Figure 9) in addition to
otherfuel-saving components.
The purpose of the stop-start system is
to switch off the engine during repetitive
stops at traffic lights, railroad crossing
gates, and in stalled traffic etc. and to
then quickly restart the engine automati¬
cally.
The stop-start system comprises the
following main components:
- Stop pushbutton
- Clutch pedal switch
- Stop-start control unit
- Speed sensor
The engine is switched off by pressing
the stop pushbutton. The idle solenoid
valve on the carburetor is switched
off first, followed by the ignition
system. The engine can only be
switched off if vehicle speed has drop¬
ped below 2 km/h as detected by the
speed sensor. With the transmission in
first gear, the engine is immediately and
automatically restarted without touching
the ignition key when the clutch pedal
is completely depressed (clutch pedal
switch) and the accelerator pedal has
been depressed past a defined switch¬
ing point (accelerator pedal switch).
The stop-start system automatically
9) Diagram of starting system with stop/start facility.
1 Battery
2 Starter
3 Starter relay
4 Various electrical devices
5 Ignition/starter switch
6 Ignition coil
7 Output to control unit
8 Clutch pedal switch
9 Accelerator pedal switch
10 Stop pushbutton
11 Stop/start control unit
12 Idle solenoid valve
13 Speed sensor
14 Coolant temperature switch
15 Intake manifold heater
76
interrupts the supply of current to
the starter when an engine speed of
500 min-1 is reached. It also prevents
the starter from engaging the engine
if the engine is running at above
30 min-1.
The system reduces fuel consumption
and eliminates unnecessary exhaust
gas emissions whilst simultaneously
guaranteeing continuous driving readi¬
ness.
Starting systems for
commercial vehicles
Commercial vehicles are vehicles
which are designed to carry more than
9 persons, goods and/or are used for
pulling trailers. This category of motor
vehicles comprises the following main
vehicle groups:
- Buses (e.g. minibuses, public buses,
articulated buses, motor coaches and
special-purpose buses)
- Trucks of various sizes
- Special-purpose vehicles (e.g. tank¬
ers, fire department vehicles, tow
trucks, sanitation department vehic¬
les)
- Towing vehicles (e.g. road construc¬
tion vehicles or tractors and tractor trail¬
ers).
Because there are so many different
types of commercial vehicles, start¬
ing systems must be designed for
each specific type of vehicle and 11) Series-parallel switch. Starting
engine. systems
Tractors and light-duty commercial
vehicles such as delivery trucks and
minibuses, in addition to tractor trailers,
are usually equipped with simple 12 V
starting systems which - apart from
higher starter output - are very similar
to common passenger car starting sys¬
tems. Switching relays and protective
relays are not necessary in order to
guarantee smooth starting.
Medium-duty commercial vehicles with
spark-ignition engines with swept vol¬
umes of up to approximately 20 I nor¬
mally have 12 V starting systems,
whereas comparable vehicles with
diesel engines with swept volumes of
up to approximately 12 I have 12 V or accessories, but provide a starter vol¬
24 V starting systems. tage of 24 V.
Heavy-duty commercial vehicles have
only 24 V starting systems which oper¬ 12/24 V battery changeover
ate on two 12 V batteries. A number of heavy-duty vehicles -
Starting systems which have a rated primarily trucks - have a 12/24 V hybrid
voltage of 24 V are advantageous, par¬ system (Figure 10). In these systems,
ticularly in cases where the battery and all electrical devices (power conver¬
the starter are far apart from each ters), with the exception of the starter
other. Voltage drops have less of an and the generator or alternator are de¬
effect, so that a given battery provides signed for a rated voltage of 12 V. The
better starting. Available voltage also starter, however, is operated at a rated
determines the amount of power which voltage of 24 V. This higher voltage
can be delivered by the starter. For allows the starter to generate the power
this reason, “hybrid” 12/24 V systems necessary to start large engines.
are used in some vehicles. These For this purpose, the 12/24 V systems
systems provide 12 V for vehicle incorporate a battery series-parallel

10) Circuit diagram of a starting system with series-parallel switch.

1 12Vbatteryl

77
 Starting 12) Circuit diagram of a starting system with electronic start-locking relay.
systems 1 Battery, 2 Battery main switch, 3 Driving switch, 4 Starterswitch, 5 Generatorwarning lamp,
6 Alternator, 7 Electronic start-locking relay, 8 Starter.

switch. The two 12 V batteries in the Start locking relay

vehicle are connected in parallel to sup¬
ply a voltage of 12 V for the electrical
system during normal vehicle operation
or with the engine off. When the starter
switch is pressed, the battery series-
parallel switch automatically connects
both batteries in series temporarily to
provide the starter with a voltage of
24 V. The electrical system continues
to supply 12 V to all other electrical
devices. After the starter switch is re¬
leased, the starter is switched off and
the batteries are again connected in pa¬
rallel. The batteries are recharged by
the 12 V alternator while the engine is
running.
78
The start locking relay (Figure 12) ser¬
ves to protect the starter, the pinion and
the ring gear in vehicles and equipment
assemblies. It is required
- if the driver may not be able to
hear the engine start (e.g. in vehicles
with underfloor engine or rear eng¬
ine),
- on starting systems with remote con¬
trol,
- on starters with a rated output of
6 kWand above.
The start-locking relay operates depen¬
dent upon the voltage of the alternator
or a rotational-speed sensor. The na¬
ture of the voltage rise when starting, in
conjunction with the transmission ratio
between the crankshaft speed and al¬
ternator speed, are the crucial factors
involved.
Basic
starter design
Most starters incorporate the following
subassemblies:
(1) Electric starter motor, with or with¬
out reduction gear
(2) Solenoid switch with electrical con¬
nections, with or without additional
control relay
(3) Pinion-engaging drive
Electric starter motor
Operating principle
The electric motor converts electric
current into rotary motion. In doing so, it
converts electrical energy to mechani¬
cal energy.
When current flows through a conduc¬
tor in a magnetic field, a force is gener¬
ated which is proportional to the
amount of current and the strength of
the magnetic field, and is greatest when
the current and the magnetic field are
perpendicularto each other.
13) Subassemblies of a starter.
1 Electric starter motor, 2 Solenoid switch, 3 Pinion-engaging drive.
A loop which can freely rotate within a
magnetic field is the most efficient de¬
Starting
systems
sign. When current flows through the
loop, it normally assumes a position
which is perpendicular to the magnetic
field, and is held in this position by
magnetic force. If the direction in which
the current flows is reversed at this sta¬
tic neutral point, the loop continues to
rotate. The torque of the loop then con¬
tinues in the same direction of rotation,
and allows the loop to rotate continu¬
ously. The commutator is responsible
for this current reversal, and, in this ex¬
ample, consists of two semicircular
segments which are connected to the
two ends of the loop and which are in¬
sulated from one another. Two carbon
brushes transfer the current to the
individual loops (Figure 14, top left).
In order to achieve uniform torque, the
number of loops must be increased.
Their additive individual torques pro¬
duce a much higher, uniform total
torque. Figure 14 also shows three
symmetrical loops whose commutator
has 6 segments, or bars. In reality, the
numberof loops is considerably higher.
The magnetic field can be generated by
79
 Starting permanent magnets or by electromag¬
systems nets (electromagnetic poles with an
excitation winding). We differentiate be¬
tween shunt-wound, series-wound and
compound-wound motors, according to
the way in which the excitation winding
is connected.
Starter design
In electic starter motors, the elec¬
tromagnet consists of a tube-shaped
field frame in the interior of which 4 pole
shoes (pole magnets) are usually
mounted. Type DN and DW starters
use permanent magnets, however
electromagnetic pole shoes have an
excitation winding through which cur¬
rent flows to produce the magnetic
field. The excitation winding is ener¬
gized with direct current so that the
magnetic lines of force always act in the
same direction (from each north pole to
each south pole). The field frame and
pole shoes are made of iron (actually a
type of steel with particularly good
14) Diagram of basic electric motor.
1 Carbon brushes, 2 Magnet, 3 Commutator,
4 Loop of wire,
a) with 1 loop
b) with 3 loops
Circuit diagram of a starter with
compound-wound motor
1 Series winding, 2 Shunt winding
a) First stage. Only shunt winding connected in series (limited armature current)
b) Second stage. Shunt winding in parallel, series winding in series (full armature current)
80
magnetic characteristics) since the
magnetic lines of force are always
closed and iron is a particularly good
conductor.
The armature acts in the same manner
as conductor loops rotating in a magne¬
tic field, however it also has an iron
core. When current flows through the
armature, a magnetic field with north
and south poles is also generated
within the armature core. The armature
rotates as the like poles of the armature
and field frame repel each other when
they are in a juxtaposed position. In
order to reduce magnetization losses,
the iron core of the armature consists of
individual laminations which are insu¬
lated from one another and stacked to¬
gether to form a “package” on the ar¬
mature shaft. The grooves in the iron
core hold the various armature wind¬
ings, the ends of which are connected
to the corresponding commutator bars.
The commutator is mounted directly on
the armature shaft and connected in
Circuit diagram
of a shunt-wound
DC motor
Circuit diagram of a DC
motor with permanent-
magnet excitation
Circuitdiagram
of a series-wound
DC motor
most cases by four carbon brushes (for
optimum current transfer) which are
connected in pairs to the positive and
negative terminals of the battery (or
vehicle ground). By continuously re¬
versing the current, the commutator
ensures that the polarity in the armature
changes at the proper time, whereas
the magnetic poles of the field frame
maintain the same polarity.
A voltage is induced in the armature of
an electric motor which opposes the
operating voltage applied to the arma¬
ture. The faster the motor turns, the
greater the countervoltage and the
lower the current. If a load is now ap¬
plied to the motor, the countervoltage
drops as the speed decreases, whilst
the current increases. The current and,
thus, the torque is greatest when the
motor starts under load. The electric
motor automatically adjusts its flow of
currentto match its mechanical load!
15) Speed-torque characteristic of electric
motors.
1 Shunt-wound motorwith constant voltage,
2 Motorwith permanent magnet excitation*),
3 Compound-wound motor, second stage*),
4 Series-wound motor.*)
*) Battery voltage applied
Torque M
Shunt-wound motors Starting
In shunt-wound motors, the excitation systems
winding is connected in parallel with the
armature. When energized with con¬
stant voltage, excitation and speed are
therefore practically independent of
torque; this would not be desirable for
starter operation. However, the drop in
battery voltage, caused by the high
starter current, results in a characteris¬
tic suitable for starting - similar to that
of series-wound motors.
Motors with permanent-magnet
excitation
Motors with permanent-magnet excita¬
tion are characterized by simple design
and small size. Because the magnetic
field is generated by permanent mag¬
nets, excitation is the same (perma¬
nent) under all operating conditions.
Because there is no excitation winding,
there is also no excitation current or
ohmic resistance in the excitation
circuit, and the overall resistance of the
electric motor is reduced. The
behaviour of motors with permanent-
magnet excitation used as battery-
operated starter motors is the same as
that of shunt-wound motors.
Series-wound motors
In series-wound motors, the excitation
and armature windings are connected
in series. The excitation current is not
tapped off, rather the armature current
also passes through the excitation
winding. The armature current in this
type of motor generates a strong
magnetic field because it is unusually
high when the motor starts under load.
Series-wound motors therefore de¬
velop high initial torque which drops
sharply as motor speed increases.
These characteristics make the series-
wound motor a particularly good starter
motor. When used in small starters,
the series-wound motor is switched on
as the starter engages the engine so
that its full torque is immediately avail¬
able.
81
 Starting Compound-wound motors
systems Large starters use compound-wound
motors which have a shunt winding
and a series winding which act in two
stages. In the first stage, the armature
current is limited because the shunt
winding is connected in series with the
armature and acts as a dropping resist¬
ance. This keeps the meshing torque
of the armature low. In the second
stage, the full current is applied to the
starter motor which then develops its
full torque. The shunt winding is now
connected in parallel with the armature
and the series winding is additionally
connected in series with the armature
(Figure 14, bottom left). When the pin¬
ion returns to its initial position, the
shunt winding stops the armature
quickly.
82
Solenoid switch
Relays are used to switch high currents
with relatively low control currents. The
starter current in passenger cars, for
example, is up to approximately 1000 A,
and up to approximately 2600 A in
commercial vehicles. The low control
current, on the other hand, can be
switched using a mechanical switch
(starter switch, ignition/starter switch,
driving switch).
The solenoid switch, which is an integ¬
ral part of the starter, is a combination of
a starting motor solenoid and a relay. It
has two functions:
- Pushing the the pinion forward so
that it engages in the ring gear of the
engine and
- closing the moving contact for the
main starter current.
Design
The solenoid armature, which is an in¬
tegral part of the switch housing, enters
the solenoid coil from one end and the
movable relay armature enters from the
other. The distance between the sol¬
enoid armature and the relay armature
represents the total armature stroke.
The solenoid housing, solenoid arma¬
ture and relay armature together form
the magnetic circuit.
In many switch designs, the relay wind¬
ing comprises a pull-in winding and a
hold-in winding. This configuration is
very favourable in terms of thermal
loadability and the magnetic forces
which can be produced. At the begin¬
ning of the pull-in phase, increased
magnetic force overcomes meshing re¬
sistance. When the starter circuit is
closed, only the hold-in winding acts;
the pull-in winding is shorted. The
somewhat lower magnetic force of the
hold-in winding is now sufficient to hold
the relay armature until the starter
switch is again opened.
After the starter is switched on, the
magnetic force pulls the relay armature
into the winding. This armature move¬
ment moves the pinion axially and also
closes the main current contact. Return
springs between the individual compo¬
nents open this main current circuit
again when the starter is switched off
and return the relay armature to its ini¬
tial position. The solenoid switch design
allows the electrical contacts to be
grouped together.
17) Sectionai diagram of a solenoid switch.
1 Armature, 2 Pull-in winding, 3 Hold-in wind¬
ing, 4 Solenoid armature, 5 Contact spring,
6 Contacts, 7 Terminal, 8 Moving contact,
9 Switching pin (2-part), 10 Return spring.
2 3 4
10 9
Pinion-engaging drive Starting
systems
The starter drive end shield contains the
following main components: pinion-en¬
gaging drive with pinion, overunning
clutch, engaging lever or engagement
rod for the engaging stroke and mesh¬
ing spring. This starter subassembly is
responsible for coordinating the thrust
motion of the solenoid switch and the
rotary motion of the electric starter
motor and transferring them to the pin¬
ion.
Pinion
The starter engages the ring gear on
the engine flywheel by means of a
small displaceable gear called the pin¬
ion. A high transmission ratio (normally
between 10:1 and 15:1) makes it
possible to overcome the high crank¬
ing resistance of the internal-combus¬
tion engine using a relatively small but
high-speed starter motor. Thus, the
starter dimensions and weight can be
kept small. The pinion gear teeth are
specially designed in order to promote
meshing of the starter pinion with the
ring gear during starting, to transmit
the starter torque and to demesh the
starter pinion atthe appropriate time:
- The pinion gear teeth have an invo¬
lute shape to promote meshing
18) Solenoid switch assembly with
electrical connections
(on a pre-engaged-
drive starter).
rJH ■\
qU
_y
19) Pinion-engaging drive assembly
(in a pre-engaged-
drive starter).
83
 Starting - The faces of the pinion gear teeth,
systems and those of the ring gear depending
upon starter design, are chamfered
- By contrast with gears which re¬
main meshed all the time, the center
distance between the pinion and ring
i
f gear is increased in order to ensure
great enough backlash at the tooth
flanks
- The outer face of the pinion in its rest
position must be a certain minimum
distance away from the face of the ring
gear and
- In order to achieve long service life,
pinion and ring gear materials and har¬
dening methods are matched to each
other. As soon as the engine starts and
accelerates past the cranking speed,
the pinion must automatically demesh
in order to protect the starter, i.e. the
connection between the starter shaft
and the engine flywheel must automati¬
cally be broken. For this reason, star¬
ters also incorporate an overrunning
20) Pinion-engaging drive of a
pre-engaged-drive starter.
1 Drive end shield, 2 Engaging lever, 3 Meshing
spring, 4 Driver, 5 Roller-type overrunning
clutch, 6 Pinion, 7 Armature shaft.
84
clutch and a mechanism to mesh and
demesh the pinion.
Pinion-engaging drive
The pinion-engaging drive must, in all
cases, be designed such that the thrust
movement of the solenoid switch and
the rotary motion of the electrical starter
motor can occur at the same time - but
independently - under all meshing
conditions.
Pre-engaged drive
In pre-engaged-drive starters, the
thrust movement of the attached sol¬
enoid switch is transferred to the driver
(with pinion) which rides in a helical
spline in the armature shaft. This design
results in combined axial and rotary
motion which greatly facilitates the
meshing of the pinion.
21) Starter pinion (small diameter) fully
meshed with the ring gear of the
engine flywheel
(large diameter).
Overrunning clutch
In all starter designs, the rotary motion
is transmitted via an overrunning clutch.
The overrunning clutch allows the
pinion to be driven by the armature
shaft, however it breaks the connection
between the pinion and the armature
shaft as soon as the accelerating en¬
gine spins the pinion faster than the
starter.
The overrunning clutch is located bet¬
ween the starter motor and the starter
pinion and prevents the armature of the
starter motor from being accelerated to
excessive speed by a quick-starting
engine.
Roller-type overrunning clutch
Pre-engaged drive starters are equip¬
ped with a roller-type overrunning
clutch as a protective device (Figure
22). The most important component of
the clutch is the clutch shell with roller
22) Roller-type overrunning clutch.
1 Roller-type overrunning clutch, 2 Pinion,
3 Clutch shell, 4 Roller race, 5 Roller, 6 Pinion
shaft, 7 Coil spring, a) Direction of rotation for
clutch locking action.
race which forms part of the driver and Starting
thus communicates with the armature systems
shaft via a spiral spline. Rollers which
are free to move within the roller race
lock the pinion shaft to the clutch
shell.
At rest, coil springs press the rollers
into the narrow areas between the
clutch shell race and the cylindrical part
of the pinion shaft to lock the pinion to
the armature shaft when the starter is
operated. When the starter armature
shaft rotates, the rollers become
wedged in the narrow areas.
When the engine starts and spins the
starter pinion faster than the no-load
speed of the starter armature, the
rollers become loose and are pushed
- against the force of the coil springs -
into the wide areas. This unlocks the
pinion from the armature shaft.
The advantage of this type of overrun¬
ning clutch is that only small masses
need be accelerated and the effective
overrunning torque of the engine is re¬
latively low.
Armature braking
Sometimes, a second attempt must be
made to start the engine. The starter ar¬
mature, however, must first be quickly
stopped. In the case of pre-engaged
drive starters, this is accomplished sim¬
ply by the return spring which presses
the pinion-engaging drive or armature
against a friction washer or brake disc
after the starter is switched off. The
resulting friction stops the armature.
In the case of permanent-magnet exci¬
tation, magnetic force additionally acts
to brake the armature as it runs down.
85
 Starting
systems
Starter types
Summary
There are many different kinds of inter¬
nal-combustion engines and vehicle
electrical systems, and there are there¬
fore just as many different operating
conditions which determine the design
of electrical starting systems and com¬
patible starters. A broad range of starter
types must therefore be available. The
most important starter characteristics
are:
- Rated voltage
- Rated output
- Direction of rotation
- Starter size (diameter of starter-
motorfield frame)
- Type
- Design.
Rated voltage is determined by the type
of starter used. Small starters are de¬
signed for 12 V, medium-sized starters
for 12 and 24 V and large starters for
various rated voltages between 24 and
110 V, depending upon application.
Rated output is determined by the size
of the engine in terms of swept volume
and whether or not it is a spark-ignition
or diesel engine (the starter power re¬
quired by these two engine types is dif¬
ferent). The direction of rotation is deter¬
mined by the direction of rotation of the
engine and the direction in which the
starter is installed. Starter size is
governed by the required rated output of
the starter. Starter type is determined by
the meshing principle used, which, in
turn, depends on the starter size and
output. Starter design takes into consid¬
eration available installation space, type
of mounting and operating conditions.
Type designation
The type designation provides pertinent
initial information and is given together
with the part number in the technical
starter documents.
Starter labelling
Starter labels (stamped into the hous¬
ing) are a combination of part number,
direction of rotation and rated voltage.
Example: 0001 314002^ 12 V
The descriptions of the pre-engaged-
drive starters below are restricted to
types EF, DW and DM used on spark-ig¬
nition engines. Pre-engaged-drive star¬
ter type EV and all sliding-gear starters
with mechanical or electromotive pinion
rotation are suitable only for diesel engi¬
nes and are thus not discussed.

23) Example of type designation.

G (R) 12V 0.8 kW

Letter code for Field frame

field frame diameter diameter mm
D 65 to 79
E 80 to 99
G 100 to 109
J 110 to 119
K 120 to 139
Q 140 to 169
T 170 to 199
B, D, E, F, G, M and W indicate certain design features
Direction of rotation (as viewed onto the output (pinion) end)
-^or R = clockwise
or L = counterclockwise
Rated voltage in V
Rated output in kW
86
24) Chart of starter types. Starting
systems
Pinion-engaging drive, Inter¬ Design Based - On Similar Starter
function mediate E pinion engaging on page types motor
trans¬ drive, M motor, design
mission R relay
Pre-engaged drive
Pinion moves forward with No jot EF 88 DF, EB, Series-
screw action until it meets ring
gear, and is meshed by solenoid
*iWM GB, GF,
JF, JD
wound
motor
switch. Meshing is facilitated by
Yes EV — —

spiral spline.
Full starter current is switched DW 93 — Motor
on atthe end of solenoid No with per¬
DM 92
travel. manent-
magnet
excita¬
tion
Sliding-geardrive with
mechanical pinion rotation No KE Series-
Pinion moves straight forward wound
until it meets the ring gear, and motor
is meshed by solenoid switch.
Two-stage mechanical pinion-
engaging drive facilitates
meshing.
Full starter current is switched
on after complete meshing7

Sliding-geardrive with
electromotive pinion rotation
Pinion moves straight forward
until it meets ring gear, and
is meshed by engagement
No

-dial KB — QB Com¬
pound-
wound
motor

'QDP
TB
solenoid.
Simultaneous slow motor start¬
up to facilitate meshing (electri¬
Yes TF _ Based
cal first stage).
Full starter current is switched
on just before end of pinion
JDB on type
TB
travel (second stage).

25) Examples of pre-engaged-drive starters.

1 Type JF, pinion drive with extended bracket, 2 Type EB, overhung-mounted pinion, 3 Type GF,
pinion drive with extended bracket, 4 Type EF, pinion drive with extended bracket.
 Starting Pre-engaged-drive
systems starters without
intermediate transmission.
The main features of pre-engaged star¬
ters without intermediate transmission
are the electric motor with direct drive,
the integral (piggyback) solenoid
switch, the pinion-engaging drive for
axial and rotary pinion movement and
the roller-type overrunning clutch.
Type EF with series-wound motor
The following description is based upon
Type EF. However, the design and op¬
eration of Types DF, EB, GB, GF, JG
and JD are similar.
Design
Figures 26 to 29 illustrate the design
and internal connections of pre-en¬
gaged drive starter Type EF.
Starter motor:
These starters have DC series-wound
motors in which the excitation and ar¬
mature windings are connected in
series. The motor drives the pinion-en¬
gaging drive directly in a ratio of 1:1.
The extension of the armature shaft has
a helical spline which holds the driver of
the pinion-engaging drive.
Solenoid switch:
Pre-engaged-drive starters without in¬
termediate transmission are actuated
by an integral solenoid switch with
pull-in and hold-in windings. The sol¬
enoid armature has a slot in its prot¬
ruding end in which the end of the en¬
gaging lever fits with a certain amount
of free play. This free play allows the
return spring to pull the solenoid arma¬
ture back to its initial position to switch
off the starter, and quickly pull the
moving contact away from the fixed
contacts. This is necessary so that the
starter can be switched off quickly in
the event of the engine not being
started.

26) Sectional drawing of Type EF pre-engaged-drive starter.

1 Hold-in winding, 2 Pull-in winding, 3 Return spring, 4 Engaging lever, 5 Meshing spring, 6 Driver,
7 Roller-type overrunning clutch, 8 Pinion, 9 Armature shaft, 10 Stop ring, 11 Spiral spline, 12, Guide
ring, 13 Terminal, 14 Contact, 15 Contact break spring, 16 Moving contact, 17 Solenoid switch,
18 Commutatorend shield, 19 Brush holder, 20 Carbon brush, 21 Commutator, 22 Pole shoe,
23 Armature, 24 Field frame, 25 Excitation winding.

88
Pinion-engaging drive:
The driver which rides in the helical
spline of the armature shaft is coupled
to the pinion via a roller-type overrun¬
ning clutch. The direction of the helical
spline is selected so that the pinion,
which cannot turn, is pushed into the
ring gear when the armature shaft
rotates. The driver has two guide rings
or discs which are engaged by the
forked end of the engaging lever which
moves the driver axially. The meshing
spring sits between the guide ring and
driver to allow the engaging lever to
move against its stop so that the starter
current is always switched, even if the
pinion meets but does not engage the
ring gear (the contacts close shortly be¬
fore the engaging lever reaches its end
position). The driver and pinion are
moved axially by the engaging lever
while they are simultaneously augered
forward by the helical spline until the
pinion reaches its stop. The helical
spline thus prevents torque from being
imparted to the engine until the pinion
is fully meshed. The overrunning clutch
transmits the force of the starter arma¬
ture to the engine flywheel after the pin¬
ion is fully meshed, and breaks this
connection as soon as the engine
speed exceeds the speed of the star¬
ter.
Operation
In pre-engaged-drive starters, the total
meshing travel is the sum of the axial
travel and the helical travel.
Axial travel:
When the starter switch or the ignition/
starter switch is turned on, the pull-in
and hold-in windings of the solenoid
switch are also energized. The solenoid
armature pulls in the engaging lever
against the force of a return spring. The
engaging lever, via guide rings and a
meshing spring, pushes the driver with
pinion against the ring gear on the en¬
gine flywheel; the driver and pinion
simultaneously rotate due to the action
of the helical spline. The starter motor
armature does not yet turn in this
phase, because the main current for Starting
the excitation and armature windings systems
has not yet been switched on. If the
pinion can immediately engage the ring
gear, the pinion moves forward until it
reaches the end of its travel and the
moving contact in the solenoid switch
meets the solenoid contacts. The star¬
ter motor is nowon.
If a pinion tooth meets a ring-gear
tooth, the pinion cannot immediately
mesh with the ring gear. As a result,
the meshing spring is compressed via
the engaging lever and the guide rings
until the moving contact in the sol¬
enoid switch meets the solenoid con¬
tacts. The starter motor is now
switched on and begins to turn. This
spins the pinion against the ring gear
until the pinion teeth are aligned with
ring-gear gaps. The pressure exerted
by the coil spring together with the
pressure applied by the helical spline
push the pinion gear in to mesh fully
with the ring gear.
27) Internal connections of a pre-engaged-
drive starter.
1 Solenoid switch,
E Pull-in winding, H Hold-in winding.
2 Excitation winding (series-wound),
a Basic circuit.
b Terminal 15a is added for connection to the
ignition coil dropping resistor. This resistor
is shorted to increase ignition voltage during
starting.
89
 Starting 28)Schematicdiagramofthemostimportantworkingphasesof a pre-engaged-drive starter.
systems

1 Ignition/starter switch 5 Engaging lever

or driving switch 6 Roller-type overrunning clutch
2 Solenoid switch 7 Pinion
3 Return spring 8 Battery
4 Excitation 9 Armature
winding, series
winding

© Rest position. ® Unfavourable meshing position.

No current supplied to starter, pinion
demeshed.
© Favourable meshing position.
Pull-in and hold-in windingsare ener¬
gized. A pinion tooth meets a gap in the
ring gear, andthe pinion meshes immedi¬
ately. The starter position just before the
main current is switched on is shown.
90
A pinion tooth meets a ring geartooth. Engaging lever
in end position, meshing spring compressed, pull-in
winding notenergized. Main currentflows, armature
rotates. Pinion attempts to mesh with ring gear.
© End position.
Engaging lever in end position, pull-in winding not
energized. Main currentflows, pinion is fully meshed.
Engine is cranked.
Helical travel: keeps the armature from being rotated Starting
At the end of the solenoid travel, the too fast and damaged. The pinion re¬ systems
solenoid switch contacts close - inde¬ mains meshed as long as the engaging
pendent of the pinion position - and lever is held in the engaged position.
switch on the starter current. The star¬ The engaging lever, driver and pinion
ter armature now begins to rotate, and are returned to their initial positions by
the helical spline forces the pinion, the return spring only when the starter
which is prevented from turning by the is switched off. The return spring also
ring gear with which it has meshed, ensures that the pinion remains in its
even further into the ring gear until it rest position in spite of engine vibration
contacts the stop ring of the armature until the starter is again operated.
shaft.
When the starter circuit is closed, the
pull-in winding is simultaneously
shorted. Now only the hold-in winding
acts. However, its magnetic force is
sufficient to hold the solenoid armature
in its pulled-in position until the engine
is started.

Demeshing:
After the engine starts and the speed of
the starter pinion exceeds the no-load
speed of the starter motor, the roller-
type overrunning clutch described ear¬
lier breaks the connection between the
pinion and the armature shaft. This

29) The most important components of the electric starter motor.

1 Armature shaft, 2 Armature winding, 3 Armature stack (laminated core), 4 Commutator,
5 Pole shoes, 6 Excitation winding, 7 Carbon brushes, 8 Brush holder.

91
 Starting Type DM
systems with permanent-magnet motor
Starter Type DM with a permanent-
magnet field is designed for use in
passenger vehicles powered by spark-
ignition engines with swept volumes of
up to 1.9 liters. It is up to 15 % lower in
weight and has smaller dimensions
than customary starter types designed
forthe same operating conditions.
Design
The design of pre-engaged-drive star¬
ter Type DM is shown in Figures 30
to 32.
Starter motor:
A DC motor with permanent-magnet
excitation is used as the starter motor.
Permanent magnets are used in place
of electromagnets (pole shoes with ex¬
citation winding) in the excitation circuit.
The lengths of the armature and perma¬
nent magnets are graded depending
upon the rated output of the starter.
The permanent magnets used on this
model feature long-term stability and
are insensitive to demagnetizing in¬
fluences. The special-purpose, two-
component carbon brushes comprise a
power zone with a high percentage
copper content and a commutating
zone with a high percentage graphite
content.
Solenoid switch:
As in all pre-engaged-drive starters,
the solenoid switch which actuates the
driver and closes the starter circuit is
mounted on the starter and transfers
movement to the components on the
armature shaft via the engaging
lever.
Pinion-engaging drive:
The pinion-engaging drive with roller-
type overrunning clutch is of the same
design and operates in the same way
as other pre-engaged-drive starters.
Operation
Starter Type DM operates no differently
from Type EF. The only difference is in
the electrical circuitry which does not
include the excitation winding normally
connected in series. When the starter
circuit is closed, current flows directly
to the carbon brushes and the arma¬
ture.
31) Internal connections of starter Type DM
with permanent-magnet excitation.
1 Solenoid switch
E Pull-in winding
H Hold-in winding
2 Permanent
magnets

30) Basic diagram of Type DM starter showing design and circuitry.

1 Pinion
2 Ring gear
3 Roller-type overrunning clutch
4 Engaging lever
5 Permanent magnet
6 Armature
7 Commutatorwith carbon
brushes
8 Solenoid switch
9 Starter switch
10 Battery

r"

92
Pre-engaged-drive
starters with intermediate
transmission
Starters with intermediate transmis¬
sions are much the same in design and
function as pre-engaged-drive starters
without intermediate transmissions
which transfer motor torque directly to
the pinion-engaging drive in a conven¬
tional manner.
The main difference between conven¬
tional starters and this generation of
starters is a planetary gear added bet¬
ween the field frame and the drive end
shield. It transfers the armature torque
to the pinion, free of any transverse for¬
ces. Whereas the planet gears are
steel, the internal gear is a high-grade
polyamide compound with mineral
additives for increased strength and
wear resistance.
This new design permits the use of Starting
smaller and lighter starters; the savings systems
in weight over traditional starter/drive
combinations is approximately 35 to
40%. An added benefit of the lower
weight is an increase in fuel economy.
Type DW
with permanent-magnet motor
Intermediate-transmission starter Type
DW with a permanent-magnet field is
designed for use in passenger vehicles
powered by spark-ignition engines with
swept volumes of up to 6 liters. It is
40 % lower in weight and has consider¬
ably smaller dimensions than custom¬
ary starter types designed for the same
operating conditions, and offers equal
or even greater starting power.

32) Cutaway view of Type DM starter with permanent-magnet motor.

1 Drive end shield, 2 Pinion, 3 Solenoid switch, 4 Terminal, 5 Commutator end shield, 6 Brush plate
with carbon brushes, 7 Commutator, 8 Armature, 9 Permanent magnet, 10 Field frame, 11 Engaging
lever, 12 Pinion-engaging drive.

93
 Starting Design Solenoid switch:
systems The design of pre-engaged-drive star¬ As in all other pre-engaged-drive star¬
ter Type DW is shown in Figures 33 to ters, the solenoid switch which actuates
36. the driver and closes the starter circuit
is mounted on the starter and transfers
Starter motor with intermediate movement to the components on the
transmission: armature shaft via the engaging lever.
A DC motor with permanent-magnet All versions of starter Type DW are fit¬
excitation is used as the starter motor. ted with the same solenoid switch.
Permanent magnets are used in place
of electromagnets (pole shoes with Pinion-engaging drive:
excitation winding) in the excitation cir¬ The pinion-engaging drive with roller-
cuit. The lengths of the armature and type overrunning clutch is of the same
permanent magnets are graded de¬ design and operates in the same way
pending upon the rated output of the as the drive described above for other
starter. pre-engaged drive starters, and is used
This type of motor design allows the for all starter versions.
size of the starter motor and, thus, the
size of the entire starter to be drastically 34) Internal connections of starterType DW
with permanent-magnet excitation.
reduced, thus significantly reducing
1 Solenoid switch 50o—, 15a<? o30
weight. E Pull-in windina 1 1 1 F ',
In addition, the high motor speed is re¬ H Hold-in winding 77 --H
duced to appropriate starter speed by 2 Permanent Hee-H
magnets
an intermediate transmission, whilst
(3) MD2
simultaneously achieving the reguired
high startertorgue.

33) Armature and planetary gear (intermediate transmission) of a Type DW intermediate-

transmission starter.
1 Planetary gear carrier shaft with helical spline, 2 Internal gear (ring gear), also serves as intermediate
bearing, 3 Planet gears, 4 Sun gear on armature shaft, 5 Armature, 6 Commutator.

94
Operation
Intermediate-transmission starter Type
DW operates no differently from the
other pre-engaged-drive starters. Op¬
eration is described in the section en¬
titled “Pre-engaged-drive starters
without intermediate transmissions”.
The only difference is in the electrical Starting
circuitry which does not include the systems
excitation winding normally connected
in series. When the starter circuit
is closed, current flows directly
to the carbon brushes and the arma¬
ture.

35) Type DW intermediate-transmission starter. Basic diagram with design and circuitry.
1 Pinion
2 Ring gear
3 Roller-type overrunning clutch
4 Engaging lever
5 Planetary gear
6 Permanent magnet
7 Armature
8 Commutatorwith
carbon brushes
9 Solenoid switch
with pull-in and
hold-in windings
10 Starter switch
11 Battery -r
i
l

1r
Jr
36) Type DW intermediate-transmission starter with PM motor. Cutaway view.
1 Drive end shield, 2 Pinion, 3 Solenoid switch, 4 Terminal, 5 Commutator end shield, 6 Brush plate
with carbon brushes, 7 Commutator, 8 Armature, 9 Permanent magnet, 10 Field frame, 11 Planetary
gear (intermediate transmission), 12 Engaging lever, 13 Pinion-engaging drive.

95
 Starting
systems
Installing the
starting system
Installing the starter
Starters are mounted either ahead of
the flywheel next to the crankcase or
behind the flywheel next to the trans¬
mission. Depending upon design, star¬
ters are either flange-mounted or are
mounted in a cradle such that they
make good electrical contact with the
engine. Small and medium-sized
flange-mounted starters usually use a
two-hole flange, whereas larger starters
use an SAE flange (named after the
Society of Automotive Engineers). In
various models an additional support is
provided in order to reduce the effect of
vibration on the starter. Cradle-
mounted starters are held in place by
strong hold-down clamps or by a
clamping plate.
Starters are generally mounted hori¬
zontally with the terminals and the
solenoid switch on top. Starters
whose bearings must be lubricated at
frequent intervals due to adverse
operating conditions (dust, dirt) must
have freely accessible lubrication
points.
A pilot on the starter allows the starter
to be centered and the proper gear
96
backlash to be maintained. The fly¬
wheel housing can also be sealed to
prevent dirt, oil and splashwater from
entering the starter.
Main starter cable
A look under the hood of a passenger
car will reveal that the cable from the
battery to the starter has an unusually
large cross section. The distance bet¬
ween the battery and the starter, and
thus the cable length, are also kept
short. This indicates how important the
starter cable is. The cross section of an
electrical conductor always depends
upon the electrical devices connected
to it. The largest load in the vehicle - if
only briefly for starting the engine - is
always the starter. For this reason, the
size of the battery and the cross section
of the starter cable are determined by
the starter itself.
When starting the engine, extremely
high current flows between the battery
and the starter. When the starter pinion
is engaged and the starter is stalled, a
short-circuit current of 335 A flows
briefly, for instance on Type DF. The
starter cable must therefore have as
low a resistance as possible in order to
keep the voltage drop low. The resist¬
ance of the supply and return line to¬
gether should not exceed 1 mQ, and
the maximum permissible voltage drop
for a rated voltage of 12 V and 24 V is
limited to 0.5 V and 1.0 V respectively.
The starter cable must therefore be as
short as possible and have a sufficiently
large minimum cross section. Example:
Starter Type EF 12 V 0.85 kW for spark-
ignition engines with swept volumes of
up to 2 liters draws a short-circuit cur¬
rent of 427 A when connected to a
battery with a nominal capacity of
55 Ah. Taking into consideration the in¬
crease in the cable temperature and the
voltage drop, a 1.9 m long starter cable
should have a minimum cross section
of approximately 30 mm2 (rounded up
to the next larger standard cross sec¬
tion of 35 mm2).
In most cases, the starter is grounded
to the engine by its housing. A ground
cable then returns from the engine to
the battery. If the starter has an
insulated ground cable, the starter
need not be physically grounded to the
engine. The starter terminals are pro¬
tected by rubber sleeves or caps.
The following parameters determine
the cross section of a starter cable:
- Current consumption of the starter
under short-circuit conditions (zero
speed) and the brief permissible cable
loading in terms of temperature
- Starter cable material and its
specific resistance (copper cables are
usually used due to their favourable Starting
material characteristics) systems
- Cable length
- Rated voltage of the starting system
and permissible voltage drop under
short-circuit conditions.
Starter switch
Switches which are normally used in
starting systems are, in most cases,
manual mechanical switches. They are
used for either directly switching small
starters or indirectly switching large
starters via additional relays.
Single-purpose
starter switch
The simplest type of starter switch is
the pushbutton which is a standard
single-purpose switch with “on” and
“off” positions. The pushbutton returns
automatically to its initial position.
Ignition/starter
switches
Ignition/starter switches with built-in
locks are multi-purpose switches for
battery ignition systems. They are used
to switch current from a central point to
most of the vehicle loads including the
ignition system and the starter.The vari¬
ous types of switches are distinguished
by the number of switch positions or by
whether or not they have built-in restart
locks. The customary switch positions
“off-on-start” can be extended to in¬
clude the positions “parking lights”
and/or “radio”. The switch returns
automatically to the basic “on” position
from the final “start position”.
97
 Starting Relays and special switches
systems
Switches and relays are primarily used
in conjunction with large starters and
perform various tasks:
- Switching the high starter currents,
- Circuit changeover,
- Protecting against damage.
Series-parallel switch
[To 5051 31 1 The series-parallel
O Q Q o switch is used in
(I hybrid 12/24 V sys¬
tems (12 V for vehi¬
cle loads and 24 V
n for starter opera-
13i a 30a_50a_j tion). When the star¬
ter switch is pressed, the switching relay
in the series-parallel switch is supplied
with current via terminal 50a. It switches
the contacts in such a way that the two
12 V batteries previously connected in
parallel are temporarily connected in
series to supply the starter with a voltage
of 24 V.
Start-locking relay
The start-locking relay is used in cases
where the starting procedure cannot
be adequately monitored. It protects
the starter, the pinion and the engine
ring gear in commercial vehicles with
underfloor or rear engines, remotely
controlled starting systems and fully
automatic starting systems (e.g.
standby power units). The following
functions must be fulfilled in all
cases:
- Shut-off after successful start
- Blocked restart with engine running
- Blocked restart with engine running
down
- Blocked restart after failed start.
In the last two cases, a restart is only
possible after the integrated blocking
time has elapsed. Operation of the start¬
locking relay depends upon the
generator/alternator voltage or speed¬
sensor output. Of significance here are
the type of voltage increase (voltage
curve between 0 V and rated voltage
98 measured at the D+ and D- terminals of
the cold and warm generator or alter¬
nator) during starting and the ratio of
crankshaft speed to generator/alter¬
nator speed.
Electromechanical start-locking relay
"d+1 The electrome¬
chanical start-lock¬
ing relay comprises
switching relays I
and III with normally
closed contacts and
I sof 31_| normally closed and
changeover contacts, respectively,
which supply current to the solenoid
switch and control relay in the starter.
The relay also includes switching relay
II with a normally open contact which
is used to charge a capacitor mounted
on the outside of the start-locking re¬
lay. The purpose of the capacitor is to
hold relay I open for several seconds
longer to block the starting procedure
if the engine does not start properly or
quits after a few revolutions. With the
engine running, the voltage produced
by the generator/alternator opens the
normally closed contact in relay III and
holds the normally open contact in re¬
lay II closed in order to prevent the
starter from operating if the starter
switch is immediately closed again,
thus preventing the pinion from
attempting to mesh with the rotating
ring gear.
Electronic start-locking relay
The electronic start¬
locking relay combi¬
nes the advantages
of low weight and a
small number of
wearing parts be¬
cause it only incor¬
porates one switching relay. In addition,
the often very long starter cable (e.g. in
rear-engine buses) is no longer a disad¬
vantage because current is supplied to
terminal 50 of the starter not from the re¬
mote driving switch, but rather directly
from terminal 30 via the start-locking re¬
lay. The setting values are also much
more stable.
Operation
and maintenance
Operation
The starting procedure is normally very
short at moderate temperatures with a
starting system which is operating
properly. But even at low temperatures,
at which the engine is harder to start,
the starter should not be continuously
operated for more than 10 s due to its
high current consumption. If the engine
fails to start, wait for 30 to 60 s so that
the starter can cool down and the
battery can recover.
Maintenance,
customer service
Experience has shown that passenger-
car starters do not require special
maintenance in the course of vehicle
40) Combination test bench for testing starters, generators and regulators, diodes, ignition
distributors and ignition coils.
inspection as long as they are not used
more often than normal and are not
Starting
systems
subjected to unusually severe operat¬
ing conditions. The average starter has
a service life which is roughly the same
as the engine to which it is mounted.
However, the starting system should
be checked at appropriate intervals if it
is subjected to severe loading such as
in commercial vehicle use with frequent
starts, because the engines in vehicles
driven primarily in city traffic are started
roughly 2000 times per year, assuming
an annual mileage of 15,000 km. Such
frequent use leads to increased system
wear which eventually begins to affect
starter performance. Because commer¬
cial vehicles usually are required to last
much longer than passenger cars, the
starters in these vehicles must always
be checked at certain maintenance in¬
tervals.
99
Battery
ignition Battery ignition

Ignition in the spark-
ignition engine
The design of the ignition system in the
spark-ignition engine depends upon
how ignition is triggered, ignition timing
adjustment and how the high tension is
distributed and conveyed. Table 1
shows a classification of various ignition
systems.
Ignition point
The ignition point is essentially depen¬
dent on the variables “engine speed”
and “load”. Itisdependentupontheen-
gine speed since the time taken for
complete combustion of the mixture at
constant charge and with a constant air-
fuel ratio is constant and, thus, ignition
must occur earlier with increasing en¬
gine speed. The dependence upon the
load is influenced by the leaner mixture
in the case of low loads, the residual gas
content and the lower charge of the cyl¬
inder. This influence causes a longer ig¬
nition delay and lower combustion rates
in the mixture so that the ignition angle
needs to be advanced.
Spark advance
The behaviour of the ignition system as
a function of the engine speed and load
is incorporated in the ignition-timing
function. In the simplest case, the igni¬
tion-timing function comprises a cen¬
trifugal advance mechanism and a vac¬
uum control unit. The vacuum is largely
ameasure ofthe engine load.
Semiconductor ignition systems also
allow for other influences of the engine,
e.g. temperature or changes in the mix¬
ture composition. The values of all igni¬
tion timing functions are linked either
mechanically or electronically in orderto
determine the ignition point. The energy
storage device must be charged in good
time before the actual ignition point. This
requires the formation of a dwell period

Table 1. Definition of the ignition system.

An ignition system must perform at least the following functions:
Function Ignition system
Cl Tl SI BSI
Coil Transistorized Semiconduc¬ Distributor¬
ignition ignition tor ignition less semicon¬
ductor ignition
Ignition triggering Mechanical Electronic Electronic Electronic
(pulse generator)
Determining the ignition Mechanical Mechanical Electronic Electronic
angleonthe basisofthe
speed and load condition
ofthe engine
High-tension generation Inductive Inductive Inductive Inductive
Distribution and assign¬ Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical Electronic
ment ofthe ignition spark
to the correct cylinder
100 Powersection Mechanical Electronic Electronic Electronic
or dwell angle in the ignition system. The
energy is generally stored in an induc¬
tive storage device, and, in rare cases, in
a capacitive storage device. The high
tension results from disconnecting the
primary inductor from the power supply
followed by transformation. The high
tension is applied to the cylinder cur¬
rently performing the working stroke.
The position information of the
crankshaft required for this is provided
by an appropriate mechanism via the ig¬
nition distributor drive if using an ignition
distributor.
In the case of stationary high-tension
distribution, an electrical signal from the
crankshaft or the camshaft is required
for this purpose. The connecting ele¬
ments (plugs and high-tension cable)
convey the high tension to the spark
plug. The spark plug must function re¬
liably in all operating ranges of the en¬
gine in order to always ensure ignition of
the mixture.
Firing voltage
The excess-air factor A and the cylinder
pressure which is determined by charge
and compression have, together with
the electrode gap of the spark plug, a
crucial influence upon the required vol¬
tage and, thus, upon the required sec¬
ondary available voltage of the ignition
system.
1) Pressure curve in combustion chamber
for different ignition points.
1 Ignition (Za) at correct time
2 Ignition (Zb) too soon
3 Ignition (Zc)too late
bar
CD
jQ
E the exhaust gas, particularly in the idle
as
T 40
c Particularly high ignition energy and a
o
w long spark duration are favourable in the
_Q
E 20
o
o monstrated by way of example of an en¬
CD
I 0
« 75° 50° 25° 0° -25° -50° -75°
cl Ignition angle az
Ignition of the mixture Battery
ignition
Ignition energy
Approximately 0.2 mJ of energy is re¬
quired per individual ignition for igniting
an air-fuel mixture by electric sparks,
providing the mixture (static,
homogeneous) has a stoichiometric
composition. Rich and lean mixtures
(turbulent) require over 3 mJ. This
amount of energy is but a fraction of the
total energy contained in the ignition
spark, the ignition energy.
If insufficient ignition energy is available,
ignition does not occur; the mixture
cannot ignite and there are combustion
misses. This is why adequate ignition
energy must be provided to ensure that,
even under worst-case external condi¬
tions, the air-fuel mixture always ignites.
It may suffice for a small cloud of explo¬
sive mixture to move pastthe spark. The
cloud of mixture ignites and, in turn, ig¬
nites the rest of the mixture in the cylin¬
der, thus initiating fuel combustion.
Influences on ignition
characteristics
Good induction and easy access of the
mixture to the ignition spark improve
the ignition characteristics as do long
spark duration and great spark length or
large electrode gap. Intense turbulence
of the mixture also has a similarly
favourable effect providing that adequ¬
ate energy is available. The spark posi¬
tion and spark length are determined by
the dimensions of the spark plug. The
spark duration is determined by the
type and design of ignition system and
the instantaneous ignition conditions.
The spark position and accessibility of
the mixture to the spark plug influence
range.
case of lean mixtures. This can be de¬
gine at idle. During idle, the mixture may
be very inhomogeneous. Valve overlap
results in a high residual gas compo¬
nent. 101
Battery If we compare a normal breaker-trig¬
ignition gered coil ignition system and a high-
energy transistorized ignition system,
we can see that the spark of the transis¬
torized ignition system clearly reduces
and stabilizes HC emission. Smooth
running of the engine is also stabilized at
thesametime.
Fouling of the spark plug is also an im¬
portant factor. If spark plugs are heavily
fouled, energy is discharged from the ig¬
nition coil via the spark-plug shunt path
during the period in which the high ten¬
sion is being built up. This shortens the
spark duration, thus affecting the ex¬
haust gas and, in critical cases (if the
spark plugs are badly fouled or wet) may
result in complete misfiring. A certain
amount of misfiring is normally not
noticed by the driver but does result in
higher fuel consumption and may dam¬
age the catalytic converter.
Pollutant emission
The ignition angle az or the ignition
point has an important influence on the
exhaust-gas values, the torque, the
fuel consumption and the driveability of
the spark-ignition engine. The most im¬
portant pollutants in the exhaust gas
are the unburned hydrocarbons (HC),
oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and carbon
monoxide (CO).
The emission of unburned hydrocar¬
bons increases with more advanced ig¬
nition.
NOx emission increases with more
advanced ignition in the entire air-fuel
ratio range. The reason for this is the
rise in combustion-chamber tempera¬
ture together with increasing ignition
advance.
CO emission is practically independent
of the ignition point and is virtually ex¬
clusively afunction oftheair-fuel ratio.
earlier in order to compensate for the
lower combustion rate and thus main¬
tain an optimum combustion process.
Thus, an advanced ignition point means
lower fuel consumption and high torque
but only if the mixture is controlled
accordingly.
Knocking tendency
One further important interrelationship
is that between ignition point and the
tendency of the engine to knock. This is
demonstrated by way of the effect of a
too early or too late ignition point (by
comparison with the correct ignition
point) on the pressure in the combustion
chamber. If the ignition point is too early,
mixture at various points in the combus¬
tion chamber also ignites owing to the
ignition pressure wave. This means that
the mixture burns irregularly and intense
pressure fluctuations occur with high
combustion-pressure peaks. This
effect, called knocking, can be heard
clearly-at low engine speeds. At high en¬
gine speeds, the noise is smothered by
the engine noise. But it is precisely in
this range that knocking may lead to
engine damage and it must thus be
avoided by finding an optimum combi¬
nation of suitable fuel and ignition point.

Fuel consumption
The influence of the ignition point on fuel
consumption conflicts with the influence
on pollutant emission. With increasing
102 excess-air factor A, ignition must occur
Conventional
coil ignition
Cl
The conventional coil-ignition system is
breaker-triggered. This means that the
current flowing through the ignition coil
is switched on and off mechanically via a
contact in the ignition distributor (contact
breaker).
The breaker-triggered coil-ignition sys¬
tem is the simplest version of an ignition
system in which all functions are im¬
plemented. In addition to the ignition
distributor, there are a whole number of
other components, as shown in Table 2
together with theirfunctions.
Operating principle
Synchronization and
distribution
Synchronization with the crankshaft
and, thus, with the position of the indi¬
vidual pistons is guaranteed by the
mechanical coupling of the ignition dis¬
tributor to the camshaft or to another
shaft which turns at only half the speed
of the crankshaft. Thus, if the ignition
distributor is turned, this will also result
in a shift in the ignition point or varying
the ignition distributor permits a pre¬
scribed ignition pointto be set.
The mechanical rotor arm which is also
permanently coupled to the upper sec¬
tion of the ignition-distributor shaft en¬
sures correct distribution of the high
tension, in conjunction with routing of
the high-tension cables to the individual
sparkplugs.
ignition sequence
(Figures 2 and 4)
During operation, the voltage of the
battery (1) is applied to terminal 15 of
the ignition coil (3) via the ignition and
starting switch (2). When the contact
breaker (6) is closed, the current flows
through the primary winding of the igni¬
tion coil to ground. This builds up a
magnetic field in the ignition coil, thus
storing the ignition energy. The current
Battery
ignition
rise is exponential owing to the in¬
ductance and the primary resistance of
the primary winding. The charging time
is determined by the dwell angle. In
turn, the dwell angle is determined by
the design of the cam which actuates
the contact breaker via the cam
follower. At the end of the dwell period,
the ignition-distributor cam opens the
ignition contact and thus interrupts the
coil current.
Table 2.
Components of the conventional
coil-ignition system.
A coil-ignition system is composed of
various components and subassemb¬
lies, the actual design and construction
of which depend mainly on the engine
with which the system is to be used.
Component Function
Ignition coil Stores the ignition energy and
delivers it in the form of a high vol¬
tage surge through the H. T. igni¬
tion cable to the distributor
Ignition and A switch in the primary circuit of
starting switch the coil, manually operated with
the ignition key
Ballast resistor This is shorted during starting for
starting-voltage boosting
Contact Opens and closes the primary cir¬
breaker cuit of the ignition coilforthe
purposes of energy storage and
voltage conversion
Ignition Provides for low-loss interruption
capacitor of the primary current and
suppresses most of the arcing
between the contact points
Ignition Distributes the firing voltage at
distributor the instant of ignition to the spark
plugs in a pre-set sequence
Centrifugal Automatically shifts the ignition
advance timing depending on the engine
mechanism speed
Vacuum Automatically shifts the ignition
advance timing depending on the engine
mechanism load
Sparkplug Contains the electrodes which
are the most important parts
required to generate the ignition
spark and seals off the combus¬
tion chamber
103
Battery The current, the off time and the
ignition number of windings of the secondary
circuit of the ignition coil essentially
determine the firing voltage induced
in the secondary circuit. Since the
current tends to carry on flowing, an
arc would form at the ignition contact.
In order to prevent this, the ignition
capacitor (5) is connected in parallel
with the contact breaker. This means
that the primary current flows to the
capacitor and charges it until the fir¬
ing voltage discharges disruptively.
This means that voltages of a few
hundred V occur briefly at terminal 1
of the ignition coil in the primary cir¬
cuit. The high tension thus generated
charges the connection to the center
tower of the ignition distributor,
causes a disruptive discharge be¬
tween the rotor arm and outer elec¬
trode, then charges the high-tension
cable to the relevant spark plug and
finally causes disruptive discharge at
the spark plug, i.e. causes the igni¬ at the spark plug. The spark duration
tion spark. After this, the magnetic is generally 1 to 2 ms. After the igni¬
energy stored in the ignition coil is tion coil is discharged, the cam of the
discharged constantly as electrical ignition distributor switches the con¬
energy to the spark. This causes a tact breaker back on and the ignition
spark voltage of approximately 400 V coil is recharged.

2) Ignition system with conventional coil ignition.

1 Battery, 2 Ignition and starting switch, 3 Ignition coil, 4 Ignition distributor, 5 Ignition capacitor,
6 Contact breaker, 7 Spark plugs, Rb ballast resistor for boosting the starting voltage
(not always fitted).

104
The rotor arm which carries on moving formula applies to the energy stored Battery
in the meantime transfers the high ten¬ in the magnetic field of the ignition ignition
sion to the next spark plug during the coil
next ignition.
W-Sp = \ U ■ i1

Ignition coil fVSp stored energy, L1 inductance of

Construction
The ignition coil consists of a metal
housing which accommodates metal
plate jackets for reducing stray magne¬
tic fields. The secondary winding is
wound directly onto the laminated iron
core and connected electrically to the
center tower in the cap of the ignition
coil via the core. Since the high ten¬
sion is applied to the iron core, the
core must be insulated by the cap and
an additional insulator inserted in the
base. The primary winding is located
near to the outside around the secon¬
the primary winding, i1 current which
flows in the ignition distributor at the
moment at which the contact breaker
opens.
At the ignition point, the voltage at ter¬
minal 4 (high-tension tower of the igni¬
tion coil) rises approximately sinusoi¬
dally. The rate of rise is determined by
4) Section through an ignition coil.
1 High-tension connection on the outside,
2 Winding layers with insulating paper,
3 Insulating cap, 4 High-tension connection on
the inside via spring contact, 5 Case, 6 Mount¬
ing bracket, 7 Metal plate jacketing (magnetic),

darywinding. 8 Primary winding, 9 Secondary winding,

10 Sealing compound, 11 Insulator, 12 Iron
core.
The insulated ignition coil cap contains
the terminals 15 and 1 for the battery
voltage and the connection to the con¬
tact breaker, symmetrically with the Terminal 4

high-tension tower, terminal 4. The

windings are insulated and mechani¬
cally locked in position by potting with
asphalt. Oil-filled ignition coils are also
available.
The power loss occurs chiefly in the
primary winding. The heat is dissipated
through the metal plate jackets to the
can. This is why the ignition coil is
secured to the bodywork with such a
wide clamp so that as much heat as
possible is dissipated via this metal
band.

Function
The primary current which is switched
on and off by the ignition distributor
flows through the primary winding of
the ignition coil. The magnitude of the
current is determined by the battery
voltage at terminal 15 and the ohmic
resistance of the primary winding. The
primary resistance may lie between
0.2 and 3 ohms, dependent upon use
of the ignition coil. The primary induct¬
ance L! is a few mH. The following 105
Battery the capacitive load at terminal 4. When
ignition the breakdown voltage at the spark
plug is reached, the voltage drops to
the spark voltage of the spark plug and
the energy stored in the ignition coil
flows to the ignition spark. As soon as
the energy no longer suffices to main¬
tain the glow discharge, the spark
breaks down and the remaining energy
decays in the secondary circuit of the
ignition coil.
The high tension is polarized such that
the center electrode of the spark plug is
negative with respect to the vehicle
chassis or ground. If the polarity were
the reverse, this would mean a slightly
higher required voltage. The ignition
coil is designed as an auto-transformer
such that the secondary side is con¬
nected to terminal 1 or 15.
In the same way as the primary induct¬
ance and the primary resistance deter¬
mine the stored energy, the secondary
inductance determines the high-ten¬
sion and spark characteristic. A typical
turns-ratio of primary to secondary
winding is 1:100. The induced voltage,
the spark current and the spark dura¬
tion are dependent upon both the
stored energy and the secondary in¬
ductance.
5) Contact breaker (schematic diagram).
a) Contact closed
b) Large point gap, small dwell angle
c) Small point gap, large dwell angle
b /\
106
Internal resistance
One further important value is the inter¬
nal resistance since it is one of the fac¬
tors which determine the rate of voltage
rise and is thus a measure of how much
energy is discharged from the ignition
coil via shunt resistances at the moment
of spark discharge. A low internal resist¬
ance is advantageous in the case of
fouled or wet spark plugs. The internal
resistance is dependent upon the sec¬
ondary inductance.
Contact breaker
The contact breaker is controlled via
the breaker cam which has as many
lobes as the number of cylinders in the
engine. The breaker cam can be
turned on the ignition distributor shaft;
it is adjusted dependent upon the en-
gine-speed-dependent ignition-timing
adjustment input from the centrifugal
advance mechanism. The cam is confi¬
gured such that there results a dwell
angle corresponding to the ignition coil
and the sparking rate.
Thus, the dwell angle is permanently
preset for a breaker-triggered ignition
system and is invariable throughout
the entire engine-speed range. How¬
ever, the dwell angle does change
throughout the service life of the en¬
gine owing to wear of the cam follower
on the breaker lever. The abrasion
which is thus produced means tnat the
contact breaker opens at a later point.
The resultant ignition retard generally
results in higher fuel consumption.
This is one of the reasons why the
contact breaker needs to be renewed
regularly and the dwell angle checked.
Another reason why maintenance is
required is contact erosion (pitting).
The contact must switch currents of up
to 5 A and break voltages of up to
500 V. On a 4-cylinder engine with an
engine speed of 6000 min"1 the con¬
tact switches 12 000 times per mi¬
nute, this corresponding to a fre¬
quency of 200 Hz. Defective contacts
mean inadequate charging of the igni¬
tion coil, undefined ignition points
and, thus, higher fuel consumption and
poorer exhaust-gas values.
Ignition distributor
The ignition distributor is the component
of the ignition system which performs
most functions. It rotates at half the
crankshaft speed. A 4-cylinder dis¬
tributor has, for instance, 4 outputs
which each generate an ignition pulse
each time the rotorturns.
of the distributor rotor. This is why, when Battery
fitting, it must be ensured that the rotor ignition
arm is fitted in the correct position. The
distributor rotor and distributor cap are
made of a high-grade plastic which is re¬
quired to meet very stringent require¬
ments in respect of dielectric strength,
6) Components of an ignition distributor.
1 Distributor cap
2 Distributor rotor with electrode (E)
3 Dust-protection cover (condensation barrier)
4 Distributor shaft
5 Breaker cam

Features 6 Connection for vacuum hose

7 Vacuum control unit
The main exterior features are the pot¬ 8 Ignition capacitor
shaped ignition-distributor housing and
the distributor cap made of insulating
material with the towers forthe high-ten¬
sion connections. On some versions of
shaft distributors, the drive shaft pro¬
jects into the engine. It is then driven via
a gearing system or a coupling. Another
design, the short-type distributor, sim¬
plifies direct attachment to the camshaft.
In this case, there is no drive shaft and
the drive coupling is located directly at
the base of the ignition-distributor hous¬
ing. The stringent requirements in re¬
spect of ignition-distributor accuracy re¬
quire very good bearing support. On
shaft distributors, the shaft itself pro¬
vides an adequately long bearing sec¬
tion. Short-type distributors require an
additional bearing above the triggering
system.

Construction
The ignition-distributor housing accom¬
modates the centrifugal advance
mechanism, the actuation system for
the vacuum advance system and the ig¬
nition triggering system. The ignition
capacitor and the vacuum control unit
are secured on the outside of the igni¬
tion-distributor housing. In addition, the
outside of the housing also has the
catches for securing the distributor cap
and the electrical connection. The dust-
protection cover protects the triggering
system against dirt deposits and mois¬
ture. There is a slot on the distributor
shaft above the breaker cam. This slot
serves to define the installation position 107
Battery climatic resistance, mechanical strength
ignition and flammability. The high tension gen¬
erated in the ignition coil is fed to the ig¬
nition distributor via the central tower.
There is a small, spring-loaded carbon
pin between the distributor rotor and
central tower. This pin establishes con¬
tact between the fixed cap and the rota¬
ting distributor rotor. The ignition energy
flows from the centerpoint of the dis¬
tributor rotor through the interference-
suppression resistor with a rating of
>1 kohm to the distributor-rotor elec¬
trode, and, from there, sparks over to
the respective outer electrode which is
recessed in the outer tower. The voltage
required for this is in the region of kV.
The resistor in the distributor rotor limits
the peak currents when the sparks are
being built up and thus serves to sup¬
press interference. With the exception
of the contact breaker, all parts of the ig¬
nition distributor require virtually no
maintenance.
7) Example of an overall timing-control
system comprising engine speed-depen-
dent adjustment and intake manifold
pressure-dependent adjustment.
1 Part load on road
2 Full load
108
Spark-advance mechanism
The centrifugal advance mechanism ad¬
vances ignition timing as a function of
the engine speed. Assuming constant
charge and fuel induction, this results in
afixed duration for ignition and complete
combustion of the mixture. This fixed
duration means that it is necessary to
produce the ignition spark correspond¬
ingly earlier at high engine speeds.
However, the progression of an ignition-
distributor characteristic curve is also in¬
fluenced in practice by the knock limit
and the variation in composition of the
mixture.
The vacuum advance mechanism
allows for the load condition of the en¬
gine since the ignition and combustion
rate of the fresh gas in the cylinder is
highly dependent upon the charge in the
cylinder.
The engine-speed or centrifugal ad¬
vance mechanism, and the vacuum tim¬
ing control or load adjustment, are inter¬
connected mechanically in such a way
that both adjustments are added.
8) Centrifugal advance mechanism in rest
position (top) and in operating position
(bottom).
1 Support plate
2 Distributor cam
3 Rolling contact path
4 Flyweight
5 Ignition-distributor shaft
6 Yoke
9) Vacuum advance mechanism with early (advance) and late (retard) adjustment systems. Battery
a) Adjustment in the true advance direction as far as the limit stop, b) Adjustment in the true retarded ignition
direction as far as the limit stop.
1 Ignition distributor, 2 Movable breaker plate, 3 Diaphragm, 4 Vacuum retard unit, 5 Vacuum advance
unit, 6 Vacuum control unit, 7 Throttle valve, 8 Intake manifold.

Centrifugal advance mechanism manifold. As the engine load decreases,

The centrifugal advance mechanism ad¬
justs the ignition point as a function of
engine speed. The support plate which
rotates with the distributor shaft bears
the flyweights. As engine speed in¬
creases, the flyweights move outwards.
By means of their contact path, they ro¬
tate the yoke in the direction of shaft ro¬
tation but relative to the shaft. The result
is that the distributor cam also rotates re¬
lative to the shaft by the same angle, the
advance angle az, and thus advances
the ignition point by this angle.
Vacuum advance mechanism
The vacuum advance mechanism ad¬
justs the ignition pointasafunction ofthe
engine power or engine load. The vac¬
uum in the intake manifold near to the
throttlevalveservesasameasureforthis
vacuum advance. The vacuum is meas¬
ured by one ortwo aneroid capsules.
“Early” adjustmentsystem
The lower the load, the earlier the air-fuel
mixture needs to be ignited since it burns
more slowly. The percentage of burned
but non-exhausted residual gases in the
combustion chamber increases and the
mixture becomes leaner.
The vacuum for adjustment in the ad¬
vance direction is taken off at the intake
the vacuum in the vacuum advance unit
increases, causing the diaphragm and
the vacuum advance arm to move to the
right (Figure 11). The vacuum advance
arm turns the movable breaker plate in
the opposite direction to the direction of
rotation of the distributor shaft. The ig¬
nition point is advanced further, i.e. in
the “early” direction.
“Late” adjustment system
The vacuum in the intake manifold is, in
this case, taken off downstream of the
throttle valve. With the aid of the annular
“vacuum retard unit”, the ignition point
is retarded, i.e. moved in the “late” di¬
rection, under specific engine condi¬
tions (e.g. idle, overrun) in order to im¬
prove the exhaust-gas values. The ring
diaphragm moves, together with the
vacuum advance arm, to the left as soon
as there is a vacuum. The vacuum ad¬
vance arm turns the movable breaker
plate, including the contact breaker, in
the direction of rotation of the ignition
distributor shaft. The late adjustment
system is subordinate to the early ad¬
justment system: simultaneous vacuum
in both aneroid capsules means an igni¬
tion-timing shift in the advance direction
for part-load operation.
109
Battery
ignition
Breaker-triggered
transistorized
ignition Tl-B
The ignition distributor of the breaker-
triggered transistorized ignition system
(Tl-B) is identical to the ignition dis¬
tributor of the breaker-triggered coil ig¬
nition system (SI). However, since the
contact operates in conjunction with a
transistorized ignition system, the con¬
tact breaker no longer needs to switch
the primary current but only the control
current for the transistorized ignition
system. The transistorized ignition sys¬
tem itself plays the role of a current am¬
plifier and switches the primary current
via an ignition transistor (generally a
Darlington transistor). In order to facili¬
tate understanding, the wiring of the
contact and thefunction of asimpleTI-B
are compared below to a breaker-trig¬
gered coil-ignition system.
Operating principle
Figures 11 and 12 clearly show that the
breaker-triggered transistorized ignition
system is a further development of the
conventional, non-electronic coil-igni¬
tion system: the transistor T is used as
the circuit breaker in place of the contact
breaker and assumes its switching func¬
tion in the primary circuit of the ignition
system. However, since the transistor
has a relay characteristic, it must be
caused to switch in the same way as the
relay. This can be done, for instance, as
shown in Figure 11, with a control
switch. Such transistorized ignition sys¬
tems are thus termed breaker-trig¬
gered. In Bosch transistorized ignition
systems, the cam-operated breaker
performs the function of this control
switch. When the contact is closed, a
control current /s flows to the base B
and the transistor is electrically con¬
ductive between the emitter E and the
collector C. In this condition, it corres¬
110 ponds to a switch in the “On” position
and current can flow through the prim¬
ary winding L^ of the ignition coil. How¬
ever, if the contact of the breaker is
open, no control current flows through
to the base and the transistor is electri¬
cally non-conductive. It thus blocks the
primary current and, in this condition,
corresponds to a switch in the “Off”
position.
Advantages
The breaker-triggered transistorized ig¬
nition system has two essential advan¬
tages over the breaker-triggered coil-
ignition system:
- An increase in the primary current
and
10) Secondary available voltage of the
ignition coil for the spark plug as a function
of the sparking rate or engine speed
(4-cylinder engine).
a) Ignition coil with maximum sparking rate
12000 min-1,
b) High-performance ignition coil with
maximum sparking rate 21 000 min-1.
Uz ignition voltage,
AU minimum voltage reserve.
Red: Area showing operation free of misfiring.
Sparking rate
- considerably longer service life of the
contact.
The primary current can be increased if
using a switching transistor since a
mechanical contact can switch currents
of only up to 5 A for long periods and
with the required frequency. Since the
stored energy is proportional to the
square of the primary current, the power
of the ignition coil increases and, thus,
also all high-tension data such as sec¬
ondary available voltage, spark duration
and spark current. Thus, a breaker-trig¬
gered transistorized ignition system
also requires a special ignition coil in ad¬
dition to the ignition trigger box.
A far longer service life of the Tl-B re¬
sults from the fact that the contact
breaker is not required to switch high
currents. In addition, the Tl-B is also not
subject to two other phenomena which
indefinably reduce the secondary avail¬
able voltage of contact-triggered coil-ig¬
nition systems: contact chatter and the
contact-breaking spark which results
from the inductance of the ignition coil. Battery
The contact-breaking spark causes the ignition
available energy to be reduced and the
high-tension voltage rise to be delayed,
particularly at low engine speed and
when starting. Conversely, contact
chatter occurs at high engine speeds
owing to the high switching frequency of
the contact and is a disturbing influence.
The contact bounces when closing and
thus charges the ignition coil less in¬
tensely, precisely at a point in time at
which the dwell period is reduced any¬
way. The first negative characteristic of
the contact breaker is not applicable to
the breaker-triggered transistorized ig¬
nition system, the second is.

11) Comparison between a conven¬ 3

tional coil ignition system (Tl) and a
breaker-triggered transistorized
ignition system (Tl-B).
Top: Circuit diagram of the Tl. The con¬
tact breaker performs a dual function of
circuit breakerand control switch.
Bottom: Simplified circuit diagram ofthe
Tl-B.
1 Battery, 2 Ignition and starting switch,
3 Ballast resistor, 4 Switch forvoltage
increase for starting, 5 Ignition coil with
primary winding Z,1 and secondary wind¬
ing L2, 6 Ignition 'capacitor, 7 Contact
breaker (control switch), 8 Ignition dis¬
tributor, 9 Spark plugs, 10 Electronic cir¬
cuitry with voltage-divider resistors /q,
/?2andtransistorT, Ic control current.

Rsi 3 Rs2

111
Battery Circuit
ignition
On a breaker-triggered transistorized
ignition system, the ignition trigger box
(control unit) is connected between ter¬
minal 1 of the ignition distributor (i.e. the
contact breaker) and terminal 1 of the ig¬
nition coil (Figure 12). In addition, the ig¬
nition trigger box requires one further
terminal 15 for its power supply and a
ground connection 31. The primary cir¬
cuit of the ignition coil is powered via a
pair of ballast resistors which are nor¬
mally connected in series. When start¬
ing, the left-hand ballast resistor is by¬
passed by terminal 60 at the starter. This
means that a higher supply voltage is
applied to the ignition coil via the right-
hand ballast resistor, it compensates for
the disadvantages which result from the
starting operation and the resulting re¬
duction in battery voltage. Ballast resis¬
tors serve to limit the primary current in
the case of low-resistance, rapidly
chargeable ignition coils. They thus pre¬
vent overload of the ignition coil, particu¬
larly at low engine speeds, and thus pro¬
tect the ignition contact breaker since
12) Components and connection diagram of the Tl-B.
1 Battery, 2 Ignition and starting switch, 3 Ignition trigger box, 4 Ballast resistors, 5 Cable connection
to the starter, 6 Ignition coil, 7 Ignition distributor, 8 Spark plugs, / primary current, Ic control current.
112
the dwell angle is still determined by the
distributor cam. Since the ignition coil
actually requires a constant period for
charging but does not operate with a
fixed dwell angle, there is too much time
available at low engine speeds for
charging and too little at high engine
speeds. Ballast resistors and a rapidly
chargeable ignition coil permit an op¬
timum situation overthe entire operating
range.
On older vehicles, theTI-B was an origi¬
nal equipment item. It has now been dis¬
placed by the transistorized ignition with
maintenance-free trigger systems.
However, as a retrofit-equipment set,
the Tl-B is still well-suited for substan¬
tially improving the ignition characteris¬
tics on vehicles with breaker-triggered
coil-ignition systems fitted as standard.
This is why it is advisable to retrofit such
a system in the case of general ignition
problems, specifically in the case of
starting difficulties, and if the vehicle isto
be used largely for stop-and-go driving.

Transistorized
ignition with
Hall generator Tl-H
In addition to the breaker-triggered
transistorized ignition system (Tl-B),
there are two other versions of transis¬
torized ignition with Hall triggering sys¬
tem (Tl-H).
On one version, the dwell angle is deter¬
mined by the shape of the rotor in the ig¬
nition distributor. The other version con¬
tains a control unit incorporating hybrid
circuitry and which automatically regu¬
lates the dwell angle. An additional cur¬
rent limiter with a highly efficient ignition
coil make this version a particularly high-
performance ignition system.
Hall effect
If electrons move in a conductor to
which the lines of force of a magnetic
field are applied, the electrons are de¬
flected perpendicularly to the current di¬
13) Hall effect
B Fluxdensity ofthe magneticfield, /H Hall
current, /v Supply current, UH Hall voltage,
(/Thickness.
Battery
rection and perpendicularly to the direc¬
tion of the magnetic field: an excess of ignition
electrons occurs at Ai and a deficiency
of electrons occurs at A2, i.e. the Hall
voltage occurs across A1 and A2. This
so-called Hall effect is particularly
prominent in the case of semiconduc¬
tors.
Hall generator
When the ignition-distributor shaft turns,
the vanes of the rotor move through the
air gap of the magnetic barrier without
touching it. When the air gap is unob¬
structed the incorporated 1C and the Hall
layerare subjected to the magneticfield.
At the Hall layer, the magnetic flux den¬
sity B is high and the Hall voltage f/H is
maximum. The Hall 1C is activated. As
soon as one of the rotor vanes enters
the air gap, most of the magnetic flux
runs through the vane area and is thus
largely prevented from reaching the
Hall layer. The flux density at the Hall
layer is reduced to a virtually negligible
level, resulting from the leakage field.
Voltage f/H is at minimum.
14) Hall generator in the ignition distributor.
Top: Principle, bottom: Generator voltage UG
(converted Hall voltage), 1 Vane with width w,
2 Soft magnetic conductive elements with
permanent magnet, 3 Hall 1C, 4 Airgap.
Iz h
Time /-►
113
Battery The Hall generator is accommodated in
ignition the ignition distributor. The magnetic
barrier is mounted on the movable
carrying plate. The Hall 1C is located on
a ceramic substrate and is potted in
plastic together with one of the conduc¬
tive elements in order to protect it
against moisture, dirt and mechanical
damage. The conductive elements and
trigger wheel are of a soft magnetic
material. The trigger wheel and dis¬
tributor rotor comprise one component
on the retrofit-equipment version. The
number of vanes is equal to the number
of cylinders. The width w (Fig. 22) of the
individual vanes may determine the
maximum dwell angle of the ignition
system, dependent upon the ignition
trigger box. The dwell angle conse¬
quently remains constant throughout
the entire service life of the Hall
generator; thus, there is no need to set
the dwell angle. The mode of operation
and design of the Hall generator permit
the ignition system to be set with the
engine switched off providing peak-
15) Varying the dwell angle by shifting the trigger level on the Hall generator.
a) DwellangleS-| correct, b) Dwell angle S2 too small, c) Dwell angle S3 too large, q..V3 time during
which the output stage is conductive, q * current-limiting time correct, t3* current-limiting time too long.
Time t
114
coil-current cut-off is incorporated. If
the technical prerequisites are fulfilled,
and the installation instructions are ob¬
served precisely, it is an easy matter to
convert from conventional ignition to
breakerless ignition. Bosch service
stations will be able to provide you with
further information.
Current regulation and dwell-angle
closed-loop control
High-performance ignition systems op¬
erate with ignition coils which are
charged very rapidly. For this purpose,
the ohmic resistance of the primary
winding is reduced to less than 1 ohm.
The information content of the signal of a
Hall vane switch in the ignition dis¬
tributor corresponds to the signal of an
ignition contact breaker. In one case, the
dwell angle is determined by the dis¬
tributor cam and, in the other, the pulse
duty factor is determined by the rotor
vane. A rapidly chargeable ignition coil
cannot operate with a fixed dwell angle.
This is why two measures must be taken
to protect the ignition coil: a primary-
current regulation system and a dwell-
angle closed-loop control system.
Current-regulation function
The primary-current regulation system
serves to limit the current through the ig¬
nition coil and, thus, to limit the build-up
of energy to a specific amount. A certain
lead time is required in order to cope
with the dynamic conditions applicable
when the engine accelerates. This
means thatthe ignition coil should reach
its nominal value before the ignition
point. During this current regulation
phase, the ignition transistor operates in
its active range. More voltage than in
pure switch mode drops across the Battery
transistor. This means a high power loss ignition
which may lie between 20 and 30 W. In
order to minimize the power loss and in
order to set the appropriate dwell angle,
a dwell-angle closed-loop control sys¬
tem is required (which is actually a
dwell-period closed-loop control sys¬
tem since the coil is charged as a func¬
tion of time).
Function of the closed-loop
dwell-angle control system
Since control processes in analog sys¬
tems are carried out simply by shifting
voltage threshold values, the square-
wave signal of the Hall generator is first

16) Ignition distributor with Hall generator (supplementary-equipment version).

1 Vanes, 2 Vane switch, 3 Conductive element, 4 Air gap, 5 Ceramic substrate with Hall 1C (potted),
6 3-core Hall generator lead, 7 Ignition-distributor shaft, 8 Carrying plate, 9 Distributor housing,
10 Distributor rotor.

115
Battery 17) Control unit (trigger box) with output
ignition stage for current regulation and dwell-
angle closed-loop control.
converted to a ramp signal by charging
and discharging capacitors. The pulse
duty factor of the Hall generator is 30:70
between two ignition points.
The ignition point determined by adjust¬
ment of the ignition distributor lies at the
end of the vane width corresponding to
70 % (Fig. 22 and 23). The closed-loop
control system is set such that the cur¬
rent control time q corresponds pre¬
cisely to the required dynamic lead. A
voltage is formed on the basis of value t-\
and is compared withthetrailing ramp of
the ramp voltage. The primary current is
switched on at the intersection point
“ON” and the dwell angle starts. In this
way, the switch-on point of the dwell
angle can be varied as required by shift¬
ing the intersection point on the ramp
18) Circuitry of the control unit incorporating hybrid circuits.
116
voltage and by varying the voltage de¬
rived from the current control time. This
means that the correct dwell angle is al¬
ways formed for every operating range.
Since current regulation and dwell-
angle closed-loop control are depen¬
dent directly upon current and time, this
eliminates the effects of varying battery
voltage and temperature effects or other
ignition coil tolerances. This renders
these ignition systems particularly suit¬
able for cold starting. Since primary cur¬
rent can flow owing to the waveform of
the Hall signal with the engine switched
off and with the ignition-starting switch
switched on, the control units can be
equipped with an auxiliary circuit which
switches off this “peak-coil current”
after a certain period.
Control unit
Transistorized ignition systems with
current regulation and' dwell-angle
closed-loop control, virtually all com¬
prise hybrid circuits. This makes it poss¬
ible to combine the compact and light¬
weight control units, for instance with
the ignition coil, to form one assembly.
Owing to the power loss which occurs in
the ignition coil and in the transistorized-
ignition control unit, adequate cooling
and good thermal contact with the body¬
work are required.
 Battery
Transistorized ignition approximately 0.5 V at low engine speed
and approximately 100 Vat high engine ignition
with induction-type speed. The frequency/of this AC vol¬
tage corresponds to the sparking rate.
pulse generator Tl-I It is as follows,

f= z-m 2
The transistorized ignition system with / Frequency or sparking rate (min-1)
induction-type pulse generator (Tl-I) is a z Numberof cylinders,
high-performance ignition system like n Engine speed (min-1).
the ignition system with Hall generator,
and there are only slight differences bet¬ Design features
ween the two systems. As compared The induction-type pulse generator is
with the Tl-H, the Tl-I has a greater accommodated in the housing of the ig¬
phase displacement between the actual nition distributor in place of the contact
ignition point and the off-edge of the breaker. When viewed from the outside,
pulse-generator voltage at high engine only the plug-in two-core generator lead
speeds. This is attributable to the induc¬ indicates that this ignition distributor has
tion-type pulse generator in the Tl-I an induction-type pulse generator. The
which represents an electrical AC soft magnetic core of the inductive wind¬
generator and has an additional phase ing has the form of a circular disc, called
displacement owing to the load of the the “pole piece”. On the outside, the
control unit. In certain cases, this effect pole piece has statorteeth which, for in¬
is even desirable in order to correct the stance, may be bent upwards perpen¬
characteristic curves to prevent knock¬ dicularly. Consequently the rotor has
ing. Owing to the symmetrical pulse- teeth which are bent downwards.
generator construction, the Tl-I is The trigger wheel which is comparable
characterized by less spark oscillation in with the distributor cam of the contact
comparison to the Hall barrier of theTI-H
which is arranged asymmetrically with 19) Ignition distributor with induction-type
pulse generator.
respect to the axis of rotation.
Top: principle, bottom: induced voltage.
1 Permanent magnet, 2 Inductive winding with
core, 3 Variable airgap, 4 Rotor.
Induction-type
pulse generator
The permanent magnet, inductive wind¬
ing and the core of the induction-type
pulse generator form a self-contained
unit, the “stator”. The trigger wheel
which is located on the ignition dis¬
tributor shaft, termed the “rotor” turns
with respect to this fixed assembly. The
core and rotor are made of a soft magne¬
tic steel. They have tooth-shaped exten¬
sions (statorteeth, rotorteeth).
The operating principle is based upon
the fact that the air gap between the rotor
and stator teeth changes periodically
when the rotor rotates. This also
changes the magnetic flux. The change
in flux induces an AC voltage in the in¬
ductive winding. The peak voltage ± U
is dependent upon the engine speed: 117
Battery breaker is permanently connected to
ignition the hollow shaft which encloses the dis¬
tributor shaft. The number of teeth on
the trigger wheel and on the pole piece
generally correspond to the number of
cylinders in the engine. The fixed and
moving teeth, when positioned directly
opposite each other, have a spacing of
approximately 0.5 mm.
Current regulation and dwell-
angle closed-loop control
Current regulation and dwell-angle
closed-loop control on the Tl-I are simi¬
lar to those on the Tl-H. However, they
are generally less complex since, nor¬
mally, it is not necessary to generate a
ramp voltage for shifting the on-time of
the dwell angle. Instead, the signal of the
induction-type pulse generator itself can
be used as the voltage ramp on the
basis of which the on-time of the dwell
angle is determined by comparison with
a voltage signal corresponding to the
current control time.
Current regulation function
The current regulation system detects
the current by measuring the voltage
drop across a low-resistance resistor in
the emitter lead of the ignition transistor.
The driver stage of the ignition transistor
(Darlington transistor) is driven directly
via a closed-loop current-limiting circuit.
Function of the closed-loop
dwell-angle control system
The closed-loop dwell-angle control
system operates with the same measur¬
ing-circuit voltage but routes it to its
own closed-loop control circuit. Any
necessary correction of the dwell angle
can be determined by assessing the
time during which the current of The
transistor is being controlled.
Control unit
Control units of Tl-I high-performance
ignition systems virtually all comprise
hybrid circuits since they combine a high
packing density with low weightand high

20) Varying the dwell angle by shifting the trigger level on the induction-type pulse
generator.
a) DwellangleS-, correct, b) Dwell angle S2too small, c) Dwell angle S3too large, ,../3 time during
which the output stage is conductive, t* current-limiting time correct, t3* current-limiting time too
long.

Time t
118
21) System with breakerless transistorized ignition (Tl). Battery
1 Sparkplug ignition
2 Lambda sensor
3 Ignition distributor with
centrifugal advance
mechanism, vacuum
timing control and
induction-type pulse
generator or Hall
generator (alternative)
4 Ignition coil
5 Control unit
(trigger box)
6 Ignition and starting
switch
7 to the battery

reliability. If less stringent performance signed more compactly for specificappli-

data are permitted, it may be possible to
dispense with dwell-angle closed-loop
control and, possibly even current regu¬
lation. Since the control load ratio of the
evaluated pulse-generator signal on Tl-I
systems drops with decreasing engine
speed, Tl-I control units may be de¬
cations and are thus particularly well-
suited for direct attachmenttothe ignition
distributor housing. Similar to combining
the ECU with the ignition coil, this permits
a reduction in the number of components
in the ignition system which must be con¬
nected with leads.

22) Block diagram showing the control unit with Hall generator or induction-type pulse
generator.

Ignition
Battery coil

Trigger box
either

Pulse-
Hall gene¬
shaper (—
rator
stage
Dwell-
angle Peak-coil- rWi\/£vr
Output
clos
or loop cut-off
trol
Induction-
SB
type pulse
generator Primar«j
currentf*1

Primary current, Cull

Current
set value detjlstion
limiting
(reflr)

Current-control fcurrent-control
time, set value :ime, actual value

119
Battery
Semiconductor
ignition
ignition SI
On transistorized ignition systems, the
conventional ignition distributor with
centrifugal advance and vacuum ad¬
vance mechanisms is capable of imple¬
menting only very simple advance
characteristic curves. This means they
can only approximately meet the de¬
mands of the engine
On the “semiconductor ignition sys¬
tem” (SI), there is no mechanical spark-
advance system in the distributor. In¬
stead, a pulse-generator signal, in the
form of an engine speed signal, is used
to trigger the ignition. An additional
pressure sensor supplies the load sig¬
nals. The microcomputer computes the
required ignition point adjustment and
modifies the output signal issued to the
trigger box accordingly.
23) Semiconductor ignition system (SI).
1 Ignition coil with attached ignition output stage, 2 High-tension distributor, 3 Spark plug, 4 Control
unit, 5 Engine-temperature sensor, 6 Throttle-valve switch, 7 Rotational-speed sensor and reference-
mark sensor, 8 Ring gear, 9 Battery, 10 Ignition and starting switch.
120
Advantages
- Spark advance can be matched bet¬
ter to the individual and diverse require¬
ments madeoftheengine.
- It is possible to include other control
parameters (e.g. engine temperature).
- Good starting behaviour, improved
idle control and lowerfuel consumption.
- Extended operating-data acquisition.
- It is possibleto implement knockcon-
trol.
The advantages of the semiconductor
ignition system are most clearly demon¬
strated by the ignition-advance map
which contains the ignition angle, for
every given operating point of the en¬
gine. This ignition angle was selected
during engine design as the best com¬
promise for every operating point of the
engine, i.e. for every engine speed and
for every load condition. The ignition
angle for a specific operating point is
selected on the basis of the following as¬
pects: fuel consumption, torque, ex¬
haust gas, safety margin from the knock
limit, engine temperature and driveabil-
ity etc. Dependent upon the optimiza¬
tion criterion, one of these aspects will
be more important. This is why the ig¬
nition-advance map of a semiconductor
spark-advance system frequently
appears very rugged and jagged by
comparison with the ignition map of a
system with centrifugal and vacuum
advance mechanisms. If, in addition, the
generally non-linear influence of temp¬
erature or of another correction function
is also to be represented, this would re¬
quire a four-dimensional ignition map
which would be impossibleto depict.
Operating principle
The signal issued by the vacuum sensor
is used as the load signal for the ignition
system. A three-dimensional ignition-
advance map is, so to speak, stretched
over this signal and the engine speed.
This map permits the best ignition point
(angle) (in the vertical plane) to be pro¬
grammed for every engine speed and
load condition (horizontal plane) in re¬
spect of the exhaust gas and fuel con¬
sumption. The entire ignition-advance Battery
map contains approximately 1000 ... ignition
4000 individual recallable ignition
points, dependent upon requirements.
When the throttle valve is closed, the
special idle/overrun characteristic curve
is selected. The ignition point can be
“advanced” for engine speeds below
the nominal engine idle speed in order
to achieve idle stabilization by increas¬
ing the torque. Ignition points matched
in respect of exhaust gas, handling and
driveability are programmed for overrun
operation. Atfull load, the full-load curve
is selected. This curve contains the best
programmed ignition parameters allow¬
ing forthe knock limit.
In the case of specific systems, for start¬
ing, a progression of the ignition point,
independent of the ignition-advance
map, can be programmed as a function
of engine speed and engine tempera¬
ture. This permits high engine torque
during starting withoutthe occurrence of
countertorques.
Dependent upon requirements, it is
possible to implement ignition-advance
maps of various degrees of complexity or
only a few programmable advance
curves. Electronic spark advance is
possible within the framework of various
semiconductor ignition systems. For in-
stancethe Motronicsystem incorporates
fully integrated sparkadvance. Flowever,
it is also possible to implement a spark-
advance system as an addition to a tran¬
sistorized ignition system (in the form of
an additional advance system) or as a de¬
vice with integrated output stage.
Engine-speed sensing
There are two possible methods of en¬
gine-speed sensing in order to deter¬
mine the engine speed and for syn¬
chronization with the crankshaft: the
signal can be tapped-off directly at the
crankshaft or camshaft or at an ignition
distributor equipped with a Hall ignition
vane switch. The advantages afforded
by an ignition-advance map with the
form already discussed can be utilized
to maximum accuracy with an engine-
speed sensor on the crankshaft. 121
Battery Input signals
ignition
Engine speed/crankshaft position and
intake-manifold pressure are the two
main control variables for the ignition
point.
Engine speed and crankshaft
position
An induction-type pulse generator which
scans the teeth of aspecial-purpose gear
wheel on the crankshaft serves to sense
the engine speed. The resulting change
in magnetic flux induces an AC voltage
which is evaluated by the control unit.
This gear wheel has a gap which is
sensed by the pulse generator and the
signal is then processed in a special cir¬
cuit for clear assignment of the
crankshaft position. Triggering with the
aid of a Hall generator in the ignition dis¬
tributor is also still used. In the case of
symmetrical engines, it is also possible
to trigger pulses inductively via seg¬
ments on the crankshaft. The number of
segments in this case corresponds to
halfthe numberof cylinders.
Load (intake-manifold pressure)
The pressure in the intake manifold
acts upon the pressure sensor via a
hose.
In addition to the intake-manifold
pressure for only indirect load mea¬
surement, the air mass or the air quan-
122
tity per unit of time are also particularly
suitable as load signals since they pro¬
vide a better indication of the charge of
the cylinder which is the actual load. On
engines equipped with an electronic
fuel-injection system, it is thus possible
to utilize the load signal used for fuel
managementforthe ignition as well.
Throttle-valve position
A throttle-valve switch supplies a
switching signal during engine idle and
full load.
Temperature
A water-temperature sensor attached
to the engine block supplies the control
unit with a signal corresponding to the
engine temperature. The intake-air
temperature can also be sensed by a
further sensor either in addition to or in¬
stead of the engine temperature.
Battery voltage
The battery voltage is also a correcting
quantity which is detected by the con¬
trol unit.
Signal processing
Intake-manifold pressure, engine
temperature and battery voltage, in the
form of analog variables, are digitized in
the analog-to-digital converter. Engine
speed, crankshaft position and throttle-
26) Induction voltage curve.
Time t
valve stops are digital variables and are Battery
routed directly to the microcomputer. ignition
Signal processing is carried out in the
microcomputer, which comprises the
microprocessor with guartz oscillator
crystal for clock-pulse generation. In
the computer, the updated values for
the ignition point and the dwell period
are calculated anew for each ignition in
order that the optimum ignition point is
always available to the engine for every
operating point.

Ignition output signal

The primary circuit of the ignition coil is
switched by means of a power output
stage in the electronic control unit. The
dwell period is controlled such that the
secondary voltage remains practically
constant regardless of engine speed
and battery voltage.
Since the dwell period or dwell angle is
determined anew for each engine
speed and battery voltage condition,
this requires a further ignition map: the
dwell-angle map. It contains a network
of data points between which interpola¬
tion is carried out as is the case with the
ignition-advance map. Using such a
dwell-angle map permits the energy
stored in the ignition coil to be metered
just as precisely as with a dwell-angle
closed-loop control system. However,
there are also semiconductor ignition
systems on which a closed-loop dwell-
angle control is superimposed upon the
dwell-angle map. This closed-loop con¬
trol system optimizes the dwell angle
for each cylinder independently.
Control unit
As can be seen on the block diagram,
the heart of a control unit for a semicon¬
ductor ignition system comprises a
microcomputer. This microcomputer
contains all data, including the ignition
maps, in addition to the programs for
detecting the input variables and for
computing the output variables. Since
the sensors are largely electromechani-

28) Adaptation components.

1 Throttle-valve switch, 2 Pulse generator
3 Engine-temperature sensor.

123
Battery cal components matched to the tough
ignition operating conditions of the engine, it is
necessary to process the signals for
the computer. Pulsed signals from the
sensors (e.g. the signal issued by the
engine speed sensor) are converted to
defined digital signals in the pulse-
shaper circuits. Sensors (e.g. for temp¬
erature and pressure) frequently have
an electrical analog signal as output
variable. This analog signal is converted
in an analog-to-digital converter and
routed to the computer in digital form.
The analog-to-digital converter may
also be integrated in the microcom¬
puter.
In order to permit ignition-map data to
be changed until shortly before the start
of series production, there are control
units available with an electronically
programmable memory, generally in
the form of an EPROM (electronically
programmable read-only memory).
29) Signal processing in the electronic-ignition control unit (block diagram).
1 Engine speed and reference mark, 2 Switch signals, 3 Intake-manifold pressure, 4 Engine tempera¬
ture, 5 Intake-airtemperature, 6 Battery voltage, 7 Microcomputer, 8 Analog-to-digital converter,
9 Ignition outputstage.
Sensors Electronic control unit
124
Ignition output stage
The ignition output stage may either be
incorporated in the control unit itself (as
shown in the block diagram) or may be
accommodated externally, generally in
combination with the ignition coil. In the
case of external ignition output stages,
the control unit is generally fitted in the
passenger compartment. This is also
the case less frequently on control units
with integrated ignition output stage.
If control units with integrated ignition
output stage are accommodated in the
engine compartment, they require par¬
ticularly good heat dissipation. This is
achieved by the use of hybrid circuitry.
Semiconductor devices and, thus, also
the output stage, are then fitted directly
to the heat sink which ensures good
thermal contact to the bodywork.
This means that such control units can
be operated at ambient temperatures of
over 100°C. Hybrid units have the
further advantage of being compact and
lightweight.
Ignition coil
Other output 30) Semiconductor-ignition control unit Battery
variables incorporating hybrid circuitry. ignition
In addition to the ignition output stage, The load sensor is located in the cover.

there are controls for further output vari¬

ables, dependent upon the particular
application. Examples of these are out¬
puts for engine-speed signals and
status signals for other control units
such as injection, diagnostic signals,
switching signals for actuating injection
pumps or relays etc.
The semiconductor ignition system is
particularly suitable for combining with
other engine-management functions.
Combined with an electronic fuel-ig¬
nition system, this means that the basic
version of a Motronic system is realized
inasinglecontrol unit.
One equally popular form is combining
the semiconductor ignition system with
a knock-control system. This combina¬
tion is particularly advantageous since
retarding the ignition point is the fastest
and most reliable method of intervention
to avoid engine knocking.

31) Semiconductor-ignition control unit with knock control,

using printed-circuit board techniques.
The aneroid box (D) serves to measure the intake-manifold pressure.

125
Battery
Distributorless
ignition
semiconductor
ignition BSI
The distributorless semiconductor ig¬
nition system (BSI) is characterized by
two features: it performs the functions of
a semiconductor ignition system, but
has no rotating high-tension distribution
system using an ignition distributor.
Advantages
Stationary high-tension distribution
affords no weight advantages. Con¬
versely, it does afford the following ad¬
vantages:
- Far lower electromagnetic interfer¬
ence level since no open sparks occur,
- no rotating components,
- noise reduction,
- less high-tension connections and
- design advantages for the engine
manufacturer.
The performance data of a distributor¬
less semiconductor ignition system are
comparable to those of a conventional
semiconductor ignition system.
126
High-tension distribution
High-tension distribution
with double-spark ignition coils
In the simplest case, e.g. on the 4-cylin¬
der engine, two double-spark ignition
coils are used instead of the ignition dis¬
tributor. These two double-spark ig¬
nition coils are energized alternately via
an ignition output stage. At the ignition
pointforagiven cylinder, which is deter¬
mined by the microcomputer-controlled
ignition map in the same way as with a
conventional semiconductor ignition
system, the corresponding double¬
spark ignition coil generates two ignition
sparks simultaneously. The two spark
plugs at which the sparks are produced
are each electrically connected in series
with this ignition coil so that one spark
plug is connected to each of its high-
tension outputs. These two spark plugs
must be arranged so that one spark plug
fires in the working stroke of the cylinder
in question and the other in the exhaust
stroke of the cylinder which is offset by
360°. One rotation of the crankshaft
later, these two cylinders are two work¬
ing strokes further and the spark plugs
fire again, but now with reversed roles.
The second double-spark ignition coil
also generates two sparks but offset
by 180° with respect to the first. Using
the 4-cylinder engine as an example
again we see that cylinders 1 and 4 al¬
ways fire simultaneously as do cylin¬
ders 3 and 2.
In addition, the double-spark ignition
coil which is the next to be fired requires
a signal identifying the start of a revolu¬
tion. In the example shown, the TDC
signal signals that firing must occur in
cylinder group 1/4. The computer es¬
tablishes when the crankshaft has
turned a further 180° and then initiates
ignition in cylinder group 3/2 with the
other double-spark ignition coil. At the
start of the second revolution, the TDC
signal is issued again and, once again,
causes ignition in cylinder group 1/4.
This forced synchronization system also
ensures thatthe correct firing sequence
is maintained even in the event of mal¬
functions of any kind. Only engines with
an even number of cylinders (e.g. 2, 4,
6) are suitable for this type of stationary
high-tension distribution. The number of
ignition coils required can be calculated
in each case by halving the number of
cylinders.
The schematic diagram of the dis¬ Battery
tributorless semiconductor-ignition sys¬ ignition
tem shows a system with distribution by
two double-spark ignition coils. The ref¬
erence-mark sensor on the crankshaft
also serves to triggerthe correct ignition
coil, in addition to calculating the ignition
angle.
Distribution with single-spark
ignition coils
A distributorless semiconductor-ig¬
nition system for an odd number of
cylinders (e.g. 3, 5) requires its own ig¬
nition coilforeach cylinder (single-spark
ignition coils are also suitable for en¬
gines with an even number of cylinders,
in conjunction with distributorless semi¬
conductor ignition systems). The actual
distribution of the high tension to the ig¬
nition coils is performed in the low-volt¬
age circuit in a power module with dis¬
tributor logic. In the case of engines with
an odd number of cylinders, one cycle
covers two revolutions of the crankshaft.
For this reason, a TDC signal from the
crankshaft is not sufficient in this case.
One signal per camshaft revolution
must be triggered by the camshaft for
synchronization purposes.

33) Firing sequence of a four-stroke engine during two crankshaft revolutions (cycle).
Engines with an even number of cylinders supply a clear signal for ignition of the cylinder group at
TDC (0° and 360°).

1st revolution 2nd revolution

< >
_
< Length of a cycle >

3- cyl. i
i
i
2
5
3
t
4- cyl. i
i 3
f 4 2
t
5- cyl. ? f i f i j
CM

i 5 3
NN

6- cyl. fi 5 3
i
6
i
2 4
i $
.

l l_l_l_J l 1_i_1_1
0° 120 144 180 240 288 360° 432 480 540 576 600 7 20°
| TDC f TDC Crankshaft position
127
Battery Distribution with four-spark
ignition ignition coils
One further method of stationary high-
tension distribution is a four-spark ig¬
nition coil which has two primary wind¬
ings and one secondary winding. The
two primary windings are energized by
two ignition output stages. The high-
tension winding has two diodes at each
output. From each of these diodes, one
high-tension cable is routed to each
spark plug. This means that two sparks
are produced alternately, decoupled by
the diodes, as is the case on the double¬
spark ignition coil.
Required voltage
Since two spark plugs are connected in
series on double-spark and four-spark
ignition coils, the required voltage in¬
creases by a few kV owing to the spark
plug which fires in the low pressure of
the exhaust stroke. However, this addi¬
tional required voltage is compensated
for by the fact that there is no ignition-
distributor spark gap. In addition, one
spark plug is “incorrectly” polarized in
34) Occurrence of the ignition sparks of a
double-spark ignition coil in the cycle of a
four-stroke engine.
1 Switch-on range (start) of the primary current,
2 Ignition range of the first ignition spark,
3 Ignition range of the second ignition spark.
TDC Top dead center, BDC Bottom dead
center, 10 Intake valve opens, 1C Intake valve
closes, EO Exhaust valve opens, EC Exhaust
valve closes.
TDC
128
each cylinder group. This means that
the center electrode is positive and not
negative as is normally the case. This
also causes the required voltage to be
slightly higher.
ignition coils
Design
Double-spark and four-spark ignition
coils, are normally designed as plastic-
molded ignition coils. The resulting
squat and compact design, together
with the large area on the upper side,
permit two separate high-tension
towers to be provided on these ignition
coils. The coil is cooled and secured by
the iron core which is led out externally.
Mode of operation
If we consider the cycle of a single-cylin¬
der four-stroke engine (two revolu¬
tions), we can see how the ignition
sparks of a double-spark ignition coil
occur during the engine strokes. The
first revolution starts shortly after 10 (in¬
take valve opens) and lasts until TDC

(top dead center). The second revolu¬
tion starts at TDC and ends shortly be¬
fore EC (exhaust valve closes). During
the working stroke, firing occurs in the
area marked red before and shortly after
TDC, dependent upon the position of
the ignition-advance map point.
The dwell angle starts in the hatched
area, i.e. the primary currentthrough the
ignition coil is switched on. Depending
upon engine speed and battery voltage
the switch-on point in this area shifts
jointly with the ignition point. At the
same time, it also shifts relative to the ig¬
nition point in accordance with the
dwell-angle map (rotational speed and
battery voltage).
Since the two ignition sparks of a
double-spark ignition coil are produced
simultaneously, i.e. with the same angu¬
lar position of the crankshaft, the second
ignition spark occurs at the end of the
exhaust stroke of the other cylinder (off¬
set by 360° crankshaft) supplied by the
given coil. This means that the spark in
this cylinder can flash over when the in¬
take valve is starting to open again, and
this is critical particularly in the case of
large valve overlap.
Stationary high-tension distribution with
single-spark ignition coils requires the
same number of ignition output stages
and ignition coils as there are cylinders.
In such cases, it is practical to combine
the power output stage with the ignition
coil. This minimizes the number of
cables for the high tension and the
medium-high tension between ignition
transistor and ignition coil.
Control unit
The electronic control unit of the dis¬
tributorless semiconductor-ignition sys¬
tem is largely identical tothat ofthesemi-
conductor ignition system. The ignition
outputstagecanbeintegratedinthecon-
trol unit (e.g. in the case of double-spark
or four-spark ignition coils) or can be
accommodated externally, in a power
module with distributor logic or in combi¬
nation with the relevant ignition coil (e.g.
in the case of single-spark ignition coils).
Battery
Capacitor- ignition
discharge ignition
system CDI
The CDI operates on the basis of a
different principle than the ignition sys¬
tems described up to this point. It was
developed for high revving, high-power
reciprocating four-cylinder engines in
sports cars and racing cars and for ro¬
tary-piston engines.
There are two versions of the capacitor-
discharge ignition system: breaker-trig¬
gered and breakerless. The breakerless
CDI is triggered by an induction-type
pulse generator system in the ignition
distributor.
Operating principle
The essential feature of the capacitor-
discharge ignition system is that the ig¬
nition energy is stored in the electrical
field of a capacitor. The capacitance and
charging voltage of the capacitor deter¬
mine the level of the stored energy on
the basis of thefollowing formula:
Ms=C- U2/2
Ws Stored energy, C Capacitance,
UCharging voltage.
Trigger box
The energy is stored at approximately
400 V. The storage capacitor is charged
either with a constant current or with
pulses. Regardless of the method, the
charging stage contains a small trans¬
former which boosts the voltage level to
400 V in order to achieve the required
stored energy level. Atthe ignition point,
the thyristor is triggered. The capacitor
then discharges via the transformer
coil.
The natural frequency of the medium-
high-tension circuit is several times
higher than the natural frequency of the
high-tension circuit of a coil-ignition
system (however, whilst the CDI
operates with virtually load-independent
voltage, the Tl operates with virtually 129
Battery load-independent current). This is the Characteristics
ignition reason for the low internal resistance of f

the CDI. Since the secondary stage of
the ignition transformer follows the vol¬
tage rise, this means that the high ten¬
sion is also built up rapidly. Conse¬
quently, spark discharge occurs earlier.
When the capacitor is discharged, the
thyristor reverts to off state again at zero
passage of the current after the end of
the spark. This means that the charging
process for the storage capacitor can
commence again.
Ignition transformer
The primary voltage resulting from the
capacitor discharge is transformed to
the required high tension by the ignition
transformer which outwardly has a simi¬
lar appearance to that of an ignition coil.
However, since it is not designed to
store magnetic energy and must trans¬
form very quickly, it must not be con¬
fused with an ignition coil, owing to its
special construction. The ignition coil
must also not be confused with the
transformer.
The main advantage of the CDI is its
virtual insensitivity to electrical shunts
in the ignition circuit, in particular on
fouled spark plugs. However, for many
applications, the spark duration of
0.1...0.3 ms is too short to guarantee
reliable ignition of the air-fuel mixture.
For this reason, the CDI is designed
only for specific engines and, today, is
used only in special cases since the
performance data of transistorized ig¬
nition systems are now virtually as
good. The CDI is not suitable for retro¬
fitting.
Comparison with coil ignition
systems
The main technical characteristics of
the CDI in respect of voltage rise time,
spark duration and shunt sensitivity can
be shown by comparison with breaker-
triggered coil ignition systems and
maintenance-free transistorized ig¬
nition systems. As already mentioned
during the description of the individual

36) Circuitdiagram.BreakerlessCDI with inductive pulse-generator system in the distributor.

1 Battery, 2 Ignition and starting switch, 3 Trigger box, 3a Charging stage, 3b Control stage, 3c Pulse
shaper, D Diode, C Storage capacitor, Th Thyristor with gate terminal G, 4 Ignition transformer,
L | Primary winding, L2 Secondary winding, 5 Induction-type pulse generator, 6 Ignition distributor.

130
37) Comparison of the secondary voltage on the CDI, Tl and Cl as a function of time.
Voltage rise (left) and overall curve (right).
ignition systems, the time until dis¬
charge of the high tension at the spark
plug depends upon the values of in¬
ductance and capacitance in the relev¬
ant, frequency-determining circuit. One
problem is discharge via shunt resist¬
ances at the spark plug. The shunt re¬
sistances occur on the ceramic dielec¬
tric as the result of carbon deposits,
combustion residue, lead deposits or,
in the case of cold starting, in the form
of fuel deposited in the case of inade¬
quate mixture formation.
As shown on the equivalent circuit
diagram (Fig. 44), these shunt resist¬
ances load the resonant circuit of the
secondary voltage with a resistance
(Ra) in the 100 kohm range. The load
damps the maximum achievable am¬
plitude of the resonant circuit and dis¬
sipates energy both before and during
the spark.
In the case of the CDI on the other
hand, owing to the rapid voltage rise
considerably less stored energy is dis¬
sipated if the spark plugs are fouled,
and consequently the probability of ig¬
nition is far higher. One disadvantage of
the low inductance on the CDI by com¬
parison with the Tl and Cl is the very
short spark duration. If an adequate
quantity of ignitable fresh gas does not
move past the spark plug during this
short spark duration, this results in mis¬
firing. In the case of turbulent mixtures,
extended ignition is frequently required
Battery
ignition
and this is only possible if the spark
duration is correspondingly long. With a
high-performance transistorized ig¬
nition system, the spark duration can
easily be prolonged even substantially
beyond the 1.5 ms given in the
example.
Danger
All electrical ignition systems are
dangerous systems. When working
on the ignition system, always
switch off the ignition or disconnect
the voltage source. Such work in¬
cludes
- replacing parts such as spark
plugs, ignition coil or ignition trans¬
former, ignition distributor and high-
tension cables etc.
- connecting engine test equip¬
ment such as stroboscopic timing
light, dwell-tach tester and ignition
oscilloscope etc.
When testing ignition systems with
the ignition switched on, dangerous
voltages occur throughout the entire
system. Testing should thus only
be carried out by trained specialists.
131
Battery
ignition
Knock control
Basic functions
Knock limit
Operation with a catalytic converter re¬
quires that the engine be operated with
unleaded gasoline with an excess-air
factor of A = 1.0. Previously lead was
mixed into gasoline as an antiknock
agent, in order to make possible knock-
free operation at high compression
ratios s . With unleaded gasoline, a low
compression ratio and higher fuel con¬
sumption can be expected.
“Knocking” or “pinking”, a form of un¬
controlled combustion, can lead to en¬
gine damage if it occurs too frequently
and violently. For this reason, the spark
advance is normally designed so that
there is always a safety margin before
the knock limit is reached. However,
since the knock limit is also dependent
upon fuel quality, engine condition and
environmental conditions, the ignition
point demanded by this safety margin is
too far retarded and the result is a
worsening of fuel consumption in the
order of several percent. This disadvan¬
tage can be avoided if the knock limit is
determined continuously during opera¬
tion, and the ignition angle adjusted to it
in a closed loop under the assumption
132
that the ignition angle as specified by the
ignition-advance map is already within
the knock range. This is carried out by
knock control.
Knock sensor
It is so far impossible to determine the
knock limit without the actual occur¬
rence of knocking. Therefore, during
closed-loop control along the knock limit
there will always be scattered knocking.
However, the system is adjusted to the
individual type of vehicle concerned so
that the knocking is not audible and so
that damage is precluded with absolute
certainty. The measuring device is the
knock sensor which registers the typical
noises associated with knocking, turns
these into electrical signals and relays
them to the electronic control unit. The
knock sensor is arranged so that knock¬
ing from any cylinder can be recognized
without difficulty under all conditions.
The mounting position is generally on
the side of the engine block.
With six or more cylinders, one knock
sensor is usually inadequate to deter¬
mine knocking from all cylinders. In
such cases, two knock sensors are
used per engine, and these are
switched corresponding to the firing se¬
quence.
Control unit
The sensor signals are evaluated in the
electronic control unit. A reference level
is individually formed for each cylinder,
this level then continuously and auto¬
matically adapting itself to operating
conditions. A comparison with the use¬
ful signal obtained from the sensor sig¬
nal after filtering and integration within a
crank angle section shows for every
combustion process in every cylinder
whether knocking is occurring. If this is
the case, the ignition point is retarded by
a fixed amount, for example 3°
crankshaft, for the cylinder involved.
This process is repeated for every cylin¬
der for every combustion process
recognized as knocking. If there is no
more knocking, the ignition point is
slowly advanced in small steps until it
has returned to its map value.
Since the knock limit varies from cylin¬
der to cylinder within an engine and
changes dramatically within the operat¬
ing range, the result in actual operation
at the knock limit is an individual ignition
point for every cylinder. This type of
“cylinder-selective” knock recognition
and control makes possible the best op¬
timization of engine efficiency and fuel
consumption. If the vehicle is designed
for operation with unleaded premium
fuel, it can also be operated with regular
unleaded fuel without damage when
provided with knock control. In dynamic Battery
operation, knockfrequency will increase ignition
under such conditions. In order to avoid
this, an individual spark-advance map
can be stored in the electronic control
unit for each of the two fuel types. The
engine is then operated after starting
with the “premium” map and switched
over to the “regular” map if the fre¬
quency of knocking exceeds a pre¬
determined limit. The driver is not aware
of this switchover; only power and fuel
consumption are slightly worsened. A
vehicle designed for premium gasoline
and using a conventional ignition sys¬
tem cannot be operated with regular
gasoline without danger of knock dam¬
age, while a vehicle designed for use
with regular gasoline shows no advan¬
tages in consumption and power when it
is operated with premium gasoline.

40) Knock-sensor signals. 41) Knock control.

a) Pressure curve in cylinder, b) Filtered
pressure signal, c) Knock-sensor signal.
Without
knocking
Control algorithm with ignition intervention in a
four-cylinder engine.
K-| 3 knocking at cylinders 1 ...3
(no knocking in cylinder4).
a) Retardation, b) Interval for ignition advance,
c) Advance.

Ki K2 1 3 K,
*1 k3
4 4^4 4
Cyl.

With
A I n I | |||
m.m «• w
..

knocking 1— _r*
CD X-,
O
C
CO
> /^"r~7 ~~~7'
“O
CO

o. Cyl. 1 1 1 1
co
Working cyles
133
Battery Knock control with
ignition turbocharged engines
Boost pressure is controlled via the
drive power of the exhaust turbine. In¬
tervention is by the opening cross-sec¬
tion of the exhaust wastegate, which is
acted upon with control pressure via a
solenoid-operated valve.
A map contains the control values for
the solenoid-operated valve. By means
of the map, the charge pressure is built
up only to the level required by the
engine as directed by the driver
(accelerator-pedal position). The advan¬
tages as compared to conventional
turbocharged engines are: less turbo¬
charger work in the part-load range, less
exhaust backpressure, less residual ex¬
haust gas in the cylinders, lower charge-
air temperature, freely selectable full¬
load curve of boost pressure as a func¬
tion of engine speed, softer turbo
response, better performance and
driveability.
With closed-loop map control of boost
pressure, a control loop is superim¬
posed on the pilot control. A pressure
sensor measures intake-manifold
pressure which is compared with the
values of a stored map. In the case of
deviations between the setpoint and ac¬
tual values the pressure is levelled via
the solenoid-operated valve.
Advantages of boost-pressure closed-
loop control as compared with open-
loop control: componenttolerances and
wear, particularly in the exhaust waste-
gate and turbocharger, do not affect the
level of boost pressure. In addition, if an
absolute-pressure sensor is used, the
boost pressure can be maintained
within a wide range independent of the
level of atmospheric pressure (altitude
correction).
In case of knocking, ignition timing is re¬
tarded for the knocking cylinder just as
with a naturally-aspirated engine. In ad¬
dition, boost pressure is lowered when
the ignition retardation of at least 1 cylin¬
der exceeds a prescribed value. This
value is stored in the electronic control
unit as an engine-speed-dependent
characteristic curve. Its quantity is set
depending on the maximum allowable
exhaust temperature at the turbine inlet.
The ignition-timing algorithm, with fast

42) Knockcontrolthroughcombination of semiconductor ignition and boost-pressure control.

1 Intake air, 2 Turbocharger, 3 Turbine, 4 Exhaust, 5 Wastegate, 6 Knock sensor, 7 Timing valve,
8 Control unit, 9 Ignition coil with attached ignition final stage.
Signals: a Throttle-valve position, b Intake-manifold pressure, c Knock signals, d Ignition pulses,
e Engine temperature, f Timing-valve position, g Ignition point.

134
pressure decrease and slow step-by-
step increase up to the nominal value, is
similar to the algorithm for ignition
timing, but has significantly larger time
constants.
The two control algorithms are coordi¬
nated under consideration of frequency
of knocking, dynamic behaviour of the
engine, exhaust wastegate, and turbo¬
charger, exhaust temperature, drive-
ability, and control stability.
Advantages of this combined control as
compared to pure ignition-timing con¬
trol: improvement in engine dwell-angle
efficiency, reduction in temperature
loading of engine and turbocharger, re¬
duction of charge-air temperature.
Advantages compared with pure boost-
pressure control: quick control re¬
sponse in case of knocking, good dy¬
namic engine behaviour, control stability
and driveability.
Special functions
The basic functions of knock-detection
and control, ignition-timing, dwell-angle
and, where applicable, boost-pressure
map, are processed in the control
unit. In addition, the intake-manifold
pressure as measured by a pressure
sensor in the control unit provides infor¬
mation on the load and can be pro¬
cessed in the control unit as can a load
signal made available from the gasoline
fuel-injection system
Coolant and intake-airtemperatures can
be taken into account as correction
quantities. If required, overrun fuel cut¬
off, idle stabilization, and engine-speed
limitation can be achieved by switching
off ignition or the fuel pump and fuel-
pump control. In addition, should the
computer fail - the driver will be in¬
formed of this condition - limp-home
operation is possible, so that the vehicle
must not be left standing.
With turbocharged engines, an engine-
speed-dependent full-load signal can
be generated and sent to the ignition, in
the same way as a signal can be sent to
reduce the boost pressure in case of
knocking.
Safety and diagnosis Battery
ignition
All the functions of knock control, failure
of which could lead to engine damage
make monitoring a necessity. This must
trigger conversion to safe operation
should a malfunction arise. The driver
can be alerted to the switch to the safety
mode by a display on the instrument
panel. The exact defect can then be read
out via a pulse code when the vehicle is
inspected.
The following are monitored:
1. Knock sensor, including wiring har¬
ness, continually during operation
above a certain engine speed. If a defect
is detected, ignition timing in the map
range where knock control is active is
retarded by a fixed angle; with turbo¬
charged engines, the boost pressure is
simultaneously decreased.
2. Evaluation circuitry, including the
computer, below a certain engine
speed. Detection of a defect leads to the
same reaction as in Point 1 above.
3. The load signal, continuously during
operation. In the event of defect, the full¬
load spark advance is used with simul¬
taneous continuous activation of knock
control.
Depending upon application, other sen¬
sors and signals are monitored and the
appropriate reactions determined (e.g.
temperature sensor).
135
Battery
ignition
Connecting
elements
The task of connecting elements is to
reliably transmit the high tension from
the ignition coil through the ignition dis¬
tributor to the spark plug. Various con¬
nection techniques are used, depen¬
dent upon the requirements made of the
engineand, thus, oftheignition.
Plugs and sockets
Basic versions
One example of the available connec¬
tion techniques is the plug connection at
the high-tension terminal towers of the
ignition distributor. Socket version A
has only a relatively low high-voltage
strength and is thus encountered only in
isolated cases in original equipment ap¬
plications. Versions B and C are the
main versions. Both are characterized
by having locking pins deep in the termi¬
nal tower and by their guaranteeing a
substantially higher electric contacting
strength owing to the long leakage path.
An additional enlargement in the
geometry (as is the case on version C)
creates the necessary reserve for
guaranteeing the 30 kV required for
lean-burn engines. Furthermore, the in¬
sertion forces and watertightness are
carefully optimized to each other.
Service life
The related mean service life in oper¬
ating hours is shown by inclined curves
beneath the relevant plug versions. Fig¬
ure 44 shows the significance: if a volt¬
age Ux is applied to new parts, they in¬
itially withstand the stress. Flowever,
the insulating capability is slowly de¬
creased and, as from time q, isolated
disruptive discharges must be antici¬
pated. The process advances and, at
time t2, 63% of the parts are destroyed.
At low voltages, the parts withstand the

43) Plug and socket versions A, B and C and their high-voltage strength as a function of
service life.

40
kV
35

c 30
o
w

I 25
sz
05
X
20

15

0,1 1 10 100 1000 h 1 10 100 1000 h 10 100 1000 h

136 Mean service life

stress substantially longer than at high Battery
voltages (logorithmic scales). This also ignition
approximately corresponds to the
statistical distribution ot the engine vol¬
tage curve. The very high required vol¬
tage occurs only rarely, referred to the
total number of ignitions. The accumu¬
lation point lies at values below 25 kV
and this is why versions B and C, in
conjunction with a maintenance-free
ignition system, sturdy high-tension
cables with metal core and regular
spark-plug replacement, provide an ig¬
nition system which poses no prob¬
lems throughout the vehicle service
life.

Special versions tective hoods provide additional protec¬

One particularly carefully designed con¬ tion against hose water and against dirt.
nection technique comprises watertight In addition, the ignition-distributor hood
spark-plug connectors, high-quality ig¬ improves interference suppression.
nition cables, watertight ignition dis¬
tributor and ignition coil connectors and
protective hoods for the ignition dis¬
tributor and the ignition coil. These pro¬

45) Cable connections of an ignition system.

Protective caps prevent the penetration of dirt and moisture.

137
Battery
ignition
Testing ignition
systems
The ignition system must function per¬
fectly in order for the engine to function
correctly. The importance of this is indi¬
cated by the fact that, in the Federal
Republic of Germany, an annual in¬
spection of the ignition setting and
dwell angle is obligatory on every
passenger vehicle with spark-ignition
engine. This inspection is conducted
during the course of the special ex¬
haust inspection (ASU). The following
equipment can be used for inspection:
- The stroboscopic timing light for ig¬
nition setting,
- The engine analyzer with strobos¬
cope, oscilloscope and voltmeter etc. for
checking the complete ignition system,
- The trouble-shooting chart which
specifies the correct procedure (as
46) Pocket engine analyzer with integrated stroboscopic timing light.
138
specified by the relevant vehicle manu¬
facturer).
Stroboscopic timing light
This tester is powered by the vehicle
battery. The incorporated timing strobe
flashes, triggered by the ignition pulse of
cylinder 1, analogously to the engine
speed. The flywheel housing and crank¬
case marks are set so that they coincide
by illuminating the ignition marks on the
flywheel with the stroboscopic timing
light and adjusting the setting on the
timing light. The ignition angle can now
be read off directly on the scale of the
stroboscopic timing lightand the ignition
system can be set correctly.
On modern vehicle engines, the ignition
angle can be measured and indicated di¬
rectly by the engine analyzer even with¬
out the stroboscopic timing light, using a
TDC sensor (TDC = top dead center).
Engine analyzers
The range of engine analyzers extends
from the pocket analyzer through to the
diagnostic system with a wide variety of
functions. These engine analyzers (de¬
pendent upon their equipment level),
permit measurement of engine speed,
dwell angle and various voltages
through to compression testing during
the cranking period.
The engine analyzer illustrated contains
an oscilloscope which permits various
voltage curves to be displayed and
evaluated, e.g. the high tension at the
spark plug. Top-flight models have
wire-less remote control and prog¬
rammable, microprocessor-controlled
test programs.
Since, when measuring an ignition sys¬
tem, the testers only display actual
values, it is necessary to adjust to the
47) Engine analyzer with a variety of functions
values specified for the vehicle and en¬ Battery
gine analyzer in order to set the ig¬ ignition
nition. If the ignition system is defec¬
tive, a systematic procedure is required
when searching for the cause. Work¬
shops use a specific schedule for
trouble-shooting in order to quickly lo¬
cate sources of faults even on complex
vehicle systems. This method permits
the mechanic to detect defective com¬
ponents in as short a time as possible
and carry out the required repair work
with suitable test equipment and
tools.
An ignition map test is not possible on
semiconductor ignition systems which,
in some cases, have very finely struc¬
tured ignition maps. Measurement and
assessment of the high tension is be¬
coming increasingly important in place
of checking the dwell angle and ignition
angle.
139
Spark plugs
Spark plugs
Spark plug and
ignition system
In the spark-ignition engine, the
combustion of the inducted and
compressed air-fuel mixture is in¬
itiated by an externally supplied and
timed spark.
Ignition in the spark-ignition engine is
electrical. The electrical energy is taken
from the battery. Controlled by the en¬
gine, the ignition system periodically
generates high tension. This high ten¬
1) Transistorized ignition system.
1 Ignition coil, 2 Trigger box, 3 Ignition distributor, 4 Pulse generator (triggers spark), 5 Spark plugs,
P Primary current, J Ignition pulse, //High tension.
140
sion causes a spark discharge between
the electrodes of the spark plug in the
combustion chamber. The energy con¬
tained in the spark ignites the com¬
pressed air-fuel mixture.
High-tension generation
The energy taken from the battery is
stored for the periodic generation of
high tension. Ignition systems with in¬
ductive energy-storage devices have
become established in present-day
passenger cars. Controlled by the en¬
gine through the ignition system, this
stored energy is used at the right time to
generate high tension. The high tension
is generated inductively in the ignition
coil according to the transformer prin¬
ciple. High tension and ignition energy
are sufficient to cover an increase in the
required ignition voltage as a result of
wear in the system.
Generation of the ignition spark
If there is sufficient high tension, the
spark jumps across the electrodes of
the spark plug. At the instant of ignition,
i.e. when the energy-storage device
discharges, the voltage across the
spark-plug electrodes rises very
quickly until the flashover voltage (ig¬
nition voltage) is reached. As soon as
the spark is discharged, the voltage
across the electrode drops to the spark
voltage. At the same time, a current
flows in the now conductive spark gap.
The air-fuel mixture is ignited during the
burn time of the ignition spark (spark
duration). As soon as the conditions re¬
quired for discharge no longer obtain,
the spark breaks off and the voltage de¬
cays to zero. What has been described
here applies only if the gas that is be¬
tween the electrodes is quiescent.
Higher flow velocities lead to a clear
change in the spark characteristics. The
spark may be extinguished and re¬
ignited in the course of the so-called
2) Voltage between spark-plug
electrodes.
K Spark head, S Spark tail,
tf Spark duration.
spark duration. Phenomena of this kind Spark plugs
are known as afollow-up spark.
Spark duration
Within the “spark duration”, ignitable
air-fuel mixture must be reached by the
spark in order to obtain reliable ignition.
The “spark duration” is the length of
time for which the arc burns following
the initial flashover between the elec¬
trodes until the residual stored energy
decays. The spark duration must be
long enough to ensure that, with max¬
imum probability, the ignitable mixture
reaches the region of the electrodes.
Ignition voltage
The ignition voltage required by the
spark plug is the high tension
necessary for spark discharge.
The ignition voltage of the spark plug is
the voltage at which the spark jumps
across the electrodes. The high tension
causes a field strength between the
electrodes, so that the spark gap is
ionized and thus becomes conductive.
The high tension provided by the ig¬
nition system may exceed 30,000 V. Of
this secondary available voltage, the
spark plug takes its share, i.e. the igni¬
tion voltage, required for the spark to
take place at all.
3) Ignition voltage required by spark plug.
The ignition conditions are optimum in the
case of stoichiometric mixture composition
(A = 1.0).
141
Spark plugs The difference between secondary
available voltage and ignition voltage is
known as the voltage reserve. This
voltage reserve is necessary in order to
cover an increasing ignition voltage re¬
quirement as a result of the widening of
the electrode gap as the spark plug
gets older. If the electrode gap is too
wide, or if the mixture is too lean, or if
the required ignition voltage is too high,
this may lead to misfiring.
Non-engine-related influences on
the ignition voltage required
As far as the spark plug is concerned,
the required ignition voltage is deter¬
mined by thefollowing parameters:
- electrode gap
- electrode geometry
- electrode material
- polarity of the ignition voltage.
Electrode gap
The required ignition voltage increases
as the gap between the electrodes
widens.
Electrode geometry
Small electrode dimensions increase
the electrical field strength. This makes
it possible to lower the voltage require¬
ment.
Electrode material
The electrode .material may influence
the required ignition voltage, since the
work function of the electrons is de¬
pendent on the material.
Polarity of the ignition voltage
Due to the design, in spark plugs the
temperature of the center electrode is
generally higher than that of the ground
electrode. Electrons are more easily
able to escape from a hot surface. This
enhances the effect of the electrode
geometry.
Engine-related influences on
the ignition voltage required
The ignition voltage required is deter¬
mined not only by the spark plug, but
also by engine-related influences. The
142 main engine-related influences govern¬
ing the ignition voltage are compres¬
sion, mixture composition and mixture
turbulence.
Compression
High-compression engines require a
higher ignition voltage. Usually, a rela¬
tively small electrode gap is chosen for
such engines.
Mixture composition
The air-fuel mixture ignites best when
there is a given ratio of air to fuel. If the
mixture is richer or leaner, ignition is
slower. Sufficient spark duration and
adequate electrode gap are important
with regard to reliable ignition of the
mixture.
Mixture turbulence
Mixture turbulence is required for cre¬
ating a homogeneous mixture with fa¬
vorable ignition characteristics. Con¬
versely, if there is too much turbulence,
this can adversely affect ignition. For
this reason, the spark plug is positioned
at a point in the combustion chamber at
which there are favorable flow con-
ditionsfor ignition.
In present-day high-compression en¬
gine concepts, frequently with a high
degree of turbulence, compromises are
necessary when specifying the elec¬
trode gap. Particularly in the case of a
lean mixture composition, wider elec¬
trode gaps provide reliable ignition but
automatically reduce the life of the
spark plug due to inadequate ignition
voltage.
Demands on the
spark plug
The demands on the spark plug are
extreme: the spark plug is exposed
both to periodically changing pro¬
cesses in the combustion chamber
and to the climatic conditions out-
side the engine.
Function of spark plug
The function of the spark plug is to
introduce the ignition energy into the
combustion chamber and to initiate the
combustion of the air-fuel mixture by
the electrical spark between its elec¬
trodes.
In conjunction with the other compo¬
nents of the engine, e.g. ignition and
fuel-management systems, the spark
plug has a decisive effect on the oper¬
ation of the spark-ignition engine. It
must permit reliable cold starting, it
must guarantee that there is no mis¬
firing during acceleration and it must
withstand the engine being operated
for hours on end at maximum power.
These requirements apply throughout
the entire service life of the spark plug.
The spark plug is positioned in the
combustion chamber at the point most
suitable for igniting the compressed air-
fuel mixture. It must, under all operating
conditions, introduce the ignition en¬
ergy into the combustion chamber
without developing a leak and without
overheating.
Electrical demands
When the spark plug is operated with
electronic ignition systems, it is poss¬
ible for voltages of up to 30,000 V to
occur. The deposits resulting from the
combustion process, such as soot, car¬
bon residues, ash from fuel and oil
additives, will, under certain tempera¬
ture conditions, conduct electrically.
However, under such conditions there
must be no arcing or breakdown across
the insulator even at the high ignition
voltages. The electrical resistance of
Spark plugs
the insulator must be sufficient up to
1000°C and must not change through¬
out the service life of the spark plug.
Mechanical demands
The spark plug must withstand the
pressures (up to approximately 50 bar)
occurring periodically in the combus¬
tion chamber and must thereby remain
fully gas-tight. In addition, high mechan¬
ical strength is required, particularly of
the ceramic, which is stressed when
mounting and in operation by the
spark-plug connector and the ignition
cable. The spark-plug shell must trans¬
mit the tightening forces without suffer¬
ing permanent deformation.
Chemical demands
The part of the spark plug projecting
into the combustion chamber may be¬
come red-hot and is exposed to the
chemical processes which take place at
high temperature. If the temperature
drops below the dew point, aggressive
chemical components in the fuel are
deposited on the spark plug and can
change its characteristics.
Temperature demands
During operation, the spark plug, in
rapid succession, absorbs heat from
the hot combustion gases and is then
exposed to the cold air-fuel mixture
which is inducted for the next cycle.
High demands are therefore placed on
the thermal shock resistance of the
insulator.
The spark plug must also dissipate the
heat it absorbs in the combustion
chamber as efficiently as possible to
the cylinder head of the engine; the
terminal side of the spark plug should
heat up as little as possible.
143
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Spark plugs
Spark plug it is not possible for leakage currents to
take place. The insulator houses both
construction the center electrode and the terminal
stud.
The spark plug consists of metal, The demands met in spark-plug appli¬
ceramic and glass. These materials cations for good thermal conductivity
have different properties. Appro¬
priate design of the spark plug 6) Construction of spark plug.
1 Terminal nut
makes full use of the desired prop¬ 2 Connection thread
erties of these materials. The termi¬ 3 Leakage-current barrier
nal stud, insulator, shell and elec¬ 4 Insulator (Al203)
trodes represent the most impor¬ 5 Special conductive glass seal
6 Terminal stud
tant parts of a spark plug. Center 7 Swaged and heat-shrunk fitting
electrode and terminal stud are 8 Captive outer gasket
joined by a special conductive (in the case of flat seal)
glass seal. 9 Insulator tip
10 Center electrode
11 Ground electrode
Terminal stud
The steel terminal stud is melted, gas-
tight, into the insulator with a special
conductive glass seal which also repre¬
sents the electrical connection to the
center electrode. On the end projecting
out of the insulator, the terminal stud
has a thread for attaching the spark¬
plug connector of the high-tension ig¬
nition cable. In the case of connectors
which conform to ISO/DIN standards a
so-called ISO/DIN terminal nut is
screwed onto the thread of the terminal
stud.

Insulator
The insulator consists of a special cer¬
amic and its function is to insulate the
center electrode and the terminal stud
from the shell. The dense microstruc¬
ture of the special ceramic is the
guarantee of high electric strength. The
surface of the connection side of the
insulator is glazed. Moisture and dirt
adhere less well to this smooth glazed
surface, as a result of which leakage
currents are largely prevented. In order
to provide additional protection against
leakage currents, the insulator is pro¬
vided with a five-rib leakage-current
barrier. This ribbed barrier increases
the path over which a leakage current
would have to travel. Consequently,
146 even under extreme driving conditions,
and high insulation resistance are in
sharp contrast to the properties of most
insulating materials. The material used
by Bosch for the spark-plug insulator
consists of aluminum oxide to which
small quantities of other materials
have been added. After it has been
stoved and glazed, this special ceramic
satisfies the demands made of the
spark-plug insulator for high insulation
resistance, good thermal conductivity
and both mechanical and chemical
strength.
Shell
The shell is made of steel and its
function is to secure the spark plug in
the cylinder head of the engine. The
upper part of the shell has an hexa¬
gonal section to which the spark-plug
wrench is applied and the lower part is
threaded. The surface of the spark-plug
shell has an electroplated nickel coating
to prevent corrosion, to keep the thread
free and to prevent seizing, the latter
point applying particularly in aluminum
cylinder heads.
7,8) However simple a sparkplug may appear, the technology behind it is in no way simple - this also
applies to its production.
Depending on the design of the shell, Spark plugs
the spark plug can be provided with a
seal ring and a crimping ring. After the
insulator has been inserted into the
spark-plug shell, it is swaged and heat-
shrunk in position in one operation by
inductive heating under high pressure.
Electrodes
The wear on the electrodes is caused
by erosion (burning away due to the
ignition sparks) and by corrosion
(chemical and thermal attack). These
two factors cannot be treated sepa¬
rately as regards their effect on elec¬
trode wear. This wear leads to an
increase in the required ignition vol¬
tage. In addition, the electrodes must
have good heat dissipation properties.
These requirements may call for diffe¬
rent electrode shapes and electrode
materials, depending on operating con¬
ditions and application.
147
Spark plugs Ground electrode
The ground electrode is fastened to the
shell and usually has a rectangular
cross-section. Depending upon the
position of the ground electrode relative
to the center electrode, a distinction is
made between a front and a side elec¬
trode. The long life of the ground elec¬
trode is governed both by its thermal
conductivity and by the ratio of the
surface area exposed to heat to the
heat-dissipating cross-section. The
spark discharge can be favorably influ¬
enced by the selection of the minimum
possible dimensions for the ground
electrode, by using certain shapes for it
and by ensuring that it only partly
masks the center electrode. The sur¬
face and the contours of the ground
electrode facing the center electrode
also influence the spark discharge.
There are spark plugs with different
ground-electrode dimensions and dif¬
ferent numbers of ground electrodes.
The service life of the spark plug is
prolonged by a thicker ground-elec¬
trode profile and by multiple ground
electrodes.
Center electrode
The center electrode of the conven¬
tional spark plugs (air gap between
insulator nose bore and center elec¬
trode) is melted, gas-tight, into the
insulator with a special conductive seal.
The electrode has a slightly smaller
diameter than the bore in the insulator
nose. This is necessary in order to
compensate for the different internal
expansion which takes place between
the electrode material and the insulator
ceramic. The air gap thus produced is
subject to very close tolerances and is
of great importance with regard to the
heat range.
The cylindrical center electrode pro¬
jects out of the insulator nose. Center
electrodes made of precious metals are
smaller in diameter than the compound
electrodes which have a copper core
and nickel-alloy jacket. This makes it
easier for the ignition voltage to dis¬
148 charge to generate the ignition spark,
and the mixture accessibility is also
greatly improved. Comparable results
are achieved with the platinum spark
plug, whose thin platinum center elec¬
trode is sintered into the insulator with¬
out a gap. Electrical connection to the
special conductive seal is by means of
a metal contact pin.
Electrode gap
The electrode gap is the shortest dis¬
tance between the center electrode
and the ground electrode and is there¬
fore a measure of the length of the
spark gap. The smaller the electrode
gap, the lower the ignition voltage
which is required. If the electrode gap is
too small though, the voltage reserve is
high, but misfiring may occur because
the spark gap is not readily accessible
to the mixture or because too little of
the mixture is reached by the spark.
If the electrode gap is too large, a high
ignition voltage is required. This means
a low voltage reserve. Although the
mixture has good access to the spark
gap, there is also a great danger of
misfiring. The electrode gap is usually
9) Examples of spark-plug electrodes.
a) With compound center electrode
b) With platinum center electrode
1 Special conductive glass seal
2 Air gap owing to differing thermal expansion
(exaggerated in diagram)
3 Insulator nose
4 Compound center electrode
5 Metal contact pin
6 Platinum center electrode, sintered in
without gap
7 Ground electrode
a b

about 0.7...1.1 mm. The precise opti¬
mized electrode gaps for the individual
engines are specified by the engine
manufacturer and are given either in
the owner’s manual or in the Bosch
spark-plug sales literature.
Electrode shape
The shape of the electrodes influences
their heat dissipation properties, mix¬
ture accessibility, wear resistance and
the required ignition voltage. The elec¬
trode shape is dependent on the type
of spark gap and the spark position.
11) Relationship between electrode gap
and required ignition voltage.
U0 Secondary available voltage, Uz required
ignition voltage, AUIgnition voltage reserve.
The ignition voltage reserve decreases due to
electrode wear.
Spark gap Spark plugs
The arrangement of the electrodes de¬
termines the type of spark gap.
Spark air gap
On its way between the center elec¬
trode and the ground electrode, the
ignition spark passes through the air-
fuel mixture which is between the elec¬
trodes. The “open” spark gap allows
very good mixture accessibility to the
electrodes.
Surface gap
In this version of spark gap, the ground
electrode surrounds the center elec¬
trode in the form of a ring. The free end
of the center electrode projects by only
a very small amount out of the insulator
tip. Consequently, the ignition sparks
glide over the insulator.
Surface gaps have the following
characteristics: if residues of combus¬
tion products have been deposited on
the insulator nose, they are burned off
by the ignition sparks. This means that
fewer electric shunts are able to form
on the insulator nose. The ignition
spark for surface gaps must be very
high in energy in order that, despite
cooling down on the surface area, there
is still sufficient ignition energy available
for reliably igniting the mixture. This
demand can only be satisfied by the
use of electronic ignition systems.
Spark position
The spark position is the position of the
spark gap in the combustion chamber.
The electric sparks should jump across
the point at which the air-fuel mixture
flow conditions are particularly favor¬
able. The arrangement of the elec¬
trodes and insulator determines from
what position the air-fuel mixture is
ignited by the electric spark. The posi¬
tion of the spark is referred to the front
side of the shell.
149
Spark plugs Slightly projected spark position
The slightly projected spark position
(1 mm) has become established as the
standard spark position in older engine
types. The mixture still has good
access to the spark gap.
Normally projected spark position
The normally projected spark position
(3 mm) is standard in modern engines.
Compared with the slightly projected
spark position, the spark gap projects
much further into the combustion
chamber. The mixture is better ignited
under favorable conditions. The tem¬
perature of the center electrode is
safely controlled by an appropriate
selection of material and shape of in¬
sulator nose.
Recessed spark position
Spark plugs with a recessed spark
position are used in racing and special
engines. The spark gap is in the shell.
Thus, the absorption of heat from the
combustion chamber is limited con¬
siderably. This has the advantage that,
in racing engines, this type of plug does
not overheat, although it can be ex¬
pected to foul up with carbon in un¬
favorable cases if the engine is left to
idle for a long time.
12) Spark air gap between center and
ground electrodes.
150
Electrode materials
Compound center electrode
The shunt sensitivity and the corrosion
behavior of standard spark plugs with
center electrodes made of a nickel-
based alloy have been greatly im¬
proved by the development of a com¬
pound center electrode.
Basically, pure metals are better con¬
ductors of heat than alloys. On the
other hand, pure metals such as nickel
react more sensitively to chemical
attacks from combustion gases and
solid combustion deposits than alloys
with chromium or other additions. For
this reason, the jacket material of the
compound electrode consists mainly of
nickel, which is alloyed with chromium,
mangangese and silicon. Each of the
alloy additions has a special task to
perform. Additions of manganese and
silicon increase the chemical resist¬
ance, particularly against the very ag¬
gressive sulphur dioxide (the sulphur
comes both from the fuel and from the
lubricating oil). The compound struc¬
ture complies with both requirements
for high thermal conductivity and high
corrosion resistance.
The ground electrode, which must be
bendable in order to set the electrode
gap, also consists of a nickel-chromium
alloy.
13) Projected spark position (f).
In most cases, electrodes which project more
deeply into the combustion chamber with
appropriately projecting insulator not only
improve the running characteristics of the
engines but also provide greater insensitivity to
fouling.
Silver center electrode
Center electrodes made of hard silver
have exceptional chemical resistance
as long as unleaded fuel is used. Silver
has the best thermal conductivity of all
metals, and is, therefore, superior even
to copper in this connection. However,
silver is more expensive than normal
electrode materials. The solid-silver
center electrode has a smaller dia¬
meter, which provides for better mix¬
ture access to the spark gap. Despite
the smaller diameter, the silver center
electrode dissipates more heat than is
the case in comparable standard spark
plugs.
Platinum center electrode
As an electrode material, platinum has
excellent corrosion resistance. In com¬
parison with the nickel-based elec¬
trode, it is possible to use a smaller
electrode for the same loading. The
14) Materials of center electrodes.
A Composite material, B Platinum, C and D Silver.
15) Electrode arrangement.
Top electrodes (A and B), side electrodes (C ... G), surface-gap spark plug without ground
electrode (H).
high melting point of the material allows Spark plugs
it to be sintered without gap into the
ceramic body made of aluminum oxide.
The omission of the otherwise custom¬
ary air gap between center electrode
and ceramic improves the heat balance
of the platinum spark plug, and the
direct heat transfer between the plati¬
num center electrode and the insulator
nose results in an increase of its work¬
ing range. The completely new design
prevents the ingress of combustion
residues and increases the thermal
working range, so that the self-cleaning
temperature is reached more quickly.
The rise in the required ignition voltage
during the service life is smaller with
the platinum spark plug. This guaran¬
tees high ignition reliability. Cold start¬
ing is also more reliable.
151
Spark plugs
Heat range
of spark plug
The heat range is a measure of the
thermal loading capacity of the
spark plug. It must be matched to
the engine characteristics.
Operating temperature
The parts of the insulator tip which are
in the combustion chamber should not
drop below 400°C - to ensure self¬
cleaning of the spark plug - and should
not exceed approximately 850°C - to
prevent auto-ignition.
Components of the fuel and of the
lubricating oil are released in the form
of soot during combustion in the cylin¬
der. Although most of these deposits
leave the engine with the exhaust gas,
some of them settle in the course of
time in the combustion chamber and
therefore also on the spark plug. These
deposits may foul the insulator nose,
thus establishing an electrically con¬
ductive connection between center
electrode and spark-plug shell. This
“shunt” branches-off a part of the
ignition energy in the form of a “shunt
current”, thereby weakening the ig¬
nition spark (Figure 16). If fouling be¬
comes heavy, it is possible that the
entire available energy will be lost
through the shunt and there will there¬
fore be no ignition spark at all.
The deposition of combustion residues
on the insulator nose is greatly depen¬
dent on its temperature and takes place
predominantly below about 400°C. At
higher temperatures, the carbon-con¬
taining residues on the insulator nose
burn, as a result of which there can be
no shunts, i.e. the plug “cleans” itself.
Therefore, the aim is to achieve an
operating temperature at the insulator
nose which is higher than the “self¬
cleaning limit” of about 400°C. The
self-cleaning temperature should be
reached as quickly as possible after
152 starting.
The upper temperature limit is about
900°C since above this temperature
the air-fuel mixture may ignite prema¬
turely on red-hot parts of the spark plug
(auto-ignition). Uncontrolled ignition of
this kind is highly detrimental to the
engine and may cause irreparable dam¬
age within a short space of time.
For these reasons, the working tempe¬
rature of the spark plug must be kept
within the above-mentioned limits.
Thermal loading capacity
The working temperature is the equilib¬
rium temperature between heat ab¬
sorption and heat dissipation. The spark
plug is heated by the heat generated
during operation in the combustion
chamber of the engine. The spark-plug
shell has more or less the same
temperature as the cylinder head, while
the temperatures reached by the in¬
sulator are considerably higher. Some
(approximately 20%) of the heat ab¬
sorbed by the spark plug is dissipated
through the inflow of fresh mixture
during the induction stroke. Most of the
heat is transferred through the center
electrode and insulator to the spark¬
plug shell and from there to the cylinder
head (Figure 17). The supply of heat to
the spark plug is dependent on the
16) Shunting due to fouled insulator nose
leads to a reduced secondary available
voltage.
-shunt current
engine. Engines with a high specific
power output usually have higher com¬
bustion-chamber temperatures than
engines with a low specific power out¬
put. The heat-absorbing properties of
the spark plug must, therefore, be
matched to the engine type in question.
17) Thermal conduction in the spark plug. Spark plugs
A large proportion of the heat absorbed from
the combustion chamber is dissipated by
thermal conduction (small proportion of cooling
of approximately 20 % due to flowpast of fresh
mixture is not taken into consideration).

The heat range is characteristic of the

thermal loading capacity of the spark
plug.

Heat range and engine

The different characteristics of auto¬
motive engines with respect to operat¬
ing load, working principles, compres¬
sion, engine speed, cooling, carburetor
adjustment and fuel make it impossible
to run all engines with a standard spark
plug. The same spark plug would get
very hot in one engine but would reach
only a relatively low average tempera¬
ture in another.
In the first case, the air-fuel mixture
would ignite on the glowing parts of the
spark plug projecting into the combus¬
tion chamber (auto-ignition) and, in the
second case, the insulator tip would
very soon be so badly fouled by com¬
bustion deposits that misfiring would
occur due to shunts. One and the same
spark plug type is not suitable for all
engines. To ensure that the plug runs
neither too “hot” nor too “cold” in a
given engine, plugs with different load
capacities were developed. These dif¬
ferent loading values are characterized
by the “heat range” which is assigned
to each spark plug. The heat range is,
therefore, a yardstick for selecting the
correct spark plug.

153
Spark plugs Heat range and spark plug
As illustrated, the spark plug must
neither exceed nor fall below a given
temperature range. This means that the
spark plug for a “hot” engine must
efficiently dissipate the heat acting on it
in order to remain within its working
temperature range, whereas a spark
plug for a “cold” engine must absorb
more heat in order to reach its working
temperature. This calls for an equilib¬
rium between the heat absorbed and
the heat dissipated. In order to match
the spark plug to the various types of
engine, this equilibrium and thus the
heat range of the spark plug can be
influenced in two important ways: by
the shape of the insulator nose and by
the material of the electrodes.
through the inner seal ring to the spark¬
plug shell. If the insulator nose is long,
this heat transfer point formed by the
seal ring is further away from the
hottest point on the insulator nose than
is the case with a short insulator nose.
Therefore, spark plugs with a long
insulator nose can absorb more heat
and dissipate less heat (i.e. they are
“hotter”) than plugs with a short in¬
sulator nose (“cold” plug). Different
lengths of insulator nose result, there¬
fore, in different characteristics, in dif¬
ferent heat ranges.
19) Comparison of working ranges.
..iSuper spark plug
piatjnum spark plug

Influence of insulator nose

Heat absorption is determined by the
size of the surface area of the insulator
nose. If a large area is exposed to the
combustion gases - this is achieved by
having a long insulator nose - the
insulator nose gets very hot. Con¬
versely, with a short insulator nose, the
area is small, and the insulated nose
becomes less hot.
The heat is dissipated from the insulator
nose through the center electrode and

18) Working range of spark plugs.

The working range should be between 400 and
850°C at the insulator for different engine
outputs. 1 Platinum spark plug, 2 Super spark
plug, 3 Standard spark plug.

°C
cl Auto-ignition range
■■■
T 1000-
+3 Safety range
3 850 ..
<2 Extended working
— Grange
range
o
CD

-2 Working range/—►
range/
£ 40Q _ 'self-cleaning temperature
g Cold shunting
p _ _Carbon-fouling
Carbon-fouling
0 100%
Engine power output
154
In order to reduce the shunt sensitivity,
it is endeavored to use a long insulator
nose. For this, it is necessary to use an
electrode material which is able to dis¬
sipate adequate heat in order to restore
the state of equilibrium.
Working ranges of spark plugs
The optimum working behavior of a
spark plug is obtained in a temperature
range between 400°C and approxi¬
mately 850°C. Spark plugs, of what¬
ever type, are designed such that they
have identical temperature under max¬
20) Temperature of center electrode (b) and insulator tip (a) for various electrode
materials, same heat-range code and at full load.
Nickel-chromium Compound-
alloy electrode
°c
imum thermal loading. If this point is Spark plugs
designated as 100%, then the spark
plug that already reaches its self¬
cleaning temperature at a lower engine
output has a wider working range (Fig¬
ure 18).
This is synonymous with a reduced
tendency toward cold shunting. En¬
largement of the working range as
compared with a standard spark plug
can be clearly recognized on the Super
spark plug with its compound center
electrode and the thus longer insulator
nose.
Silver- Platinum-
electrode electrode
155
Spark plugs An even greater widening of the work¬ Heat-range code number
ing range has been achieved with the
platinum spark plug thanks to its new The heat range of a spark plug is
design. By using a platinum spark plug, identified by a heat-range code
it is possible to cover two heat ranges number. A low heat-range code
of a standard spark plug. number means “cold plug” with low
heat absorption through short in¬
Influence of electrode material sulator nose. A high heat-range
The heat absorption of the spark plug is code number means “hot plug”
determined chiefly by the size of the with high heat absorption through
insulator nose surface and less by the long insulator nose.
center electrode. Conversely, the heat
dissipation (with the same heat-absorb¬ Heat-range code numbers have been
ing insulator nose surface) is essen¬ specified to make it easier to differ¬
tially dependent upon the thermal con¬ entiate between spark plugs of different
ductivity of the electrodes. Conse¬ heat ranges and in order, thus, to find
quently, the heat dissipation properties the right plug forthe engine in question.
can be improved by selecting an ap¬ The heat-range code number is a part
propriate electrode material (Figure 20). of the spark-plug type designation. Low
Center electrodes with a high thermal code numbers (e.g. 2...4) signify
conductivity are .the compound elec¬ “cold” plugs. High code numbers
trodes (copper core and chromium- (e.g. 7...10) signify “hot” plugs.
nickel jacket) and the silver electrode. By way of comparison, Figure 21
The even better thermal dissipation shows the temperature curves of three
properties of the platinum spark plug spark plugs with different heat-range
are attributable to the gapless installa¬ code numbers at full load in the same
tion of the thin platinum center elec¬ engine. It can be clearly seen that the
trode with a higher thermal loading spark plug with a high heat-range code
capacity (also see section “Electrode number exceeds the self-cleaning
material”). temperature at a far lower engine
power output than is the case with the
Influence of electrode shape spark plug with a low heat-range code
Selecting the electrode shape affords number.
one further possibility of influencing the
heat absorption properties and improv¬
ing heat dissipation.
Whilst “hot” spark plugs can be im¬
plemented with spark air gaps and
projected spark positions, surface gaps
and recessed spark positions are typi¬
cal electrode shapes for “very cold”
spark plugs such as those used in
heavily stressed racing engines. How¬
ever, it must be remembered in this
case that the mixture has greater diffi¬
culty in reaching the electrodes (also
see section on “Electrode shape”).
On the platinum spark plug, the center
electrode absorbs the heat virtually only
via the insulator nose since only a
punctiform surface is available for ab¬
sorbing heat from the combustion
156 chamber.
21) Temperature curves of spark plug with different heat-range code numbers at full load Spark plugs
in the same engine.

0 100%
Engine power output

0 Spark plug with high
heat-range code number
(“hot plug”). Large in¬
sulator nose area absorbs
much heat, low heat dissi¬
pation.
® Spark plug with medium
heat-range code number.
Insulator nose area smaller
than in “hot plug”. Lower
heat absorption, better heat
dissipation.
® Spark plug with low heat-
range code number (“cold
plug”). Smaller insulator
nose area absorbs little heat.
Very good heat dissipation
through short thermal con¬
duction path.

© ©

Heat-absorbing surface
Thermal conduction path
157
Spark plugs
Selection
of spark plugs
The correct spark plug for an
engine is specified jointly by the
engine manufacturer and Bosch.
Temperature-measuring
spark plugs
The temperature-measuring spark plug
provides initial information on the
correct choice of spark plug. With a
thermocouple in the center electrode of
a spark plug, it is possible to record the
temperatures in the individual cylinders
as a function of engine speed and load.
By way of the temperatures, it is poss¬
ible to obtain only a rough adaptation of
the spark plug to the engine. These
temperatures provide information on
how safe the spark plug is, particularly
in the case of fuel additives and alterna¬
tive fuels. Nevertheless, the ther¬
mocouple spark plug is a good aid in
adapting the heat range, because it
is a simple means of determining the
hottest cylinder.
22) Definitions with regard to heat-range
selection.
Al Auto-ignition
TDC Top dead center
Pri Pre-ignition
Poi Post-ignition
HRR Heat-range reserve in °crankshaft
IP Ignition point °crankshaft before TDC
az Ignition angle
158
Ionic-current measuring
method
With the ionic-current measuring
method, the combustion process is
used to specify the heat range. The
ionizing effect of flames makes it poss¬
ible, by measuring the conductivity in
the spark plug, to evaluate the time
curve of the initiation combustion of the
air-fuel mixture. This curve shows
characteristic changes referred to the
thermal loading of a spark plug. Shown
on an oscilloscope, this permits precise
selection of the heat range of a spark
plug for any engine.
The advantage of this method over a
single temperature measurement in the
combustion chamber lies in establish¬
ing the probability of ignition, which
depends not only on the temperature
but also on the residence time of the
mixture.
In order to select the heat ranges of
spark plugs, terms and definitions relat¬
ing to the uncontrolled ignition of air-
fuel mixtures have been laid down in
accordance with an international agree¬
ment (ISO 2542-1972):
23) Temperature-measuring spark plug.
1 Insulator, 2 Terminal stud, 3 Insulating tube,
4 Thermocouple leg, 5 Center electrode,
6 Measuring point.
Auto-ignition is taken to mean ignition
which is independent of the ignition
spark. If ignition takes place prior to the
electrical ignition point, this is pre¬
ignition.
If ignition takes place after the ignition
point, we speak of post-ignition. Post¬
ignition is non-critical as regards opera¬
tion of the engine; conversely, pre¬
ignition may lead to serious damage.
As regards pre-ignition, a further dis¬
tinction is made between incipient pre¬
ignition, and runaway pre-ignition (the
actual auto-ignition).
The spark plug must be selected in
such a way that, even under full load,
there is no pre-ignition. Moreover,
value is attached to a heat-range re¬
serve, which defines the distance to the
start of pre-ignition under further-in-
creasing thermal loading of the spark
plug. This heat-range reserve is ex¬
pressed in °crankshaft, the amount
by which the factory-set ignition timing
can be further advanced without pre¬
ignition occurring.
As regards post-ignition, advancing the
ignition-timing angle az results in a
linear increase in the mean combus¬
24) Diagram of ionic-current measurement.
1 From ignition distributor, 2 Ionic-current
adapter, 3 Spark plug, 4 Ionic-current device,
5 Oscilloscope.
tion-chamber temperature in the cy¬ Spark plugs
linder and also in the equilibrium tem¬
perature of the insulator tip. This rise in
temperature is between 3 and 10°C
per °crankshaft, depending on the en¬
gine.
The ionic-current measuring method
makes it possible to select the heat
range of a spark plug for any engine
and also to measure the heat range in a
test engine.
In addition, the Bosch ionic-current
measuring method makes it possible,
by suppressing the ignition spark at
certain intervals, to trace post-ignition
and its percentage share in relation to
the suppression rate as the combus¬
tion-chamber temperature rises (by ad¬
vancing the ignition-timing angle). A
change in the ionic-current trace on
the screen permits the precise deter¬
mination, even without suppressing the
electric ignition spark, of the transition
from post-ignition to incipient pre¬
ignition. This makes the measuring
method an additional aid in evaluating
individual design parameters with re¬
gard to their tendency to produce auto¬
ignition under maximum loading.
25) Characteristic ionic-current oscillo¬
scope patterns.
a) Normal operating condition, b) Suppressed
ignition without post-ignition, c) Suppressed
ignition with post-ignition, d) Pre-ignition.
159
Spark plugs The practical procedure is now ex¬ from the Automotive Electrics Technical
plained with reference to an example: Center.
ionic-current measurement on three For motorists, the spark-plug rec¬
Bosch spark plugs with different heat ommendations of the vehicle manufac¬
ranges, full-load operation, 5000 min-, turer or the Bosch recommendations in
ignition timing factory-set to 32° our sales literature are binding. Here
crankshaft (IP). Result: you will also find information on re¬
gional differences in the heat-range
+ °crank- IP Spark % Poi Pri recommendations.
shaft plug Application measurements on spark
0 32 W5DC 0 — plugs are best performed on the engine
+ 10 42 0 — test stand. Since the engine must be
+ 15 47 0 — operated at full load over lengthy
periods of time in order to establish the
0 32 W7DC 20 —

hottest operating point, it is not possible

+ 5 37 90 —

to conduct tests on public roads. For

+ 10 42 100 —

this reason, a mobile chassis dy¬

+ 15 47 100 yes
namometer (see illustration below) has
0 32 W8DC 100 —
been developed on which vehicles can
+ 5 37 100 yes be measured up to 140 kW.
Poi = post-ignition Pri = pre-ignition

In the case of the spark plug with the

lowest heat-range code number, the
temperature of the insulator remains so
low that, when the ignition-timing angle
is advanced by a further 15° crankshaft,
there is neither pre-ignition nor post¬
ignition.

The spark plug with the highest heat-

range code number shows 100 % post¬
ignition even with the factory-set ig¬
nition timing, i.e. each time the spark is
suppressed, the compressed mixture
is still ignited by the red-hot surface of
the insulator. Advancing of the ignition¬
timing angle leads to incipient pre¬
ignition; the heat-range reserve is too
low.
In this case, the spark plug with the
middle heat-range code number is re¬
commended for use. With the factory-
set ignition timing, there is 20% post¬
ignition; the heat range reserve to start
of pre-ignition is 15° crankshaft and is,
therefore, sufficiently high.
The above remarks illustrate that spark
plugs cannot simply be selected from a
catalog and used. For the selection of
suitable spark plugs, we recommend
close cooperation between engine de¬
160 velopment and our measuring team
Operating behavior
of spark plug
During operation, the spark plug is
subjected both to wear and to fouling
and must, therefore, be replaced at
regular intervals.
In the course of its service life, the
spark plug undergoes changes which
increase the required ignition voltage.
When the required voltage reaches a
value which can no longer be compen¬
sated for by the voltage reserve, the
result is misfiring. The operation of the
spark plug can also be adversely af¬
fected by the aging of the engine or by
incorrect tuning of the engine.
Ash deposits may lead to hot shunting
or may affect mixture accessibility
through a build-up of ash in the spark
gap. The result is combustion misses
which are associated with a clear rise in
fuel consumption.
Engine-related influences
As the engine ages, leakage may occur
which leads to a higher content of oil in
the combustion chamber. This results
in heavy deposits of soot, ash and oil
carbon on the spark plug and may lead
to shunts. The result is misfiring.
Changes in the composition of the air-
fuel mixture can also cause misfiring. If
the mixture is too rich (shortage of air),
Spark plugs
combustion cannot be initiated in spite
of the presence of the ignition spark.
If the mixture is too lean (excess air),
ignition or combustion is likewise not
possible.
Electrode wear
Electrode wear is the removal of ma¬
terial from the electrodes as a result of
electrical ignition sparks and corrosion
effects from the combustion chamber.
A visible sign of electrode wear is the
increase in the electrode gap during the
service life of the plug. A suitable
choice of electrode (material, shape,
size) minimizes electrode wear. Two
processes are involved in electrode
wear. Spark erosion and corrosion.
Both processes work together and
cannot be considered separately.
Spark erosion and corrosion
The discharge of electrical sparks leads
to an increase in the temperature of the
electrodes. In conjunction with the ag¬
gressive combustion gases, there is
clear wear at high temperatures.
Melted-open, microscopically small
surface areas are oxidized or react with
other constituents in the combustion
gases. The result is a removal of metal,
which can be seen in the rounding of
edges and also in the widening of the
electrode gap. Both lead to an increase
in the required ignition voltage. The
extent of the wear depends on the
electrode material. The higher the elec¬
trode temperature, the faster the ad¬
vance of corrosion.
Platinum, for example, is extremely
resistant to corrosion up to extremely
high temperatures. With the platinum
spark plug, wear takes place only from
the end face of the center electrode
due to it being sintered in position in the
spark plug.
Silver has a low melting point. Silver
electrodes, therefore, may be loaded 161
Spark plugs only up to about 600°C. Within this
temperature range, corrosion remains
within limits.
Thanks to its resistant jacket, the cop¬
per of the compound center electrode
does not come into contact with the
combustion gases.
Abnormal operating
conditions
Abnormal operating conditions can ir¬
reparably damage the engine and the
spark plug. These include:
- auto-ignition,
- knocking and
- high oil consumption (formation of
ash and carbon residue).
Engine and spark plug may be dam¬
aged also by an incorrectly tuned ig¬
nition system, the use of spark plugs
with the wrong heat range for the
engine or the use of unsuitable fuels.
Auto-ignition
With auto-ignition the air-fuel mixture
ignites as it passes red-hot surfaces in
the combustion chamber before the
ignition spark jumps across the elec¬
trodes. Red-hot surfaces are the result
of local overheating at full load, usually
at the tip of the spark-plug insulator, on
the exhaust valve, on projecting cylin¬
der-head gaskets and other sharp
edges. Glowing deposits in the com¬
bustion chamber can also cause auto¬
ignition. Auto-ignition is an uncontrolled
ignition process in which the tem¬
peratures in the combustion chamber
can rise to such an extent as to cause
serious damage to the engine and the
spark plug. (Auto-ignition) should not
be confused with knocking or afterrun¬
ning.) There is a joint rise in the
pressure and temperature, as a result
of which there may be serious damage
to the engine and to the spark plugs.
caused by the spontaneous ignition of
portions of the mixture which have not
yet been reached by the advancing
flame front triggered by the ignition
spark. Combustion takes place con¬
siderably faster than normal (gentle)
combustion. There are pressure oscil¬
lations with high peak pressures and
high frequencies which are superim¬
posed on the normal pressure curve.
The consequence of knocking is over¬
heating of parts of the engine, thus
causing pitting on the piston which, if
allowed to progress, influences the
lubricating properties and usually leads
to auto-ignition and thus to destruction
of the engine.
The pressure oscillations severely
stress the cylinder head, the spark
plug, the valves, the piston, the con¬
necting rod and the crankshaft. If
knocking is not noticed or is not re¬
medied, serious damage to the engine
is inevitable. The damage pattern
shows similarity with cavitation damage
(caused by flow at ultrasonic speed).
The effect of knocking on spark plugs is
visible initially on the surface of the
ground electrode in the form of pitting.
27) Pressure in the cylinder.
1 With normal combustion
2 With knocking

Knocking
Knocking is uncontrolled combustion
162 with a very steep rise in pressure. It is
Types of spark plug
Seat
Depending on the type of engine,
the seal between the spark plug
and cylinder head is by means of a
flat seat or a conical seat.
The flat seat uses a gasket as a sealing
element. The gasket is captive on the
spark-plug shell. It is specially shaped
and provides a permanently elastic seal
if correctly mounted.
With the conical seat, without the use of
a gasket, a conical surface of the spark¬
plug shell seals directly on a mating
surface of the cylinder head. This in¬
creasingly used kind of seat allows
spark-plug shells with smaller outer
dimensions, but requires special atten¬
tion to the installation instructions.
Special spark plugs
The internal construction of the spark
plug, the electrode shape and material
as well as the heat range depend on the
combustion chamber and the service
conditions of the engine. Special spark
plugs are used for special require¬
ments.
28) Flat seat with gasket (left)
and conical seat without gasket (right).
Spark plugs for motor racing
Due to their constant operation at full
Spark plugs
load, engines for racing vehicles are
exposed to very high thermal loading.
Spark plugs for these operating condi¬
tions usually have electrodes which are
manufactured from precious metals
(silver, platinum) and a short insulator
nose. As a result of their short insulator
nose, the heat absorption of these
plugs is very low and heat dissipation
through the precious-metal electrodes
is high.
Spark plugs with silver electrodes are
identified by an “S” after the type
designation and spark plugs with plati¬
num electrodes are identified by means
of a “P”.
Interference-suppressed
spark plugs
The ignition system is the main source
of interference to radio reception in the
motor vehicle. This interference is kept
within specified limits by means of
various degrees interference of sup¬
pression. Interference suppression is
dealt with in detail in the Bosch Tech¬
nical Instruction series in the publica¬
tion “Interference Suppression”.
Special spark plugs are used when
high-quality interference suppression is
required.
29) Interference-suppressed spark plug
(left) and fully shielded spark plug (right)
1 Special conductive seal acting as inter¬
ference-suppression resistor, 2 H.T. ignition
cable connection, 3 Shield sleeve.
163
Spark plugs Spark plug with resistor
By means of a resistor fitted in the path
to the spark gap of the spark plug, it is
possible to reduce the transmission of
the interference pulses to the high-
tension ignition cables, with the result
that the interference radiation is also
reduced. In addition, this reduces the
spark erosion which takes place on the
electrodes. The resistor is formed by
the special conductive seal between
the center electrode and the terminal
stud. The required resistance of the
special seal is achieved by the selec¬
tion of appropriate admixtures.
Spark plugs with resistor are identified
by the letter “R” in the type desig¬
nation.
Fully shielded spark plug
In cases where very high demands are
placed on interference suppression
(radios, car telephone), it may be
necessary to shield the spark plug.
30) Types of spark plug.
© Short type (WS... spark plugs). Predominantly
for power saws and lawn mowers with tight
Installation conditions.
© Slim type (H, F, X and U spark plugs). Predo¬
minantly for engines with extremely tight installa¬
tion conditions.
In fully shielded spark plugs, the in¬
sulator is surrounded by a metal
sleeve. The connection is inside the
insulator. The shielded H.T. ignition
cable is fastened onto the sleeve by
means of a union nut. Fully shielded
spark plugs are water-tight. The fully
shielded spark plug is identified by the
letter “ B ” or “C” in the second position
in the type designation.
Type designation
The identification of the types of spark
plug is by means of a specific type
designation. This type designation con¬
tains all the important features of the
spark plug with the exception of the
electrode gap which is given addition¬
ally on the spark-plug packaging. The
correct spark plug and electrode gap
for the respective engine is specified by
the engine manufacturer or is recom¬
mended by Bosch.
© Standard type (Wand D spark plugs). W spark
plugs are used most frequently in passenger cars.
@ Fully shielded type (WC and WB spark plugs).
Used for greater Interference suppression, such
as in military and aviation, vehicles with radio
equipment.
© Long-life sparkplug. With multiple ground
electrodes.
 Type designation code for Bosch spark plugs Dimensions in mm

*SW = A/F

31) Type designation and electrode spacing are given on the front side of the packaging.

165
Spark plugs
In practice
If the correct type is selected and
correctly fitted the spark plug is a
reliable part of the ignition system.
Fitting the spark plug
Removal
- When removing the spark plug, first
of all unscrew by a few turns. Then,
using compressed air or a brush, clean
the surrounding area in the cylinder
head so that no dirt gets into the thread
of the cylinder head or into the
combustion chamber when the spark
plug is removed. Only then screw out
the spark plug completely.
- If the spark plug is very tight, un¬
screw it only a little, so as not to
damage the thread in the cylinder head.
Then drip kerosene or oil onto the
threads, screw the spark plug back in
again and attempt after a few minutes to
unscrew it completely.
Installation
When installing the spark plug in the
engine, note the following:
- The contact faces on the spark plug
and on the engine must be clean.
- Bosch spark plugs do not require any
graphite or graphitic lubricant on the
thread. They are treated with an anti¬
corrosion oil. Seizing up is impossible
because the threads are nickel-plated.
- Spark plugs should, if possible, be
tightened to the torque given in the
table using a torque wrench. When
the spark plug is tightened, the tight¬
ening torque is transmitted from the
hexagon section to the seat and the
thread. This means that the insulator
may come loose if the spark-plug
shell is warped due to excessive
tightening torque or through tilting of
the spark-plug wrench. Therefore, the
tightening torque must not exceed a
necessary to reduce the tightening
torque by a third.
In practice, spark plugs are often fitted
without a torque wrench. Consequently,
they are usually overtightened. Bosch
therefore recommends the following
rule-of-thumb procedure:
- Screw the spark plug by hand into the
clean thread as far as it will go. Then
apply the spark-plug wrench.
- Spark plugs with captive gasket:
Using the wrench, turn new spark plugs
until first resistance is felt, and then turn
them through another 90°.
Turn used plugs by an amount corre¬
sponding to 5 mins on an imaginary
clock face or an angle of 30° after the first
resistance is felt.
- Spark plugs with conical seat:
Turn the spark plug further by an angle
of 15° or an amount corresponding to 2
or 3 minutes on an imaginary clock face
after the first resistance is felt.
- When tightening or loosening the
spark plug, the wrench should not be
held at an angle; the insulator will
otherwise be broken off or pushed to the
side, making the spark plug unfitfor use.
- In the case of box wrenches with a
loose tommy bar, the hole forthe tommy
bar must be above the spark plug so that
the tommy bar can be pushed through
both holes in the box wrench. If the holes
are lower and the tommy bar is inserted
only through one hole, the spark plug will
be damaged.
Table of tightening torques
Cylinder- Cast Light
head material iron alloy
Tightening N•m N-m
torque
Sparkplugs MIOxl.O 10...15 10...15
with flat
M 12 x 1.25 15... 25 15... 25
seats
O
M
O

given value. M 14 x 1.25 20... 30

The tightening torques apply to spark

o

'sj-
CO

Lfi

M 18x1.5 20... 35
plugs as new, i.e. to lightly oiled spark Sparkplugs M 14 x 1.25 15... 25 10... 20
plugs, but without any additional lu¬ with conical
M 18x1.5 20... 30 15... 23
seats
166 bricant. If lubricant is applied, it is
Mistakes and relate to the incorrect heat-range code Spark plugs
their consequences number, incorrect thread length and
modifications to the seat.
Basically, a given engine type should be
fitted only with the spark plugs specified Incorrect heat-range code number
by the engine manufacturer or with those The heat-range code number must,
recommended by Bosch. To rule out under all circumstances, conform to the
from the outset an incorrect'selection, spark plug specifications of the motor-
the motorist should consult the Bosch vehicle manufacturer or to the Bosch
Service specialist. The desired infor¬ spark-plug recommendations.
mation is also provided in sales literature,
such as catalogs, product stands with
information boards or application
summaries. The use of unsuitable types
of spark plugs can lead to serious engine
damage. The most frequently encoun¬
tered mistakes and their consequences

Conical seat

167
Spark plugs Incorrect thread length
The length of the thread on the spark
plug must be the same as the length of
the thread in the cylinder head. If the
spark-plug thread is too long, the spark
plug projects too far in the combustion
chamber.
Consequences: possible damage to
the piston; coking up of the spark-plug
thread may make it impossible to re¬
move the spark plug; spark plug over¬
heating.
If the thread is too short, the spark plug
does not project far enough into the
combustion chamber.
Consequences: poor ignition of the
mixture; spark plug does not reach its
self-cleaning temperature; the lower
threads in the cylinder head become
coked up.
Modifications to the seat
On spark plugs with a conical seat, it is
not permissible to use a washer or a
seal ring. On spark plugs with a flat
seat, it is permissible to use only the
captive gasket on the spark plug. It
must not be removed or replaced by a
washer. Without the gasket, the spark
plug projects too far into the combus¬
tion chamber. The transfer of heat from
the spark-plug shell to the cylinder
head is disturbed, and the spark plug is
not tightly seated.
If an additional seal ring is used, the
spark plug is not seated deep enough
32) Incorrect fitting of spark plugs with flat seats.
a) Thread too long, b) Thread too short, c) Gasket removed, d) Additional gasket. Similar mistakes
may also occur in the case of spark plugs with conical seats, despite the absence of the gasket.
168
in the thread hole, and the transfer of
heat from the spark-plug shell to the
cylinder head is likewise disturbed.
Electrode gap
When installing spark plugs, attention
must be paid to the precise electrode
gap. If necessary, the electrode gap
must be adjusted in accordance with
the specifications of the vehicle manu¬
facturer. Adjustment and readjustment
are performed only on the ground elec¬
trode. Care must be taken when doing
this not to damage the center electrode
or the insulator. This applies to both
Super and platinum spark plugs. There¬
fore, only the Bosch spark-plug-gap
gauge should be used for measuring
the electrode gap and for adjusting the
ground electrode. The electrode gap is
correctly adjusted when the appropriate
measuring wire can be passed be¬
tween the electrodes with hardly no¬
ticeable resistance. It is not advisable to
readjust spark-plug electrodes which
are already visibly worn, since the spark
plug will have been affected by com¬
bustion deposits. Readjusting worn
electrodes results in misfiring and a
consequent loss of power with in¬
creased fuel consumption. It is more
economical in every case to change the
spark plugs regularly.
Should, however, it be necessary
within a service interval to check the
wear on platinum spark plugs, this can
be done either using a magnifying glass
or with the spark-plug-gap gauge with
measuring mandrel.
Spark-plug faces
The appearance of the electrodes and
insulator of the spark plug - the “spark¬
plug face” - provides information on
the operating performance of the spark
plug as weli as on the mixture compo¬ Spark plugs
sition and combustion in the engine
(Figure 34).
The assessment of the face of the
spark plug is, therefore, an important
part of engine diagnosis. This infor¬
mation is only reliable if the vehicle has
been driven beforehand for about
10 km (6-7 miles) at different engine
speeds in the medium power range.

33) Using the Bosch spark-plug-gap gauge.

a) Measuring the electrode gap (EA). The appropriate measuring wire must pass between the
electrodes with hardly noticeable resistance.
b) Checking for wear. With the ground electrode bent back, the measuring wire tor platinum spark
plugs is introduced into the hole in the insulator nose. The wear limit has been reached when the
wire goes in as far as the plastic stop (see arrow).
c) Widening the electrode gap: bend open with bending device.
d) Holding the spark plug as shown, lightly and carefully tap the ground electrode vertically in the
direction of the arrow on a hard, smooth surface.

169
Spark plugs 34) Spark-plug faces.

© Normal condition.
Insulator nose grayish-white or grayish-yellow
to brown. Engine is in order. Heat range of plug
correct.
Mixture setting and ignition timing are correct,
no misfiring, cold-starting device functioning.
No deposits from fuel additives containing lead
or from alloying constituents in the engine oil.
No overheating.

© Sooted - carbon-fouled.
Insulator nose, electrodes and spark-plug shell
covered with velvet-like, dull black soot
deposits.
Cause: incorrect mixture setting (carburetor,
fuel injection): mixture too rich, air filter very
dirty, automatic choke not in order or manual
choke pulled too long, mainly short-distance
driving, spark plug too cold, heat-range code
number too low.

© Oil-fouled.
Insulator nose, electrodes and spark-plug shell
covered with shiny soot or carbon residues.
Cause: too much oil in combustion chamber.
Oil level too high, badly worn position rings,
cylinders and valve guides. In two-stroke en¬
gines, too much oil in mixture.

© Formation of ash.
Heavy ash deposits from oil and fuel additives
on the insulator nose, in the scavenging area
and on the ground electrode. The structure of
the ash is loose to cinder-like.
Cause: alloying constituents, in particular from
oil, can deposit this ash in the combustion
chamber and on the spark-plug face.

© Partially melted electrodes.

Cauliflower-like appearance of the electrodes.
Possible deposits of materials not originating
from the plug. Cause: overheating due to auto¬
ignition, e.g. due to over-advanced ignition
timing, combustion deposits in combustion
chamber, defective valves, defective ignition
distributor or insufficient fuel quality.

© Heavy wear on ground electrode.

Excessively large electrode gap owing to ex¬
cessive wear.
Cause: aggressive fuel and 'oil additives. Un¬
favorable influences of gas turbulence in the
combustion chamber, possibly caused by de¬
posits. Knocking. No overheating.

170
Interference suppression
Propagation of interference
Interference can reach a receiver in vari¬
ous ways: directly via lines connecting
interference source and receiver or
through capacitive or inductive coupling
or through radiation. No strict delimita¬
tion is possible between the latter three
possibilities.
Interference-suppression
devices
The following interference-suppression
devices are normally used for inter¬
ference suppression:
- Interference-suppression resistors
having a pronounced reactive compo¬
nent in addition to a resistive component.
- Capacitors and choke coils or inter¬
ference-suppression filters - in their
simplest form the combination of a
capacitor with a choke coil.
- Shielding parts, e.g. metallic inter¬
ference-suppression braiding for
shielding leads and cables, inter¬
ference-suppression covers made of
conductive material for shielding ig¬
nition distributors etc.
- Chassis connections, e.g. ground
straps for conductive connections be¬
tween individual metal parts in vehicles.
The following applies in principle to inter¬
ference-suppression devices: Radio in¬
terference must primarily be suppressed
directly at its origin (source of inter¬
ference) (interference-suppression re¬
sistors, for example, should be installed
as near as possible to the spark gaps).
Interference-suppression
categories
A basic distinction is drawn between two.
interference-suppression categories:
Interference
suppression
long-distance interference suppression
which is prescribed by law for all motor
vehicles (see German Industrial Stan¬
dard DIN 57 879/VDE 0879, Part 1 and
the German Motor Vehicle Construction
and Use Regulations StVZO § 55 a
(FMVSS/CUR)) and short-distance in¬
terference suppression for motor ve¬
hicles with fitted radio receivers (not
legally prescribed but absolutely essen¬
tial for perfect transmission and recep¬
tion).
Long-distance interference
suppression
The aim of long-distance interference
suppression is to reduce the inter¬
ference field strength in order to safe¬
guard radio and television reception in
the vicinity of motor vehicles so as to
prevent the possibility of interference
being caused to radio reception, for
example, in nearby houses. In the 30
to 250 MHz frequency range, the in¬
terference field strength must not ex¬
ceed certain limits, e.g. as defined by
DIN 57 879/VDE 0879, Part 1, after
interference suppression.
Short-distance (intensified)
interference suppression
Short-distance interference suppres¬
sion involves motor vehicles and
assemblies of equipment having their
own transmitters or receivers or when
transmitters and receivers are installed
in their immediate vicinity.
Sparkplugs
As with long-distance interference sup¬
pression, use is made of suppression
connectors with built-in resistors. If
necessary, these connectors are par¬
tially shielded. 171
Interference Ignition coil
suppression the ignition coil is fitted with a 2.2 /iF
suppression capacitor. The capacitor
must always be connected to the coil
terminal to which the battery lead is con¬
nected. It should never be connected to
terminal 1! If necessary, the high-ten¬
sion ignition cable leading from the ig¬
nition coil (terminal 4) is provided with a
suppression connector. Note: In vehi¬
cles with semiconductor ignition system,
an interference-suppression capacitor
with overvoltage limiting should be con¬
nected to terminal 15 of the ignition coil.
Ignition distributor
In addition to the suppression distributor
rotor used in long-distance interference
suppression, each high-tension ignition
cable leading from the ignition dis¬
tributor is fitted with a distributor con¬
nector with built-in interference-sup¬
pression resistor. On ignition systems
still operating with breaker points, an in¬
terference-suppression filter must be
connected to terminal 1 of the ignition
distributor (cable between the breaker
points and ignition coil) in order to re¬
duce sparks generated when the points
open.
Shielded systems
Shielded systems permitshort-distance
interference suppression for particularly
exacting reguirements. Such systems
are used on vehicles with radio system
(for instance, vehicles with radio tele¬
phone), radio location vehicles and if
particularly exacting reguirements are
made in respect of reception guality.

1) Short-distance interference suppression of an ignition system with normal ignition coil.

1 Shielded distributor connectors with interference-suppression resistors, 2 Shielded high-tension
ignition cables, 3 Metal-coated distributor cap, 4 Distributor rotor with interference-suppression
resistor, 5 Trigger box, 6 Shielded spark-plug connectors with interference-suppression resistors,
7 Connector with interference-suppression resistor, 8 Interference-suppression capacitor.

172
Alternators
A suppression filter for the appropriate
continuous power rating (100 to 200 A)
is fitted in the alternator lead to battery
positive pole and, if required, in D+.
Leads between alternator and suppres¬
sion filterare completely shielded.
Ignition systems
It is advisable to use only ready-assem¬
bled shielded HT ignition cables.
- The shielding must either extend to
the ignition coil (e. g. on emergency and
police vehicles), or
- the ignition system, including the
coil, is completely shielded. Frequently,
even shielded spark plugs are used in¬
stead of standard plugs with shielded
connectors, as well as completely
shielded distributors.
- Also, the lead to the ignition and start¬ Interference
ing switch has a suppression filter up to suppression
which the shielding must extend (mainly
on military vehicles).
Electric motors
Shielding is not usually required for
electric motors if they have built-in sup¬
pression devices. In special cases, the
motor is shielded (in particularthetermi-
nals), and a suppression filter is fitted or
the lead between filter and motor is
shielded with suppression braiding.
Electrical instruments etc.
No shielding is usually required for such
instruments. Standard suppression
measures suffice.

2) Short-distance interference suppression of an ignition system with shielded ignition coil.

1 Shielded distributor connectors with interference-suppression resistor, 2 Shielded high-tension
ignition cables, 3 Metal-coated distributor cap, 4 Distributor rotor with interference-suppression
resistor, 5 Trigger box, 6 Shielded spark-plug connectors with interference-suppression resistor,
7 Shielded ignition coil, 8 Interference-suppression filter.

a
£1
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173
Interference
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Electromagnetic
compatibility
(EMC)
Terms and definitions
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)-in
the context of motor vehicles - means
the interaction between various electri¬
cal or electronic systems in the motor
vehicle and the interaction between the
motor vehicle and its electromagnetic
environment. Three causes are involved
both individually and jointly.
Conducted interference
This occurs owing to (unintentional)
retroactive effects on the vehicle’s
electrical system, e.g. owing to volt¬
age fades (starting), switch-on and
switch-off pulses (relays) or high-fre¬
quency interference currents (electric
motors).
Near field
An interaction (influencing) occurs in
the near field of a system owing to
galvanic, inductive and capacitive coup¬
ling, in particular via the connecting
leads of the sensors and final control¬
ling elements.
Far field
Interaction with the environment occurs
via the far field of the motor vehicle
system. The far field of the motor
3) Problematic areas in respect of EMC.
1 Electrical/electronic system of the motor
vehicle (a...n), 2 Sensor, 3 Final controlling
element, 4 Vehicle electrical system, 5 Con¬
ducted interference, 6 Near field, 7 Inter¬
ference suppression (antenna), 8 Far field.
vehicle influences the field, e.g. of radio
broadcasting and/or television broad¬
Interference
suppression
casting transmitters but the reverse is
also true since the field of a transmitter
influences the motor vehicle system.
An electrical or electronic system is
both a source and a sink of electro¬
magnetic interference.
Interference suppression
Interference suppression has the task
of reducing the influences acting upon
the car radio from neighboring systems
(ignition, alternator, wipers etc.) to an
acceptable level, primarily by inter¬
ference-suppression measures on the
neighboring systems (details, see Page
171).
Interference
The impedance of the vehicle’s electri¬
cal system is of crucial significance in
respect of the conducted interference.
It is dependent upon the leads used,
their length and their routing and varies
from vehicle type to vehicle type. A
four-pole equivalent circuit which
simulates the characteristics of a typical
vehicle electrical system has been
stipulated for dialog between manufac¬
turer and user of electrical and/or elec¬
tronic systems.
Radiation occurs in frequency ranges in
which the wavelength
k = c/f
c speed of propagation
/frequency
4) Basic circuit diagram of the equivalent
motor vehicle electrical system.
In accordance with DIN 57 879, Part 3/VDE
0879, Part 3. P-B connection unit under test,
A-B connection power supply, M-B connection
radio interference test receiver, S switch, B
reference ground (sheet-metal
plate, shielding of the equivalent circuit).
177
Interference enters the range of the geometrical
suppression dimensions of a structure. The elec¬
tromagnetic field from live components
also affects neighboring electrically
passive components, e.g. exhaust,
brake lines, Bowden cables and engine
hood etc. These components are ex¬
cited, in particular in the case of pulsed
processes, and, as so-called second¬
ary sources of radiation, frequently
have a major influence upon the in¬
coming and outgoing interference be¬
havior of the motor vehicle.
Standards
and regulations
Unwanted signals with a wideband
spectrum caused by the electrical or
electronic components in the vehicle
and which have a retroactive effect
upon the vehicle’s electrical system are
covered in German Industrial Standard
DIN 57 879, Part 3/VDE 0879, Part 3.
This standard is subdivided into
6 categories which permits both the
manufacturers and the users of the
components to reach agreements
which allow for the relevant conditions
obtaining.
The narrow-band spectrum of voltage
pulses emitted by the components
(in particular microcomputer-controlled
components) and which have a retro¬
active effect upon the vehicle electrical
system are currently under discussion.
The aim is to harmonize the use of such
components with the German “Law on
the operation of radio-frequency equip¬
ment” which requires that all equip¬
ment generating electrical oscillations
in the range between 10 kHz and 3000
GHz be subject to licensing by the PTT
authorities.
Conducted interference resulting from
positive and negative overvoltages and
voltage fade during starting etc. are
covered in ISO DTR 7637/0 and 1.
All areas of EMC, in particular incoming
radiation, are covered in documents
such as VG 95370 to 95377 and in
military standard MIL-STD 461 and
178 462.
Shielding
The penetration depth (attenuation of a
wave penetrating a material to 1/e) is a
measure of the shielding effect of elec¬
trically conductive materials. The pene¬
tration depth is dependent upon the
electrical conductivity of the material
and the frequency.
Attempting to calculate the shielding
effect of an electrically conductive en¬
closure (e.g. for equipment housings,
vehicle bodywork) fails in practice, on
the one hand owing to the complex
formulae and, on the other hand, owing
to the fact that even simple shapes
(rectangles and spheres) have parting
lines and openings which cannot be
appropriately allowed for in a calculation
and which may completely destroy the
shielding effect. Thus, the shielding
effect must be determined experimen¬
tally in individual cases. The shielding
effect of motor vehicle bodywork is
approximately 20...40 dB.
Interference to neighboring leads and
lines can be reduced by shielding such
leads and lines. The attenuation which
can be thus achieved improves the
lower the resistance of the shield is and
the better the rotationally symmetric and
parallel guidance of the current in the
shield with respect to the inner conduc¬
tor (braiding is better than wrapping).
Commercially available shielded lines
such as those used in motor vehicles
can be used to achieve attenuations
between 60 and 100 dB.
In motor vehicles, the engine block
and the bodywork are used as the
return line for the starter circuit, ig¬
nition system circuit and lighting cir¬
cuit etc. The interference field emitted
by the supply cable can be attenuated
by shielding. Above the so-called
pinch frequency
/E = (Rs + *m)/(2jt • L)
L inductance, RM ground resistance,
Rs shielding resistance
the inductance of the loop plays a major
role in guiding the return current via the
shield. The shield also prevents the
penetration of electrical fields. However,
the effects of magnetic fields cannot be
counteracted with such measures.
Partial shielding
Practical reasons prevent the use of
complete shielding in motor vehicles in
general. However, even partial shielding
may be very effective if the equipment
assembly to be shielded has a metallic
casing and if additional measures are
taken to prevent interference voltages
and currents reaching the supply leads
from the shielded section of the com¬
partment to the unshielded section or
vice versa.
The best decoupling effect in a broad
frequency range is achieved with fil¬
ters. The connection should lie within
the shielded chamber and the other
connection should be on the outside.
However, if filter and equipment
assembly are spatially separate, the
connecting lead between both should
be shielded. The nominal insertion
loss which, however, describes the
effect in practice only incompletely,
lies at around 70 dB.
If it is sufficient to implement decoupling
only in a narrow frequency range, ca¬
pacitors or chokes are used instead of
filters. Interference-suppression capac¬
itors are used in the frequency range
up to approximately 10 MHz. These Interference
capacitors provide an attenuation of up suppression
to approximately 50 dB if they are
arranged directly at the transition point
between shielded and unshielded com¬
partments and if they have as low an
induction as possible (short supply
leads, bypass or feed-through
capacitors), this being adequate in many
cases in practice. Chokes are used for
decoupling in the frequency range
around 100 MHz. When fitting the
chokes, it must be ensured that capaci¬
tive pick-up between the two connec¬
tion leads is minimized wherever poss¬
ible by laying the connection leads in
favorable positions.
The effect of spark-plug connectors and
distributor interference-suppression
connectors is also based upon the
principle of partition shielding. The in¬
ductive circuit and capacitive circuit of
the filter which decouple the shielded
section of the compartment (combus¬
tion chamber, ignition distributor) and
the unshielded compartment (engine
compartment) are spatially distributed
and are formed by the windings of a
wire-wound resistor. If the spark-plug
connector is also surrounded by a
sheet-metal jacket which is connected
to the engine block via the spark plug,
this produces a feed-through filter.
Nominal values of the insertion loss
lie at around 50 dB.

Permissible interference voltage levels of the interference-suppression

categories in the individual frequency ranges in accordance with
DIN 57 879, Part 3/VDE 0879, Part 3.

Frequency range around

juV/9 kHz /iV/120kHz
LW MW sw FM
Interference- 0.15..,0.3MHz 0.5...1.65 MHz 5.95...26.1 MHz 87.5. ..108 MHz
suppression
categories

Permissible interference voltage level in dB

5 60 50 40 24
4 70 58 46 30
3 80 66 52 36
2 90 74 58 42
1 100 82 64 48

0 Unlimited
Gasoline
Injection Gasoline injection

Today’s injection systems for spark-
ignition engines do not inject the
fuel directly into the cylinders but
rather into the intake manifold or in¬
take ports. They have the task of
producing an optimum air-fuel mix¬
ture.
Advantages of gasoline injection:
Increased output per unit of displace¬
ment, lower specific fuel consumption,
higher torque at low engine speeds,
cleaner exhaust, improved cold start,
warm-up and acceleration.
Fuel supply
The fuel system makes available, under
pressure, the amount of fuel required by
the engine for all operating modes. An
electric fuel pump pumps the fuel from
the fuel tank to the injection system. The
interconnected fuel filter removes im¬
purities from the fuel. A pressure regu¬
lator ensures that the injection pressure
remains constant and routes excess
fuel backto the fuel tank.
the greatest possible amount of excess
air is desirable; but, for reasons of
flammability and the limited time avail¬
able for combustion, this is notpossible.
For contemporary engines, maximum
fuel economy occurs at an air-fuel ratio
of approximately 15...18 kg air to 1 kg
fuel. In other words, some 10000 liters
of air are necessary for the combustion
of one liter of fuel. The chemical
minimum for complete combustion is
termed the stoichiometric ratio, and is
14.7:1.
Because vehicle engines are operated
most of the time at part load, they are de¬
signed for maximum fuel economy in
this range. For the other operating con¬
ditions, such as idle and full load, mix¬
tures that are richer in fuel are required.
The fuel-management system must be
able to meet these varying require¬
ments.
1) Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio for ideal
combustion.

Fuel management
Air-fuel mixture
In the internal-combustion engine, the
air-fuel mixture is compressed and ig¬
nited. A spark-ignition engine requires a
specific air-fuel ratio for operation. The
air-fuel ratio required theoretically is
14.7:1. The relevant operating condition
of the engine requires correction of the
mixture.
The specific fuel consumption of a
spark-ignition engine is dependent prin¬
cipally upon the air-fuel ratio. Theoreti¬
cally, for complete combustion and,
180 therefore, minimum fuei consumption,
Excess-air factor
To indicate how far the actual, air-fuel
mixture supplied to the engine cylinder
deviates from the air-fuel ratio (14.7:1)
theoretically required for complete com¬
bustion, the excess-air factor A has been
chosen:
Air mass supplied_
Theoretical requirement
A= 1
The air mass supplied corresponds to
the amount necessary in theory.
A< 1
Lack of air or rich mixture. Increased
power output results in the range A =
0.85...0.95.
A> 1
Excess air or lean mixture in the range
A = 1.05... 1.3. With this excess-air fac¬
tor, reduced fuel consumption and re¬
duced poweroutput occur.
A > 1.3
The mixture is so lean that ignition can
no longer take place. Lean misfire limit
exceeded.
2) Influence of the excess-air factor A on
power P and fuel consumption be.
A = 0.95...0.85 Gasoline
Spark-ignition engines develop their Injection
maximum power at 5...15% air de¬
ficiency.
A= 1.1. ..1.2
Maximum fuel economy occurs at ab¬
out up to 20 % excess air.
A*1.0
This excess-air factor permits perfect
idle operation with stoichiometric
ratio.
A = 0.85. ..0.75
Good transitions occur with 15...25%
air deficiency. Transition is defined as
the change from a given load range to
another (e.g. from idle to part or full
load). Good transition is usually sy¬
nonymous with good acceleration. The
characteristic curves in Figures 2 and 3
show the dependence of power,
specific fuel consumption and pollutant
emission on the excess-air factor A. As
can be seen, there is no single A at
which all the factors are ideal.
A = 0.9...1.1
In practice, excess-airfactors of
A = 0.9...1.1 have proven to be the
most practical.
3) Influence of the excess-air factor A on
the exhaust gas composition.
Excess-air factor A
181
Gasoline Adaptation to operating
injection conditions
In certain operating conditions, the fuel
requirement differs greatly from the
basic injected-fuel quantity so that
corrective intervention is required in
mixture formation.
Cold start
During a cold start, the air-fuel mixture
drawn in by the engine leans off. This is
due to the low turbulence at cranking
speeds causing poor mixture of the fuel
particles with the air, and to the minimal
evaporation of the fuel and wetting of the
cylinder walls and intake ports with fuel
at low temperatures. In order to com¬
pensate for these phenomena, and thus
facilitate starting of the cold engine, ad¬
ditional fuel must be injected during
cranking.
Post-start phase
After starting at low temperatures, it is
necessary to enrich the mixture for a
short period in order to compensate for
poor mixture formation and wetting of
cylinder and intake-port walls with fuel.
In addition, the richer mixture results
in higher torque and therefore better
throttle response when accelerating
from idle.
Warm-up
The warm-up phase follows the cold-
start and the post-start phases. The en¬
gine needs extra fuel during the warm¬
up phase because some of the fuel con¬
denses on the still cold cylinder walls. At
low temperatures, mixture formation is
poor due to the large fuel droplets con¬
cerned, and due to the inefficient mixing
of the fuel with the air drawn in by the en¬
gine. The result is that fuel condenses
on the intake valves and in the intake
manifold, and only evaporates at higher
temperatures.
The above factors all necessitate an in¬
creasing enrichment of the mixture
along with decreasing temperature.
182
Acceleration
If the throttle is opened abruptly, the air-
fuel mixture is momentarily leaned-off,
and a short period of mixture enrich¬
ment is needed to ensure good transi¬
tional response.
This acceleration enrichment prevents
the familiar “flat spot”. When the engine
is cold, it requires additional enrichment
due to the less than optimum air-fuel
mixing and due to the possibility of fuel
being deposited on the intake-manifold
walls.
Part load
During part-load operation, achieving
maximum fuel economy and observing
the emission values are the crucial fac¬
tors.
Full load
The engine delivers maximum power at
full load, when the air-fuel mixture must
be enriched compared to that at part
load.
This enrichment depends on engine
speed and provides maximum possible
torque over the entire engine-speed
range. This also ensures optimum fuel-
economy figures during full-load oper¬
ation.
Idling
In addition to the efficiency of the en¬
gine, the engine idle speed principally
determines thefuel consumption at idle.
The higher frictional resistances in the
cold engine must be overcome by in¬
creasing the air-fuel mixture input. In or¬
der to achieve smoother running at idle,
the idle-speed control increases the idle
speed. This also leads to a more rapid
warm-up of the engine. Closed-loop
idle-speed control prevents too high an
idle speed. The mixture quantity corres¬
ponds to the quantity required for main¬
taining the idle speed at the relevant
load (e.g. cold engine and increased
friction). It also permits constant ex¬
haust-gas emission values for a long
period without idle adjustment. Closed-
loop idle-speed control also partially
compensates for changes in the engine
resulting from aging and ensures stable
engine idling throughoutthe service life.
Overrun
Cutting off the fuel during deceleration
reduces fuel consumption not merely
on long downhill runs and during brak¬
ing, but also in town traffic. Because no
fuel is burnt, there are no emissions.
Engine-speed limiting
When a preset engine speed is reached,
the ECU suppresses the fuel-injection
pulses.
Adaptation of the air-fuel mixture
at high altitudes
The low density of air at high altitudes
necessitates a leaner air-fuel mixture. At
high altitudes, due to the lower air
density, the volumetric flow measured
by the air-flow sensor corresponds to a
lower air-mass flow. This error can be
compensated for by correcting the fuel
quantity. Over-enrichment is avoided
and, therefore, excessive fuel con¬
sumption.
Fuel-management systems
Whilst, in the past, fuel induction was
primarily carried out by the carburetor,
preference has recently been given to
gasoline injection. This trend was fa¬
vored by the advantages afforded by in¬
jection of fuel in conjunction with the re¬
quirements for economy, efficiency and,
last but not least, low exhaust-gas
pollutantemission.
The reason for this is that injection into
the intake manifold or intake ports per¬
mits extremely precise metering of the
fuel as a function of the operating and
loading condition of the engine, allowing
for environmental influences. When
using Jetronic systems, the composi¬
tion of the mixture is observed so pre¬
cisely that the pollutant level in the ex¬
haust gas is considerably lower than
with a carburetor.
Mechanical fuel-injection system Gasoline
The K-Jetronic is today the most wide¬ Injection
spread mechanical fuel-injection sys¬
tem. It requires no drive, and injects the
fuel continuously.
Combined mechanical-electronic
fuel-injection system
The basic mechanical system from the
K-Jetronic serves as the basis for the
KE-Jetronic. Due to the extended pro¬
cessing of operational data, electroni¬
cally controlled auxiliary functions were
incorporated to adapt the injected fuel
quantity to the various engine operating
conditions.
Electronic fuel-injection systems
The L-Jetronic and its variants are elec¬
tronically controlled fuel-injection sys¬
tems. Solenoid-operated injection
valves meter the fuel intermittently to
the intake ports.
Whilst these systems inject the fuel via
one injection valve per cylinder, the
Mono-Jetronic forms a new generation
of injection systems. In this case, the
fuel is injected intermittently and cent¬
rally with only one injection valve.
Combined ignition system and fuel-
injection system “Motronic”
Gasoline injection systems can only
provide the answers to some of the
problems. In order to improve the over¬
all combustion process, the ignition
point must also be adapted to the engine
operating conditions.
The Motronic combines the ignition sys¬
tem and the fuel-injection system, both
of which are controlled by a single com¬
puter in accordance with common op¬
timization criteria. Digital data proces¬
sing and microprocessors make it poss¬
ible to convert a large quantity of data on
operating conditions into map-con¬
trolled fuel-injection and ignition data.
183
Gasoline Advantages of fuel injection
Injection
Increased fuel economy
With a carburetor, or carburetors, the
air-fuel mixtures arriving at the indi¬
vidual cylinders are different due to the
air-fuel separation which occurs in the
respective intake manifolds. By forming
a mixture that provides even the most
unfavorably located cylinder with suffi¬
cient fuel, the typical carburetor meters
too much fuel overall. Apart from this,
during load changes, afilm of fuel is de¬
posited on the intake-manifold walls
which is subsequently vaporized again.
This leads to further unwanted varia¬
tions in the mixture arriving at the cylin¬
ders, and the result is excessive fuel
consumption and uneven cylinder load¬
ing. On the other hand, both the K and
L-Jetronic systems allocate an indi¬
vidual injection valve to each cylinder.
These valves are centrally controlled,
and this ensures that all cylinders are
provided with the same, precisely con¬
trolled fuel guantity at all times and
underall conditions.
Higher power output
Jetronic fuel-injection systems permit
optimum intake-passage design, and,
by virtue of the improved cylinder fill¬
ing, this provides higher torque. The
overall results are higher specific
184
power output and a torque curve which
better satisfies practical driving re¬
quirements.
Immediate throttle response
Jetronic systems respond to changing
load conditions virtually without any lag
at all, because the injection valves inject
the fuel directly onto the engine’s intake
valves.
Improved cold start and warm-up
Due to the precise metering of the fuel in
accordance with the engine tempera¬
ture and the cranking speed, starting
times are short and the run-up to idle
speed presents no problems.
During warm-up the precise adaptation
of the injected fuel quantity results in
smooth running and immediate throttle
response along with minimum fuel con¬
sumption.
Low exhaust emissions
The pollutant concentrations in the ex¬
haust gas are directly related to the air-
fuel ratio. If one wants to operate the en¬
gine atthe minimum emission point, the
fuel-management system must be
capable of exactly maintaining the
corresponding air-fuel ratio. The Jet¬
ronic systems are so accurate that they
provide the required precision of mix¬
ture control.
5) Fuel consumption. Comparison between
K-Jetronic and carburetor engines.
1 I Carburetor, power 115 kW
1/100
km I I Fuel injection, power130 kW
24 100%
c 95%
o
E 18 100%
a
cn
c 100% 93%
o
O 12
CD
13
0
CVS test Country Towndriv-
(coldstart) roads ing(cold
(hot start) start)
K-Jetronic
Outline of system
The K-Jetronic is a mechanically
and hydraulically controlled fuel-in¬
jection system which needs no form
of drive and which meters the fuel
as a function of the intake air quan¬
tity and injects it continuously onto
the engine intake valves.
Specific operating conditions of the en¬
gine require corrective intervention in
mixture formation and this is carried out
by the K-Jetronic in order to optimize
starting and driving performance, power
output and exhaust composition. Owing
to the direct air-flow sensing, the K-Jet-
ronic system also allows for engine vari¬
ations and permits the useoffacilitiesfor
exhaust-gas aftertreatment for which
precise metering of the intake air quan¬
tity is a prerequisite.
The K-Jetronic was originally designed
as a purely mechanical injection system.
Today, using auxiliary electronic equip¬
ment, the system also permits the use of
lambda closed-loop control.
The K-Jetronic fuel-injection system
coversthefollowing functional areas:
- fuel supply,
- air-flow measurement and
- fuel metering.
1) Functional schematicof the K-Jetronic.
Fuel supply
An electrically driven fuel pump delivers
K-Jetronic
the fuel to the fuel distributor via a fuel
accumulator and a filter. The fuel dis¬
tributor allocates this fuel to the injection
valves of the individual cylinders.
Air-flow measurement
Theamountofairdrawn in bytheengine
is controlled by a throttle valve and
measured by an air-flow sensor.
Fuel metering
The amount of air, corresponding to the
position of the throttle plate, drawn in by
the engine serves as the criterion for
metering of the fuel to the individual cyl¬
inders. The amount of airdrawn in by the
engine is measured by the air-flow sen¬
sor which, in turn, controls the fuel dis¬
tributor. The air-flow sensor and the fuel
distributor are assemblies which form
part of the mixture control unit. Injection
occurs continuously, i.e. without regard
to the position ofthe intake valve. During
the intake-valve closed phase, the fuel
is “stored”.
Mixture enrichment is controlled in or¬
der to adapt to various operating con¬
ditions such as start, warm-up, idle and
full load. In addition, supplementary
functions such as overrun fuel cutoff,
engine-speed limiting and closed-loop
lambdacontrol are possible.
185
K-Jetronic Fuel supply
The fuel supply system comprises
- electricfuelpump,
- fuel accumulator,
- fine filter,
- primary-pressure regulator and
- injection valves.
An electrically driven roller-cell pump
pumps the fuel from the fuel tank at a
pressure of over 5 bar to a fuel
accumulator and through a filter to the
fuel distributor. From the fuel distributor,
the fuel flows to the injection valves. The
injection valves inject the fuel continu¬
ously into the intake ports of the engine.
Thus the system designation K (taken
from the German for continuous). When
the intake valves open, the mixture is
drawn into the cylinder.
The fuel primary-pressure regulator
maintains the supply pressure in the
system constant and reroutes the ex¬
cess fuel backto the fuel tank.
Owing to continual scavenging of the
fuel supply system, there is always cool
fuel available. This avoids the formation
of fuel-vapor bubbles and achieves
good hot starting behavior.
Electricfuel pump
The electric fuel pump is a roller-cell
pump driven by a permanent-magnet
electric motor.
The rotor plate which is eccentrically
mounted in the pump housing is fitted
with metal rollers in notches around its
circumference which are pressed
against the pump housing by centrifugal
force and act as rolling seals. The fuel is
carried in the cavities which form bet¬
ween the rollers. The pumping action
takes place when the rollers, after hav¬
ing closed the inlet bore, force the
trapped fuel in front of them until it can
escape from the pump through the out¬
let bore (Figure 4). The fuel flows di¬
rectly around the electric motor. There is
no danger of explosion, however, be¬
cause there is never an ignitable mixture
inthe pumphousing.

2) Schematic diagram of the K-Jetronic system with closed-loop lambda control.

1 Fuel tank, 2 Electric fuel pump, 3 Fuel accumulator, 4 Fuel filter, 5 Warm-up regulator, 6 Injection
valve, 7 Intake manifold, 8 Cold-start valve, 9 Fuel distributor, 10 Air-flow sensor, 11 Timing valve,
12 Lamda sensor, 13 Thermo-time switch, 14 Ignition distributor, 15 Auxiliary-air device, 16 Throttle-
valve switch, 17 Control unit, 18 Ignition and starting switch, 19 Battery.

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17
BOSCH
h 18(®) 19
-2
186 ms r
The electric fuel pump delivers more K-Jetronic
fuel than the maximum requirement of
the engine so that compression in the
fuel system can be maintained under all
operating conditions. A check valve in
the pump decouples the fuel system
from the fuel tank by preventing reverse
flow of fuel to the fuel tank.
The electric fuel pump starts to operate
immediately when the ignition and start¬
ing switches are operated and remains
switched on continuously after the en¬
gine has started. A safety circuit is incor¬
porated to stop the pump running and,
thus, to prevent fuel being delivered if 4) Operation of roller-cell pump.
1 Suction side, 2 Rotor plate, 3 Roller,
the ignition is switched on but the en¬
4 Roller race plate, 5 Pressure side.
gine has stopped turning (for instance in
the case of an accident).
The fuel pump is located in the immedi¬
ate vicinity of the fuel tank and requires
no maintenance.

Fuel accumulator
The fuel accumulator maintains the
pressure in the fuel system for a certain
time after the engine has been switched
off in order to facilitate restarting, par¬
ticularly when the engine is hot. The 5) Fuel accumulator.
a) Empty, b) Full.
special design of the accumulator hous¬
1 Spring chamber, 2 Spring, 3 Stop,
ing (Figure 5) deadens the sound of the 4 Diaphragm, 5 Accumulator volume, 6 Fuel
fuel pump when engine is running. inlet or outlet, 7 Connection to the atmosphere.
The interior of thefuel accumulator is di¬
vided into two chambers by means of a
diaphragm. One chamber serves as the
accumulator for the fuel whilst the other
represents the compensation volume
and is connected to the atmosphere or
to the fuel tank by means of a vent fitting.
During operation, the accumulator
chamber is filled with fuel and the dia¬
phragm is caused to bend back against
the force of the spring until it is halted by
the stops in the spring chamber. The
diaphragm remains in this position,
which corresponds to the maximum
accumulator volume, as long as the en¬
gine is running.

187
K-Jetronic Fuel filter
The fuel filter retains particles of dirt
which are present in the fuel and which
would otherwise have an adverse effect
on the functioning of the injection
system. The fuel filter contains a paper
element with a mean pore size of 10 //m
backed up by a fluff trap. This combina¬
tion ensuresahigh degree of cleaning.
The filter is held in place in the housing
by means of a support plate. It is fitted in
the fuel line downstream from the fuel
accumulator and its service life depends
upon the amount of dirt in the fuel. It is
imperative that the arrow on the filter
housing showing the direction of fuel
flow through the filter is observed when
the filter is replaced.
Primary-pressure regulator
The primary-pressure regulator main¬
tains the pressure in the fuel system
constant.
It is incorporated in the fuel distributor
and holds the delivery pressure (system
pressure) at about 5 bar. The fuel pump
always delivers more fuel than is re-
guired by the vehicle engine, and this
causes a plungerto shift in the pressure
regulator and open a port through which
excess fuel can return to the tank.
The pressure in the fuel system and the
force exerted by the spring on the
pressure-regulator plunger balance
each other out. If, for instance, fuel-
7) Primary-pressure regulator fitted to fuel distributor.
a) In rest position, b) In actuated position.
1 System-pressure entry, 2 Seal, 3 Return to fuel tank, 4 Plunger, 5 Spring.
188
6) Fuel filter.
1 Paper element 2 3
2 Strainer
3 Support
plate
pump delivery drops slightly, the
plunger is shifted by the spring to a
corresponding new position and in do¬
ing so closes off the port slightly through
which the excess fuel returns to the
tank. This means that less fuel is di¬
verted off at this point and the system
pressure is controlled to its specified
level.
When the engine is switched off, thefuel
pump also switches off and the primary
pressure drops below the opening
pressure of the injection valves. The
pressure regulator then closes the re-
turn-flow port and thus prevents the
pressure in the fuel system from sinking
anyfurther (Fig. 8).
Fuel-injection valves
The injection valves open at a given
pressure and atomize the fuel through
oscillation of the valve needle. The in¬
jection valves inject the fuel metered to
them into the intake passages and onto
the intake valves. They are secured in
special holders to insulate them against
the heat radiated from the engine. The 8) Pressure curve after engine switchoff. K-Jetronic
injection valves have no metering func¬ Firstly pressure falls from the normal system
tion themselves, and open of their own pressure (1) to the pressure-regulator closing
pressure (2). The fuel accumulatorthen causes
accord when the opening pressure of
it to increase to the level (3) which is below the
e.g. 3.5 bar is exceeded. They are fitted opening pressure (4) of the injection valves.
with a valve needle (Fig. 9) which os¬
cillates (“chatters”) audibly at high
frequency when fuel is injected. This re¬
sults in excellent atomization of the fuel
even with the smallest of injection quan¬
tities. When the engine is switched off,
the injection valves close tightly when
the pressure in the fuel-supply system
drops below their opening pressure.
This means that no more fuel can enter ms
the intake passages once the engine Time/
has stopped.

Air-shrouded fuel-injection valves 9) Fuel-injection valve.

a) in rest position
Air-shrouded injection valves improve
b) in actuated position
the mixture formation particularly at idle. 1 Valve housing
Using the pressure drop across the 2 Filter
throttle valve, a portion of the air in¬ 3 Valve needle
4 Valve seat
ducted by the engine is drawn into the
cylinderthrough the injection valve (Fig.
20): The result is excellent atomization
of the fuel at the point of exit (Fig. 10).
Air-shrouded injection valves reduce
fuel consumption and toxic emission
constituents.

10) Spray pattern of an Injection valve without air¬

shrouding (left) and with air-shrouding (right).

189
K-Jetronic Fuel metering
The task of the fuel-management sys¬
tem is to meter a quantity of fuel corres¬
ponding to the intake air quantity.
Basically, fuel metering is carried out by
the mixture control unit. This comprises
the air-flow sensor and the fuel dis¬
tributor.
In a number of operating modes how¬
ever, the amount of fuel required de¬
viates greatly from the “standard” quan¬
tity and it becomes necessary to inter¬
vene in the mixture formation system
(see section “Adaptation to operating
conditions”).

Air-flow sensor
The quantity of air drawn in by the en¬
gine is a precise measure of its oper¬
ating load. The air-flow sensor operates
according to the suspended-body prin¬
ciple, and measures the amount of air
drawn in by the engine.
The intakeairquantityservesasthe main
actuating variable for determining the
basic injection quantity. It is the appropri¬
ate physical quantity for deriving the fuel
requirement, and changes in the induc¬
tion characteristics of the engine have no
effect upon the formation of the air-fuel
mixture. Sincetheairdrawn in bytheen-
gine must pass through the air-flow sen¬
sor before it reaches the engine, this
means that it has been measured and the
control signal generated before it actually
enters the engine cylinders. The result is
that, in addition to other measures de¬
scribed below, the correct mixture adap¬
tation takes place at all times.

12) Updraft air-flow

sensor.
a) Sensor plate in its
zero position
b) Sensor plate in its
operating position

1 Airfunnel
2 Sensor plate
3 Relief cross-section
4 Idle-mixture
adjusting screw
5 Pivot
6 Lever
7 Leaf spring

190
The air-flow sensor is located up¬ K-Jetronic
stream of the throttle valve so that it
measures all the air which enters the
engine cylinders. It comprises an air
funnel in which the sensor plate (sus¬
pended body) is free to pivot. The air
flowing through the funnel deflects the
sensor plate by a given amount out of
its zero position, and this movement is
transmitted by a lever system to a con¬
trol plunger which determines the
basic injection quantity required for the
basic functions. Considerable pressure
shocks can occur in the intake system
if backfiring takes place in the intake
manifold. For this reason, the air-flow
sensor is so designed that the sensor
plate can swing back in the opposite
direction in the event of misfire, and
past its zero position to open a relief
cross-section in the funnel. A rubber Fuel distributor
buffer limits the downward stroke (the Depending upon the position of the
upwards stroke on the downdraft air¬ plate in the air-flow sensor, the fuel dis¬
flow sensor). A counterweight com¬ tributor meters the basic injection quan¬
pensates for the weight of the sensor tity to the individual engine cylinders.
plate and lever system (this is carried The position of the sensor plate is a
out by an extension spring on the measure ofthe amount of airdrawn in by
downdraft air-flow sensor). A leaf the engine. The position of the plate is
spring ensures the correct zero posi¬ transmitted to the control plunger by a
tion in the switched-off phase. lever.

14) Barrel with metering slits and control plunger.

a) Zero (inoperated position), b) Part load, c) Full load.
1 Control pressure, 2 Control plunger, 3 Metering slit in the barrel, 4 Control edge, 5 Fuel inlet,
6 Barrel with metering slits.

191
K-Jetronic Depending upon its position in the barrel 15) Barrel with metering slits.
with metering slits, the control plunger The slits are shown enlarged (the actual slit is
opens or closes the slits to a greater or about0.2 mm wide).

lesser extent. The fuel flows through the

open section of the slits to the differen¬
tial pressure valves and then to the fuel-
injection valves. If sensor-plate travel is
only small, then the control plunger is
lifted only slightly and, as a result, only a
small section of the slit is opened forthe
passage of fuel. With larger plunger
travel, the plunger opens a larger sec¬
tion of the slits and more fuel can flow.
There is a linear relationship between
sensor-plate travel and the slit section in
the barrel which is opened forfuel flow.
A hydraulic force generated by the so-
called control pressure is applied to the
control plunger. It opposes the move¬
ment resulting from sensor-plate de¬
flection. One of its functions is to ensure
that the control plunger follows the sen¬
sor-plate movement immediately and
does not, for instance, stick in the upper The control pressure influences the fuel
end position when the sensor plate distribution. If the control pressure is
moves down again. Further functions of low, the air drawn in by the engine can
the control pressure are discussed in deflect the sensor plate further. This re¬
the sections “Warm-up enrichment” sults in the control plunger opening the
and “Full-loadenrichment”. metering slits further and the engine be¬
ing allocated more fuel. On the other
Control pressure hand, if the control pressure is high, the
The control pressure is tapped from the airdrawn in by the engine cannot deflect
primary pressure through a restriction the sensor plate so far and, as a result,
bore (Figure 16). This restriction bore the engine receives less fuel. In orderto
serves to decouple the control-pressure fully seal off the control-pressure circuit
circuit and the primary-pressure circuit with absolute certainty when the engine
from one another. A connection line has been switched off, and at the same
joins the fuel distributor and the warm¬ time to maintain the pressure in the fuel
up regulator (control-pressure reg¬ circuit, the return line of the warm-up reg¬
ulator). ulator is fitted with a check valve. This
When starting the cold engine, the con¬ (push-up) valve is attached to the prim¬
trol pressure is about 0.5 bar. As the en¬ ary-pressure regulator and is held open
gine warms up, the warm-up regulator during operation by the pressure-regu¬
increases the control pressure to about lator plunger. When the engine is
3.7 bar (Figure 26). switched off and the plunger of the pri¬
The control pressure acts through a mary-pressure regulator returns to its
damping restriction on the control zero position, the check valve is closed
plunger and thereby develops the force by aspring (Figure 17).
which opposes the force of the air in the
air-flow sensor. In doing so, the restric¬ Differential-pressure valves
tion dampens a possible oscillation of The differential-pressure valves in the
the sensor plate which could result due fuel distributor result in a specific
192 to pulsating air-intake flow. pressure drop atthe metering slits.
16) Primary pressure K-Jetronic
and control pressure.
1 Control-pressure
effect (hydraulic
force)
2 Damping restriction
3 Linetowarm-up
regulator
4 Decoupling restric¬
tion bore
5 Primary pressure
(delivery pressure)
6 Effect of air pressure

17) Primary-pressure
regulator with push¬
up valve in the
control-pressure
circuit.
a) Inzero(inoperated)
position
b) In operating position
1 Primary-pressure
intake
2 Return (to fuel tank)
3 Plungerofthe
primary-pressure
regulator
4 Push-up valve
5 Control-pressure
intake (from warm¬
up regulator)

1» # f f f
—
•

V2

The air-flow sensor has a linear charac¬
teristic. This means that if double the
quantity of air is drawn in, the sensor-
plate travel isalsodoubled. Ifthistravelis
to result in a change of delivered fuel in
the same relationship, in this case double
the travel equals double the quantity,
then aconstant drop in pressure must be
guaranteed at the metering slits (Figure
14), regardless of the amount of fuel
flowing throughthem.
The differential-pressure valves main¬
tain the differential pressure between the
upper and lower chamber constant re¬
gardless of fuel throughflow. The differ¬
ential pressure is 0.1 bar. 193
K-Jetronic 18) Differential-
pressure valve.
a) Diaphragm
position with a
low injected
fuel quantity

b) Diaphragm
position with a
large injected
fuel quantity

The differential-pressure valves achieve connected with one another by a ring

a high metering accuracy and are of the
flat-seat type. They are fitted in the fuel
distributor and one such valve is allo¬
cated to each metering slit. A diaphragm
separatesthe upperand lowerchambers
of the valve (Figures 18 and 19).
194 The lower chambers of all the valves are
main and are subjected to the primary
pressure (delivery pressure). The valve
seat is located in the upper chamber.
Each upper chamber is connected to a
metering slit and its corresponding con¬
nection to the fuel-injection line. The up¬
per chambers are completely sealed off
 19) Fuel distributor with differential-pressure valves. K-Jetronic
1 Fuel intake
(primary 2 3 4 5 6
pressure)
2 Upperchamberof
the differential-
pressure valve
3 Linetothefuel-
injection valve
(injection
pressure)
4 Control plunger
5 Control edge and
metering slit
6 Valve spring
7 Valve diaphragm
8 Lowerchamberof
the differential-
pressure valve

8 7

from each other. The diaphragms are

spring-ioaded and it is this helical spring
that produces the pressure differential.
If a large basicfuel quantityflows into the
upper chamberthrough the metering slit,
the diaphragm is bent downwards and
enlarges the valve cross-section at the
outlet leading to the injection valve until
the set differential pressure once again
prevails.
If the fuel quantity drops, the valve cross-
section is reduced owing to the equilib¬
rium of forces at the diaphragm until the
differential pressure of 0.1 bar is again
present.
This causes an equilibrium of forces to
prevail at the diaphragm which can be
maintained for every basic fuel quantity
by controlling the valve cross-section.

Mixture formation
The formation of the air-fuel mixture
takes place in the intake ports and cylin¬
ders ofthe engine.
The continually injected fuel coming from
the injection valves is “stored” infront of
the intake valves. When the intake valve
is opened, the air drawn in by the engine
carries the waiting “cloud” of fuel with it
into the cylinder. An ignitable air-fuel
mixture is formed during the induction
stroke due to the swirl effect. Air-
shrouded fuel-injection valvesfavor mix¬
ture formation since they atomizethefuel
very well atthe outlet point (Figure 20).
195
K-Jetronic Adaptation to operating
conditions
In addition to the basic functions de¬
scribed up to now, the mixture has to be
adapted during particular operating con¬
ditions. These adaptations (corrections)
21) Influence of funnel-wall angle upon the
sensor-plate deflection for identical air
throughput.
a) The basicfunnel shape results in stroke “h”
b) Steep funnel walls result in increased stroke
“h” for identical airthroughput
c) Fiatterfunnel shape results in reduced de¬
flection "h" for identical airthroughput.

are necessary in order to optimize the ■ Annular area opened bythe sensor plate
power delivered, to improve the ex¬ (identical in a, bandc).

haust-gas composition and to improve

the starting behaviorand driveability.

Basic mixture adaptation

The basic adaptation of the air-fuel mix¬
ture to the operating modes of idle, part
load and full load is by appropriately
shaping the air funnel in the air-flow sen¬
sor (Figures 21 and 22).
If the funnel had a purely conical shape,
the result would be a mixture with a con¬
stant air-fuel ratio throughout the whole
of the sensor plate range of travel (me¬ c
tering range). However, it is necessary
to meter to the engine an air-fuel mixture
which is optimal for particular operating
modes such as idle, part load and full
load. In practice, this means a richer
mixture at idle and full load, and a leaner
mixture in the part-load range. This
adaptation is achieved by designing the
air funnel so that it becomes wider in
stages.
If the cone shape of the funnel is flatter
than the basic cone shape (which was
specified for a particular mixture, e.g. for
A = 1), this results in a leaner mixture. If Cold-start enrichment
the funnel walls are steeper than in the Depending upon the engine tempera¬
basic model, the sensor plate is lifted ture, the cold-start valve injects extra
further for the same air throughput, fuel into the intake manifold for a limited
more fuel is therefore metered by the period during the starting process.
control plunger and the mixture is richer. In order to compensate for the conden¬
Consequently, this means that the air sation losses due to condensation on
funnel can be shaped so that it is poss¬ the cold cylinder walls and in order to
ible to meter mixtures to the engine facilitate starting the cold engine during
which have different air-fuel ratios de¬ cold starting, extra fuel must be injected
pending upon the sensor-plate position at the instant of start-up. This extra fuel
in the funnel (which in turn corresponds is injected bythe cold-start valve into the
to the particular engine operating mode intake manifold. The injection period of
i.e. idle, part load and full load). This re¬ the cold-start valve is limited by a
sults in a richer mixture for idle and full thermo-time switch depending upon the
load (idle and full-load enrichment) and, engine temperature.
by contrast, a leaner mixture for part This process is known as cold-start en¬
196 load. richment and results in a “richer” air-
23) Cold-starf valve in operated state.
1 Electrical connection, 2 Fuel supply with
strainer, 3 Valve (electromagnetarmature),
4 Solenoid winding, 5 Swirl nozzle, 6 Valve seat.
fuel mixture, i.e. the excess-air factor A
is temporarily less than 1.
Cold-start valve
The cold-start valve (Figure 23) is a sol¬
enoid-operated valve. An electromag¬
netic winding is fitted inside the valve.
When unoperated, the movable elec¬
tromagnet armature is forced against a
seal by means of a spring and thus
closes the valve. When the electromag¬
net is energized, the armature which
consequently has lifted from the valve
seat opens the passage for the flow of
fuel through the valve. From here, the
fuel enters a special nozzle at a tangent
and is caused to rotate or swirl.
The result is that the fuel is atomized
very finely and enriches the mixture in
the manifold downstream of the throttle
valve. The cold-start valve is so
positioned in the intake manifold that
good distribution of the mixture to all
cylinders is ensured.
Thermo-time switch
The thermo-time switch limits the dur¬
ation of cold-start valve operation, de¬
pending upon temperature.
K-Jetronic
The thermo-time switch (Figure 24)
consists of an electrically heated bimetal
strip which, depending upon its
temperature opens or closes a contact.
It is brought into operation by the igni¬
tion/starter switch, and is mounted at a
position which is representative of en¬
gine temperature. During a cold start, it
limits the “on” period of the cold-start
valve. In case of repeated start attempts,
or when starting takes too long, the cold-
start valve ceases to inject.
Its “on” period is determined by the
thermo-time switch which is heated by
engine heat as well as by its own built-in
heater. Both these heating effects are
necessary in order to ensure that the
“on” period of the cold-start valve is lim¬
ited under all conditions, and engine
flooding prevented. During an actual
cold start, the heat generated by the
built-in heater is mainly responsible for
the “on” period (switch off, for instance,
at -20°C after 7.5 seconds). With a
warm engine, the thermo-time switch
has already been heated up so far by en¬
gine heat that it remains open and pre¬
vents the cold-start valve from going
into action. 197
K-Jetronic 25) Warm-up
regulator.
a) With the engine
cold
b) With the engine at
operating
temperature
1 Valve diaphragm
2 Return
3 Control pressure
(from the mixture-
control unit)
4 Valve spring
5 Bimetal spring
6 Electrical heating

Warm-up enrichment with the rise in engine temperature in or¬

Warm-up enrichment is controlled by
the warm-up regulator. When the en¬
gine is cold, the warm-up regulator re¬
duces the control pressure to a degree
dependent upon engine temperature
and thus causes the metering slits to
open further (Figure 26).
At the beginning of the warm-up period
which directly follows the cold start,
some of the injected fuel still condenses
on the cylinder walls and in the intake
ports. This can cause combustion mis¬
ses to occur. For this reason, the air-fuel
mixture must be enriched during the
warm-up (A < 1.0). This enrichment
198 must be continuously reduced along
der to prevent the mixture being over¬
rich when higher engine temperatures
have been reached.
The warm-up regulator (control-
pressure regulator) is the component
which carries out this type of mixture
control for the warm-up period by
changing the control pressure.
Warm-up regulator
The change of the control pressure is
effected by the warm-up regulator
which is fitted to the engine in such a
way that it ultimately adopts the engine
temperature. An additional electrical
heating system enables the regulator to
be matched precisely to the engine
characteristic.
The warm-up regulator comprises a
spring-controlled flat seat (diaphragm-
type) valve and an electrically heated
bimetal spring (Figure 25).
In cold condition, the bimetal spring ex¬
erts an opposing force to that of the
valve spring and, as a result, reduces
the effective pressure applied to the
underside of the valve diaphragm. This
means that the valve outlet cross-sec¬
tion is slightly increased at this point and
more fuel is diverted out of the control-
pressure circuit in order to achieve a low
control pressure. Both the electrical
heating system and the engine heat the
bimetal spring as soon as the engine is
cranked. The spring bends, and in doing
so reduces the force opposing the valve
spring which, as a result, pushes up the
diaphragm of the flat-seat valve. The
valve outlet cross-section is reduced
and the pressure in the control-pressure
circuit rises.
Warm-up enrichment is completed
when the bimetal spring has lifted fully
from the valve spring. The control
pressure is now solely controlled by the
valve spring and maintained at its normal
level. The control pressure is about 0.5
bar at cold start and about 3.7 bar with
the engine at operating temperature
(Figure 26).
26) Warm-up regulator characteristics at various operating temperatures.
Enrichment factor 1.0 corresponds to fuel metering with the engine at operating temperature.
0 30 60 90 120 150
Time after starting
Idle stabilization K-Jetronic
In order to overcome the increased fric¬
tion in cold condition and to guarantee
smooth idling, the engine receives more
air-fuel mixture during the warm-up
phase due to the action of the auxiliary-
air device.
When the engine is cold, the frictional
resistances are higher than when it is at
operating temperature and this friction
must be overcome by the engine during
idling. For this reason, the engine is
allowed to draw in more air by means of
the auxiliary-air device which bypasses
the throttle valve. Due to the fact that this
auxiliary air is measured by the air-flow
sensor and taken into account for fuel
metering, the engine is provided with
more air-fuel mixture. This results in idle
stabilization when the engine is cold.
Auxiliary-airdevice
In the auxiliary-air device, a perforated
plate is pivoted by means of a bimetal
spring and changes the open cross-
section of a bypass line. This perforated
plate thus opens a correspondingly
large cross-section of the bypass line,
as a function of the temperature, and
this cross-section is reduced with in¬
creasing engine temperature and is ulti¬
mately closed. The bimetal spring also
has an electrical heating system which
permits the opening time to be re¬
stricted dependent upon the engine
s 0 30 60 90 120 150 s
Time after starting
199
K-Jetronic type. The installation location of the
auxiliary-air device is selected such that
it assumes the engine temperature.
This guarantees that the auxiliary-air
device only functions when the engine
is cold (Figure 27).

Full-load enrichment
Engines operated in the part-load range
with a very lean mixture require an en¬
richment during full-load operation, in
addition to the mixture adaptation result¬
ing from the shape of the airfunnel.
This extra enrichment is carried out by a
specially designed warm-up regulator. 28) Dependence of the control pressure on
engine load.
This regulates the control pressure
depending upon the manifold pressure
(Figures 28 and 30).
This model of the warm-up regulator
uses two valve springs instead of one.
The outer of the two springs is
supported on the housing as in the case
with the normal-model warm-up regu¬
lator. The inner spring however is
supported on a diaphragm which div¬
ides the regulator into an upper and a
lower chamber. The manifold pressure
which is tapped via a hose connection
from the intake manifold downstream of 29) Acceleration response.
Behaviorofthe K-Jetronic when the throttle
the throttle valve acts in the upper
valve issuddenly opened.
chamber. Depending upon the model,
the lower chamber is subjected to at¬
mospheric pressure either directly or by
means of a second hose leading to the
airfilter.
Due to the low manifold pressure in the
idle and part-load ranges, which is also
present in the upper chamber, the dia¬
phragm lifts to its upper stop. The inner
spring is then at maximum pretension.
The pretension of both springs, as a re¬
sult, determines the particular control
pressure for these two ranges. When
the throttle valve is opened further at full
load, the pressure in the intake manifold
increases, the diaphragm leaves the up¬
per stops and is pressed against the
lower stops.
The inner spring is relieved of tension
and the control pressure reduced by the
specified amount as a result. This re¬
sults in mixture enrichment.
200
Acceleration response
The good acceleration response is a re¬
sult of “overswing” of the air-flow sen-
sorplate (Figure 29).
Transitions from one operating con¬
dition to another produce changes in the
mixture ratio which are utilized to im¬
prove driveability.
If, at constant engine speed, the throttle
valve is suddenly opened, the amount of
air which enters the combustion
chamber, plus the amount of airwhich is
needed to bring the manifold pressure
up to the new level, flow through the air¬ K-Jetronic
flow sensor. This causes the sensor
plate to briefly “overswing” past the
fully opened throttle point. This “over¬
swing” results in more fuel being me¬
tered to the engine (acceleration enrich¬
ment) and ensures good acceleration
response.

30) Warm-up regulator

with full-load
diaphragm.
a) During idle and part
load
b) During full load

1 Electrical heating
2 Bimetal spring
3 Vacuum connection
(from intake manifold)
4 Valve diaphragm
5 Return to fuel tank
6 Control pressure
(from fuel distributor)
7 Valve springs
8 Upperstop
9 To atmospheric
pressure
10 Diaphragm
11 Lower stop

201
K-Jetronic Supplementary functions
Overrun fuel cutoff
Smooth fuel cutoff effective during
overrun responds as a function of the
engine speed. The engine-speed in¬
formation is provided by the ignition
system. Intervention is via an air
bypass around the sensor plate. A
solenoid valve controlled by an elec¬
tronic speed switch opens the bypass
at a specific engine speed. The sensor
plate then reverts to zero position
and interrupts fuel metering. Cutoff of
the fuel supply during overrun oper¬
ation permits the fuel consumption to
be reduced considerably not only
when driving downhill but also in town
traffic.
Engine-speed limiting
The fuel supply can be cut off to limit
the maximum permissible engine
speed.
Lambda closed-loop control
Open-loop control of the air-fuel ratio is
not adequate for observing extremely
low exhaust-gas limit values. The
lambda closed-loop control system re¬
quired for operation of a three-way
catalytic converter necessitates the use
of an electronic control unit on the K-
Jetronic. The important input variable

31) Additional components for lambda closed-loop control.

1 Lambda sensor, 2 Lambda closed-loop controller, 3 Frequency valve (variable restrictor),
4 Fuel distributor, 5 Lower chambers of the differential-pressure valves, 6 Metering slits,
7 Decoupling restrictor (fixed restrictor), 8 Fuel inlet, 9 Fuel return line.

202
for this control unit is the signal sup¬
plied by the lambda sensor.
In order to adapt the injected fuel quan¬
tity to the required air-fuel ratio with
A = 1, the pressure in the lower
chambers of the fuel distributor is
varied. If, for instance, the pressure in
the lower chambers is reduced, the
differential pressure at the metering
slits increases, whereby the injected
fuel quantity is increased. In order to
permit the pressure in the lower
chambers to be varied, these cham¬
bers are decoupled from the primary
pressure via a fixed restrictor, by
comparison with the standard K-Jet-
ronic fuel distributor. A further restric¬
1 Fuel accumulator, 2 Electric fuel pump, 3 Fuel filter, 4 Warm-up regulator, 5 Mixture-control unit with
air-flow sensor and fuel distributor, 6 Cold-start valve, 7 Thermo-time switch, 8 Injection valves,
9 Auxiliary-air device, 10 Electronic control relay.
tor connects the lower chambers and K-Jetronic
thefuel return line.
This restrictor is variable: if it is open,
the pressure in the lower chambers can
drop. If it is closed, the primary
pressure builds up in the lower cham¬
bers. If this restrictor is opened and
closed in a fast rhythmic succession,
the pressure in the lower chambers can
be varied dependent upon the ratio of
closing time to opening time. An elec¬
tromagnetic valve, the frequency valve,
is used as the variable restrictor. It is
controlled by electrical pulses from the
lambdaclosed-loop controller.
203
K-Jetronic Electrical commonly used circuit is described be¬
circuitry low.

If the engine stops but the ignition re¬ Function

mains switched on, the electric fuel
pump is switched off.
The K-Jetronic system is equipped with
a number of electrical components,
such as electric fuel pump, warm-up
regulator, auxiliary-air device, cold-start
valve and thermo-time switch. The elec¬
trical supply to all of these components
is controlled by the control relay which,
itself, is switched by the ignition and
starting switch.
Apart from its switching functions, the
control relay also has a safety function. A
When cold-starting the engine, voltage
is applied to the cold-start valve and the
thermo-time switch through terminal 50
of the ignition and starting switch. If the
cranking process takes longer than bet¬
ween 8 and 15 seconds, the thermo¬
time switch switches off the cold-start
valve in order that the engine does not
“flood”. In this case, the thermo-time
switch performs atime-switch function.
If the temperature of the engine is above
approximately +35°C when the starting
process is commenced, the thermo-

33) Circuit without

voltage applied.
O Ignition and starting
switch
0 Cold-start valve
0 Thermo-time switch
O Control relay
0 Electricfuel pump
O Warm-up regulator
0 Auxiliary-air device

34) Starting (with the

engine cold)
Cold-start valve and
thermo-time switch are
switched on. The en-
gineturns (pulses are
taken trom terminal 1 of
the ignition coil). The
control relay, electric
fuel pump, auxiliary-air
device and warm-up
regulator are switched
on.

204
time switch will have already open-cir¬
cuited the connection to the start valve
which, consequently, does notinject ex¬
tra fuel. In this case, the thermo-time
switch functions as a temperature
switch.
Voltage from the ignition and starting
switch is still present at the control relay
which switches on as soon as the en¬
gine runs. The engine speed reached
when the starting motor cranks the en¬
gine is high enough to generate the
“engine running” signal which is taken
from the ignition pulses coming from
terminal 1 of the ignition coil. An elec¬
tronic circuit in the control relay
evaluates these pulses. After the first
pulse, the control relay is switched on K-Jetronic
and applies voltage to the electric fuel
pump, the auxiliary-air device and the
warm-up regulator. The control relay re¬
mains switched on as long as the igni¬
tion is switched on and the ignition is
running. If the pulses from terminal 1 of
the ignition coil stop because the engine
has stopped turning, for instance in the
case of an accident, the control relay
switches off approximately 1 second af-
terthe last pulse is received.
This safety circuit prevents the fuel
pump from pumping fuel when the ig¬
nition is switched on but the engine is
notturning.

35) Operation.
Ignition on and engine
running.
Control relay, electric
fuel pump, auxiliary-air
device and warm-up
regulator are switched
on.

36) Ignition on but

engine stopped.
Np pulses can be taken
from terminal 1 of the
ignition coil. The control
relay, electric fuel
pump, auxiliary-air
device and warm-up
regulatorare switched
off.

205
KE-Jetronic
KE-Jetronic
Outline of system
A mechanical hydraulic injection
system provides the basis for the
KE-Jetronic, in the same way as on
the K-Jetronic. This basic system is
supplemented by an electronic con¬
trol unit in order to increase flexibil¬
ity and to enable further functions.
Further components are:
- the sensor for the air quantity in¬
ducted by the engine,
- the pressure actuator which inter¬
venes in the mixture composition and
- the pressure regulator which main¬
tains the primary pressure constant and
exerts a specific closing function when
the engine is switched off.
Function
A sensor plate deflected by the air
stream controls the fuel-metering
plunger and thus opens the metering
slits to a greater or lesser extent. In the
basic function, the KE-Jetronic meters
the fuel as a function of the air quantity
inducted by the engine, this being the
main control variable.
However, by contrast with the K-Jet-
ronic system, the KE-Jetronic injection
system also processes other operating
data of the engine via sensors whose
output signals are processed by an
electronic control unit. This electronic
control unit controls an electro-hydraulic
pressure actuator which adapts the in-
jected-fuel quantity as required to the
various operating conditions. If a mal¬
function occurs, the KE-Jetronic reverts
to its basic function. The driver then still
has an injection system which functions
well when the engine is hot.
Advantages of the
KE-Jetronic system
Low fuel consumption
With conventional fuel-management
systems, the differences in the length of
the intake passages result in different air-
206 fuel mixtures atthe individual cylinders.
With the KE-Jetronic injection system,
each cylinder is allocated its own fuel-in¬
jection valve which injects continually
onto the intake valve. The injected fuel
vaporizes and mixes intensively with the
air drawn in by the piston. This means
that, in addition to the precise metering,
the fuel is evenly distributed between
the individual engine cylinders. Since
the intake manifolds serve only to carry
the intake air to the cylinders, the con¬
densation of the fuel on the manifold
walls, a phenomena in conventional
systems which increases the fuel con¬
sumption, is practically ruled out.
The KE-Jetronic system ensures that
considerably less fuel is used particu¬
larly during the warm-up phase, during
acceleration enrichment, at full-load and
during overrun when it switches off the
fuel supply.
Adaptation to operating conditions
The fuel requirement differs greatly from
the normal figures during the post-start
period, during warm-up and during
acceleration and full-load.
By means of commands received from
its ECU (electronic control unit), the KE-
Jetronic intervenes in the preparation of
the air-fuel mixture and increases or de¬
creases the injected fuel quantity
accordingly.
The KE-Jetronic system incorporates
additional sensors for detecting the en¬
gine temperature, the throttle-valve
position (load signal) and the sensor-
plate deflection (corresponds approxi¬
mately to the change in engine power as
a function of time). With the aid of these
sensors, the ECU commands the hy¬
draulic pressure actuator to either
“lean-off” the mixture or “enrich” it as
appropriate.
The KE-Jetronic responds rapidly to the
variations in engine operating con¬
ditions, and improves the torque charac¬
teristics as well as the engine flexibility.
This results in distinct advantages when
driving at energy-efficient low engine
speeds and in as high a gear as poss¬
ible, and also an improvement of drive-
ability. Reliable starting is another of the
outstanding features of the KE-Jetronic
system. The smooth overrun fuel cutoff
responds to engine speed and tempera-
tureand cuts offthesupply offuel during
deceleration. There are no unpleasant
jerks when the fuel supply cuts back in
again. This system results in a reduction
of the fuel consumption and, since com¬
bustion ceases during fuel cutoff, there
is no emission of toxic exhaust gases.
Cleaner exhaust gases
The prereguisite for minimum pollutants
in the exhaust gas is as complete com¬
bustion of the fuel as possible. The KE-
Jetronic supplies each cylinder with pre¬
cisely the amount of fuel appropriate for
the particular engine operating condition
and for changes in loading. For instance,
the reguired air-fuel mixture is precisely
maintained at the level necessary for
minimum toxic emissions by reducing
the post-start enrichment as soon as
possible, or by rapid response of the
acceleration enrichment function. KE-Jetronic
Further improvements in the exhaust
gas can be achieved by employing the
lambda closed-loop control together
with exhaust-gas aftertreatment using a
catalytic converter.
Higher power output per liter
The efficiently designed air-intake sys¬
tem of the KE-Jetronic permits an in¬
crease in power due to improved cylin¬
der charge. The fuel-injection paths are
shorter, with the result that there are no
acceleration flat spots.
In a similar way to all the other Jetronic
systems, the KE-Jetronic achieves a
marked increase in engine powerforthe
same piston displacement but not at the
cost of increased fuel consumption. It
allows economical engines to be de¬
signed, featuring high power-output per
liter, whilst at the same time displaying
good flexibility coupled with excellent
driveability.

1) Schematic diagram of a KE-Jetronic system with lambda closed-loop control.

I Fuel tank, 2 Electric fuel pump, 3 Fuel accumulator, 4 Fuel filter, 5 Primary-pressure regulator,
6 Fuel-injection valve, 7 Intake manifold, 8 Cold-start valve, 9 Fuel distributor, 10 Air-flow sensor,
II Electrohydraulic pressure actuator, 12 Lambda sensor, 13 Thermo-time switch, 14 Engine-
temperature sensor, 15 Ignition distributor, 16 Auxiliary-air device, 17 Throttle-valve switch,
18 Control unit, 19 Ignition and starting switch, 20 Battery.

jgp ■ c§>—L
9 A 1 U_J 5
\
Cm
—> S
i

207
KE-Jetronic Fuel supply
The fuel supply system comprises
- electricfuel pump,
- fuel accumulator,
- fine filter,
- primary-pressure regulator and
- fuel-injection valves.
With regard to the components used,
the KE-Jetronic fuel system differs
only slightly from that of the K-Jetronic
system. An electric roller-cell pump
feeds fuel from the tank to the 3) Operation of roller-cell pump.
pressure accumulator at a pressure of 1 Suction side, 2 Rotor plate, 3 Roller, 4 Roller
over 5 bar, and, from there, through race plate, 5 Pressure side.

the fuel filter to the fuel distributor.

From the fuel distributor, the fuel flows 2 3 4
to the fuel-injection valves. The fuel-
injection valves inject the fuel continu¬
ously into the intake ports of the en¬
gine. This is why the system is desig¬
nated KE (taken from the German for
continuous and electronic). When the
intake valves open, the mixture is
drawn into the cylinders. 4) Fuel filter.
The primary-pressure regulator main¬ 1 Paperfilter
tains the supply pressure in the sys¬ 2 Strainer
3 Support
tem constant, and returns the surplus
plate. 1 2 3
fuel to the tank. Due to the constant
flow of fuel through the fuel-supply
system, cool fuel is always available.
This prevents the formation of vapor
bubbles and ensures good hot-starting
characteristics.

Electricfuel pump
The electric fuel pump is a roller-cell
pump driven by a permanent-magnet
electric motor.
The rotor plate which is eccentrically
mounted in the pump housing is fitted
with metal rollers in notches around its
circumference which are pressed
against the pump housing by cen¬
trifugal force and act as rolling seals.
The fuel is carried in the cavities which
form between the rollers. The pumping
action takes place when the rollers, af¬
ter having closed the inlet bore, force
the trapped fuel around in front of
them until it can escape from the pump
through the outlet bore (Figure 3). The
208 fuel flows directly around the electric
motor. There is no danger of explo¬
sion, however, because there is never
an ignitable mixture in the pump hous¬
ing.
The electric fuel pump always delivers
more fuel than the engine needs, so
that there is always sufficient pressure
in the fuel system under all conditions.
A check valve in the pump decouples
the fuel system from the fuel tank by
preventing return flow of fuel to the
fuel tank.
The electric fuel pump starts to run im¬
mediately when the ignition and start¬
ing switch is operated and remains
switched on continuously after the en-
gine has started. A safety circuit is in¬ 5) Fuel accumulator. KE-Jetronic
corporated to stop the pump running a) Empty, b) Full.
and fuel being delivered if the ignition 1 Spring chamber, 2 Spring, 3 Stop,
4 Diaphragm, 5 Accumulatorvolume, 6 Fuel
is switched on but the engine has
inlet or outlet, 7 Connection to the atmosphere.
stopped turning (for instance as might
occur in the case of an accident). The
fuel pump is located in the direct vicin¬
ity of the fuel tank and requires no
maintenance. a 2 3 4 5

Fuel accumulator
The fuel accumulator maintains the
pressure in the fuel system for a cer¬
tain time after the engine has been
switched off in order to facilitate re¬
starting, particularly when the engine is
hot. The special design (Figure 5) of
the accumulator housing is such that it
deadens the sound of the electric fuel
pump.
The interior of the fuel accumulator is
divided into two chambers by means
of a diaphragm. One chamber serves
as the accumulator for the fuel, whilst
the other represents the compensation
volume and is connected to the atmos¬
phere, by means of a vent fitting,
either directly or through the fuel-tank
ventilation system. During operation,
the accumulator chamber is filled with
fuel and the diaphragm is caused to
bend back against the force of the
spring until it is halted by the stops in
the spring chamber. The diaphragm
remains in this position, which corres¬
ponds to the maximum accumulator
volume, as long as the engine is run¬ stalled in the fuel line downstream of
ning. the fuel accumulator. When the filter is
changed/it is imperative to observe
Fuel filter the throughflow direction as indicated
The fuel filter retains particles of dirt by the arrow on the housing.
which are present in the fuel and
which would otherwise adversely Primary-pressure regulator
effect the functioning of the injection The primary-pressure regulator keeps
system. The filter contains a paper the supply pressure constant.
element with a medium pore size of In contrast to the K-Jetronic, in which
10/m, which is backed up by a fluff a warm-up regulator regulates the con¬
strainer (Figure 4). This combination of trol pressure, the hydraulic counter¬
filter element and fluff strainer ensures pressure acting upon the control
a high degree of filtration. plunger in the KE-Jetronic (see Page
A support plate secures the filter in its 214) is identical to the primary
metal housing. The filter life depends pressure. The control pressure must
on the fuel’s purity. The filter is in¬ be held constant since any variation of 209
KE-Jetronic the control pressure has a direct effect
upon the air-fuel ratio. This also ap¬
plies particularly even if fuel delivery
from the supply pump, and injected
fuel quantity, vary considerably.
Figure 7 shows a section through the
primary-pressure regulator. Thefuel en¬
ters on the left. The return fuel connec¬
tion from the fuel distributor is located at
the right. The return line to the tank is
connected atthetop. As soon as thefuel
pump starts and generates pressure,
the control diaphragm of the pressure
accumulator moves downwards. The
pressure of the counterspring forces the
valve body to follow the diaphragm until,
after a very short distance, it encounters
astopand the pressure-controlled func¬
tion starts. The fuel returning from the
fuel distributor, comprising the fuel flow¬
ing through the pressure actuator plus
the control-plunger leakage can now
flow back through the open valve seat to
the fuel tank together with the excess
fuel. When the engine is switched off,
the electric fuel pump also stops. If the
system pressure then drops, the valve
plate moves back up again and subse¬
quently pushes the valve body upwards
against the force of the counterspring
until the seal closes the return line to the
tank.
6) Pressure curve after engine switch-off.
First of all, the pressure drops from the normal
primary pressure (1) to the closing pressure of
the pressure regulator (2). Itthen rises again,
due to the effect of the fuel accumulator, to the
value (3) which is still belowthe injection-valve
opening pressure (4).
210
The pressure in the fuel supply system
then sinks rapidly to belowthe injection-
valve opening pressure so that the in¬
jection valves then close tightly due to
the force excerted by the valve-needle
spring. The system pressure then in¬
creases again to the value determined
by thefuel accumulator.
Fuel-injection valves
At a certain pressure, the injection
valves open against the pressure from
the valve-needle spring and inject fuel
into the intake ports. The fuel is
atomized by the operation of the valve
needle. They inject the fuel allocated by
the fuel distributor into the intake port di¬
rectly onto the cylinder intake valves.
The injection valves are secured in a
special holder in order to insulate them
from the engine heat. The insulation
prevents vapor bubbles forming in the
fuel-injection lines which would other¬
wise lead to poor starting behavior when
the engine is hot.
The injection valves have no metering
function. They open of their own accord
when the opening pressure of, for inst¬
ance, 3.5 bar is exceeded. They are fit¬
ted with a needle valve (Figure 9) whose
needle vibrates (“chatters”) audibly at
high frequency when fuel is being in¬
jected. This results in excellent fuel
7) Primary-pressure regulator.
1 Return line from the fuel distributor
2 To the fuel tank
3 Adjustment screw
4 Counterspring
5 Seal
6 Inlet
7 Valve plate
8 Diaphragm
9 Control spring
10 Valve body
9
HO! DU
atomization, even with the smallest of
injected quantities.
When the engine is switched off, the
fuel-injection valves close tightly as
soon as the fuel-system pressure drops
below their opening pressure. This
means that no more fuel can enter the
intake ports and thus reach the intake
valves of the engine, once the engine
has been switched off.
Air-shrouded KE-Jetronic
fuel-injection valves
Air-shrouded fuel-injection valves im¬
prove fuel induction particularly at idle.
The air-shrouding principle is based
upon the fact that a portion of the air
drawn in by the engine enters through
the fuel-injection valves (Figure 10) with
the result that fuel is particularly well
atomized at the point of exit. Air-
shrouded valves reduce fuel consump¬
tion and lower the level of toxic emis¬
sions.

8) Spray patterns from a KE-Jetronic fuel-injection valve, without (left) and with air-shrouding. The air has
a permanent effect and atomizes the fuel even better (right).

9) Fuel-injection valve.
a) Closed
b) Open
1 Valve housing
2 Filter
3 Valve needle
4 Valve seat

a
211
KE-Jetronic Fuel metering
The task of fuel induction is to meter to
the engine a quantity of fuel correspond¬
ing to the inducted air quantity.
Basically, fuel metering takes place
through the air-flow sensor and the fuel
distributor. In a number of operating
conditions, however, the amount of fuel
required deviates greatly from the
“standard” quantity and it becomes
necessary to intervene in the mixture-
formation system. (See section “Adap¬
tation to operating conditions”).

Air-flow sensor
The quantity of air drawn in by the en¬
gine is a precise measure of its oper¬
ating load. The air-flow sensor operates
according to the suspended-body prin¬
ciple, and measures the amount of air
drawn in bytheengine (Figure 11).
The intake air quantity serves as the
main actuating variable for determining
the basic injection quantity. It is the ap¬
propriate physical quantity for deriving
the fuel requirement, and changes in the
induction characteristics of the engine
have no effect upon the formation of the
air-fuel mixture. Since the air drawn in
by the engine must pass through the air¬
flow sensor before it reaches the en¬
gine, this means that it has been meas¬
ured and the control signal generated
before it actually enters the engine cylin¬
ders. The result is that, in addition to
other measures described below, the
correct mixture adaptation takes place at
all times.

12) Updraft air-flow

sensor.
a) Sensor plate in its
zero position.
b) Sensor plate in its
operating position.

1 Airfunnel
2 Sensor plate
3 Relief cross-section
4 Idle-mixture
adjusting screw
5 Pivot
6 Lever
7 Leaf spring

212
 13) Barrel with metering slits and control plunger.
a) Zero (inoperated position), b) Part load, c) Full load. 1 Fuel inlet, 2 Control plunger, 3 Metering slit in
the barrel, 4 Control edge, 5 Barrel, 5 Axial seal, 7 Throttling restriction.
The air-flow sensor is located upstream
of the throttle valve so that it measures all
the air which enters the engine cylinders.
The air-flow sensor comprises an air
funnel in which the sensor flap (sus¬
pended body) is free to pivot. The air
flowing through the funnel deflects the
sensor plate by a given amount out of its
zero position (Figure 12).
The movements of the sensor plate are
transmitted by a lever system to a con¬
trol plunger which determines the basic
injection quantity required for the basic
functions. Considerable pressure
shocks can occur in the intake system if
backfiring takes place in the intake mani¬
fold. For this reason, the air-flow sensor
is so designed that the sensor plate can
swing back in the opposite direction in
event of misfiring, and past its zero pos¬
ition to open a relief cross-section in the
funnel.
A rubber buffer limits the downward
stroke (the upward stroke on the down-
draft air-flow sensor).
A counterweight compensates for the
weight of the sensor plate and lever sys¬
tem (this is performed by means of an
extension spring on the downdraft air¬
flowsensor).
An adjustable leaf spring is fitted to en¬
sure the correct zero position in the
switched-otf phase.
KE-Jetronic
Fuel distributor
Depending upon the position of the
plate in the air-flow sensor, the fuel dis¬
tributor meters the basic injection quan¬
tity to the individual engine cylinders.
The position of the sensor plate is a
measure of the amount of air drawn in by
the engine. The position of the plate is
transmitted to the control plunger by a
lever. Depending upon its position in the
barrel with metering slits, the control
plunger opens or closes the slits to a
greater or lesser extent. The fuel flows
through the open section of these slits to
the differential-pressure valves and
then to the fuel-injection valves (Figure
13).
If sensor-plate travel is only very small,
the control plunger is lifted only slightly
and, as a result, only a small section of
the slit is opened for the passage of fuel.
On the other hand, with a larger plunger
travel, the plunger opens a larger sec¬
tion of the slits and more fuel can flow.
There is a linear relationship between
sensor-plate travel and the slit section in
the barrel which is opened forfuel flow.
A hydraulic force is applied to the control
plunger, and acts in opposition to the
movement resulting from the sensor-
plate deflection. A constant air-pressure
drop at the sensor plate is the result, and
this ensures that the control plunger al¬
ways follows the movement of the sen- 273
KE-Jetronic sor-plate lever. In some versions, a
pressure spring is used to assist this
hydraulic force (Figure 14). It prevents
the control plungerfrom being drawn up
due to vacuum effects when the system
cools down.
It is imperative that the primary pressure
be accurately controlled, otherwise vari¬
ations would have a direct effect upon
the air-fuel ratio (or A value). A damping
throttle (Figure 14) serves to damp os¬
cillations that could be caused by sen¬
sor-plate forces. When the engine is
switched off, the control plunger sinks
until it comes to rest against an axial seal
ring (Figures 13 to 15). This is secured
by an adjustable screw and can be set to
the correct height to ensure that the
metering slits are closed correctly by
the plunger when it is in its zero posi¬
tion.
Whereas with the K-Jetronic, the zero
position of the plunger is determined by
its abutting against the sensor-plate
lever, with the KE-Jetronic, the plunger
rests upon the axial seal ring due to the
force applied to it by the residual primary
pressure. This measure serves to pre¬
vent pressure loss due to leakage past
14) Fuel distributor with differential-
pressure valves.
1 Fuel inlet (primary pressure), 2 Upper
chamber of differential-pressure valve, 3 Line to
the fuel-injection valve, 4 Control plunger,
5 Control edge and metering slit, 6 Valve spring,
7 Valve diaphragm, 8 Lower chamber of differ¬
ential-pressure valve, 9 Axial seal ring,
10 Pressure spring, 11 Fuel from the electro-
hydraulic pressure actuator, 12 Throttling
restriction, 13 Return line.
13
o <=■
214
the control plunger, and thus prevents
the fuel accumulator from emptying
through the control-plunger gap. The
fuel accumulator must remain full, be¬
cause it has the job of maintaining the
primary pressure above the fuel-vapor
pressure which is applicable for the par¬
ticular/fuel temperature prevailing when
the engine is switched off.
Differential-pressure valves
The differential-pressure valves in the
fuel distributor serve to generate a given
pressure drop at the metering slits.
The air-flow sensor has a linear charac¬
teristic. This means that if double the
quantity of air is drawn in, the sensor-
plate travel is also doubled. Ifthis (linear)
travel is to result in a change of the basic
injection quantity in the same relation¬
ship, then a constant pressure drop
must be guaranteed at the metering slits
regardless of the amount of fuel flowing
through them (Figure 13).
The differential-pressure valves main¬
tain the drop in pressure between the
upper and lower chambers constant, re¬
gardless of fuel throughflow. The differ¬
ential pressure is usually 0.2 bar. This
15) Differential pressure valve.
a) Operating
position with
small injection
quantity
b) Operating
position with
large injection
quantity
■=c>
ensures a high degree of metering
accuracy.
The differential-pressure valves are of
the flat-seat type and are located in the
fuel distributor. They are each allocated
to one control slit. A diaphragm
separates the upper chamber from the
lower chamber of the valve (Figures 14
and 15).
The lower chambers of all valves are in¬
terconnected by means of a ring main,
as well as to the electro-hydraulic
pressure actuator. The valve seat is lo¬
cated in the upper chamber. Each upper
chamber is connected to a metering slit
and its corresponding fuel-injection
line.
The upper chambers are completely
sealed off from each other. The
pressure differential at the metering slit
is determined by the force of the helical
spring in the lower chamber, together
with the effective diaphragm diameter
and the electro-hydraulic pressure
actuator.
If a large basic injection quantity flows
into the upper chamber, the diaphragm
bends downwards and opens the outlet
cross-section of the valve until the set
16) Air-flow sensor with a section through the fuel distributor.
differential pressure is reached again. If KE-Jetronic
throughflow quantity drops, the valve
cross-section is reduced due to the
equilibrium of forces at the diaphragm
until a pressure differential of 0.2 bar
prevails again. This means that an
equilibrium of forces exists at the dia¬
phragm which can be maintained for
every basic injection quantity by control¬
ling the valve cross-section (Figure
15).
An additional fine filter with a separator
for ferromagnetic contamination is fitted
in the fuel line to the electro-hydraulic
pressure actuator.
Mixture formation
The formation of the air-fuel mixture
takes place in the intake ports and cylin¬
ders of the engine.
The continually injected fuel coming
from the injection valves is “stored” in
front of the intake valves. When the in¬
take valve is opened, the air drawn in
by the engine carries the waiting
“cloud” of fuel with it into the cylinder.
An ignitable air-fuel mixture is formed
during the induction stroke due to the
swirl effect.
215
KE-Jetronic Adaptation to the case of the KE-Jetronic, the air
operating conditions funnel is preferably so shaped that an
air-fuel mixture with A = 1 results across
In addition to the basic functions de¬ the whole operating range.
scribed up to now, the mixture has to be
adapted during particular operating con¬ Electronic control unit (ECU)
ditions. These adaptations (corrections) The electronic control unit evaluates the
are necessary in order to optimize the data delivered by the various sensors
power delivered, to improve the ex¬ concerning the engine operating con¬
haust-gas composition and to improve dition, and, from the status, generates a
the starting behavior and driveability. control signal for the electro-hydraulic
Thanks to additional sensors for the en¬ pressure actuator.
gine temperature and the throttle valve
position (load signal), the control unit of Registration of operating data
the KE-Jetronic can perform these Additional criteria, above and beyond
matching tasks better than a mechanical the information coming from the intake-
system. air quantity, are required in order to de¬
termine the optimum fuel quantity re¬
Basic adaptation quired by the engine. These must be
The basic adaptation of the air-fuel mix¬
ture to the operating modes of idle, part 17) Influence of funnel-wall angle upon the
sensor-plate deflection for identical air
load and full load is by appropriately
throughput.
shaping the air funnel in the air-flow sen¬ a) The basicfunnel shape results in stroke “h”,
sor. b) Steep funnel walls result in increased stroke
If the funnel had a purely conical shape, “A” for identical airthroughput,
c) Flatterfunnel shape results in reduced de¬
the result would be a mixture with a con¬
flection “A” for identical airthroughput.
stant air-fuel ratio throughout the whole
Annular areaopened bythe sensor plate
of the sensor plate range of travel (meter¬
- (identical in “a”, “b” and “c”).
ing). However, it is necessary to meter to
the engine an air-fuel mixture which is
optimal for particular operating modes
such as idle, part load and full load. In
practice, this means a richer mixture at
idle and full load and a leaner mixture in
the part-load range. This adaptation is
achieved by designing the air funnel so
that it becomes wider in stages.
If the funnel is flatter than the basic form
(which was specified for a given mixture,
e.g. at A = 1), then the mixture is leaner.
If, on other hand, the funnel walls are
steeper than in the basic form, the mix¬ c
ture is richer because the sensor plate
deflects further forthe same airthrough-
flow and the control plunger meters 18) Adaptation of the air-funnel shape.
1 For maximum power, 2 For part load,
more fuel. Consequently, this means
3 For idle.
that the air funnel can be shaped so that
it is possible to meter mixtures to the en¬
gine which have different air-fuel ratios
depending upon the sensor-plate pos¬
ition in the funnel (which in turn corres¬
ponds to the particular engine operating
216 mode i.e. idle, part load and full load). In
registered by sensors and signalled to cal system. The current applied to the KE-Jetronic
the electronic control unit. pressure actuator, which depends upon
the incoming sensor signals carrying the
Characteristic Sensor
data on the engine operating conditions,
operating value
is generated from this stabilized voltage,
Full load Throttle-valve the stabilization of which takes place in a
Idle switch special 1C.
Enginespeed Ignition-triggering
system Input filters
(usually in the Input filters filter out any interference
ignition distributor) which may be present in the incoming
Start Ignition and signalsfrom the sensors.
starting switch
Engine temperature Engine-tempera¬ Adder
ture sensor Here, the evaluated sensor signals are
Air pressure Aneroid-box combined. The electrically processed
sensor corrective signals are added in an oper¬
ational circuit and then transmitted to the
Air-fuel mixture Lambda sensor
current regulator.
The sensors are described in conjunc¬
tion with the relevant adaptation func¬ 19) Block diagram of the KE-Jetronic ECU,
using analog techniques.
tion.
The correcting signals from the individual
blocks are combined in an adder stage. They
Design and function are then amplified in the output stage and trans¬
Depending upon the functional scope, mitted to the electro-hydraulic pressure ac¬
tuator.
the electronic circuitry uses either
VK Full-load correction
analog techniques or mixed analog/digi¬ SAS Overrun fuel cutoff
tal techniques. Starting with the BA Acceleration enrichment
“Europe” unit, the module for idle-mix- NA Post-start enrichment
SA Voltage increase for starting
ture control and for lambda closed-loop
WA Warm-up enrichment
control can be added. ECUs with a more SU Adder stage
extensive range of functions are de¬ ES Output stage
signed using digital techniques. The
electronic components are installed on a
PC board and include ICs (e.g. opera¬ Battery
tional amplifiers, comparators and vol¬ voltage
tage stabilizers), transistors, diodes, re¬
sistors and capacitors. The PC boards Full load
are inserted in the ECU housing which
can be equipped with a pressure- Idle
equalization element. The ECU is con¬ Engine
speed
nected to the battery, to the sensors and
to the actuator by a 25-pole plug. Load
The ECU processes the incoming sig¬
nals from the different sensors and, on Starting
switch
the basis of this, calculates the control
current for the electro-hydraulic
pressure actuator.
Engine
tempera¬
Voltage stabilization ture
The ECU must be powered by a stable
Pressure actuator
voltage which remains constant regard¬
less of the voltage of the vehicle electri¬ 217
KE-Jetronic Output stage
The output stage generates the control
signal for the pressure actuator,
whereby it is possible to input opposing
currents into the pressure actuator in or¬
der to increase or decrease the
pressure drop.
The magnitude of the current in the
pressure actuator can be adjusted at will
in the positive direction by means of a
permanently triggered transistor. The
current is reversed during “overrun”
(overrun fuel cut-off), and influences the
differential pressure at the differential-
pressure valves so that the flow of fuel to
the injection valves is interrupted.
Additional output stages
If necessary, additional output stages
can be incorporated. These can serve to
trigger the valves for EGR, and to control
the bypass cross-section around the
throttle valve as reguired for idle-mix-
ture control, to mention but two appli¬
cations.
Electro-hydraulic pressure actuator
Depending upon the operating mode of
the engine and the resulting current sig¬
nal received from the ECU, the electro-
hydraulic pressure actuator varies the
pressure in the lower chambers of the
differential-pressure valves. This
changes the amount of fuel delivered to
the injection valves.
Design
The electro-hydraulic pressure actuator
(Figure 20) is mounted on the fuel dis¬
tributor. The actuator is a differential-
pressure controller which functions
according to the nozzle/baffle plate prin¬
ciple, and its pressure drop is controlled
by the current input from the ECU. In a
housing of non-magnetic material, an
armature is suspended on a frictionless
taut-band suspension element, be¬
tween two double magnetic poles. The
armature is in the form of a diaphragm
plate made from resilient material.
Function
The magnetic flux of a permanent mag¬
net (broken lines in Figure 21) and that
of an electromagnet (unbroken lines)
are superimposed upon each other in
the magnetic poles and their air gaps.
The permanent magnet is actually

20) Electro-hydraulic pressure actuator fitted to the fuel distributor.

The control signal from the ECU influences the position of the baffle plate (11). This, in turn, varies the
fuel pressure in the upper chamber of the differential-pressure valves and, as a result, the quantity of
fuel delivered to the injection valves. Using this principle, adaptation and correction functions can be
incorporated.
1 Sensor plate
2 Fuel distributor
3 Fuel inlet (primary pressure)
4 Fuel to the injection valves
5 Fuel return to the pressure regulator
6 Fixed restriction
7 Upperchamber
8 Lower chamber
9 Diaphragm
10 Pressure
actuator
11 Baffle plate
12 Nozzle
13 Magnetic pole
14 Air gap

218
21) Section through the electro¬ hydraulic
pressure actuator.
1 Fuel inlet (primary pressure)
2 Nozzle
3 Baffle plate
4 Fuel outlet
5 Magnetic pole
6 Electromagnet coil
7 Permanent-
magnetflux
8 Permanent mag- 3
net (turned
through 90
degrees from the 2
focal plane)
9 Adjustment screw 1
for basic moment
of force
10 Electromagneticflux
11 Armature (L-, to
L-4 = airgaps)
turned through 90 degrees referred to
the focal plane. The paths taken by the
magnetic fluxes through the two pairs of
poles are symmetrical and of equal
length, and flow from the poles, across
the air gaps to the armature, and then
through the armature.
In the two diagonally opposed air gaps
(Figure 21 L2l L3), the permanent-mag¬
net flux, and the electro-magnet flux re¬
sulting from the incoming ECU control
signal are added, whereas in the other
two air gaps (Figure 21 L-i, L4) the fluxes
are subtracted from each other. This
means that, in each air gap, the arma¬
ture, which moves the baffle plate, is
subjected to a force of attraction pro¬
portional to the square of the magnetic
flux.
Since the permanent-magnet flux re¬
mains constant, and is proportional to
the control currentfrom the ECU flowing
in the electromagnet coil, the resulting
torque is proportional to this control cur¬
rent. The basic moment of force applied
to the armature has been selected so
that, when no current is applied from the
ECU, there results a basic differential
pressure which corresponds preferably
to A = 1. This also means that, in the
case of control current failure, limp-
home facilities are available without any
further correction measures being
necessary.
KE-Jetronic
5
The jet of fuel which enters through the
nozzle attempts to bend the baffle plate
away against the prevailing mechanical
and magnetic forces. Taking a fuel
throughflow which is determined by a
fixed restriction located in series with
the pressure actuator, the difference in
pressure between the inlet and outlet is
proportional to the control current ap¬
plied from the ECU. This means that the
variable pressure drop at the nozzle is
also proportional to the ECU control cur¬
rent, and results in a variable lower-
chamber pressure. At the same time,
the pressure in the upper chambers
changes by the same amount. This, in
turn, results in a change in the difference
at the metering slits between the upper-
chamber pressure and the primary
pressure and this is applied as a means
for varying the fuel quantity delivered to
the injection valves.
As a result of the small electromagnetic
time constants, and the small masses
which must be moved, the pressure
actuator reacts extremely quickly to
variations in the control current from the
ECU.
If the direction of the control current is
reversed, the armature pulls the baffle
plate away from the nozzle and a
pressure drop of only a few hundredths
of a bar occurs at the pressure actuator.
This can be used for auxiliary functions 219
KE-Jetronic such as overrun fuel cutoff and engine-
speed limitation. The latter function is
performed by interrupting the flow of
fuel to the injection valves (see Pages
227 and 228).
Cold-start enrichment
Depending upon the engine tempera¬
ture, the cold-start valve injects an addi¬
tional quantity of fuel for a limited period
of time during starting.
This is carried out in order to compen¬
sate for the losses resulting from con¬
densation on the cylinder walls and in
order to facilitate starting the cold en¬
gine. For this purpose, due to the fact
that during starting the pronounced vari¬
ations in the engine speed would result
in a false air-flow signal, it is necessary
forthe ECU to provide afixed load signal
during cranking which is weighted with
an engine-temperature factor.
This additional quantity of fuel is in¬
jected by the cold-start valve into the
intake manifold. The on period of the
cold-start valve is limited by a thermo¬
time switch as a function of the engine
temperature.
22) Cold-start valve in operated state.
1 Electrical connection, 2 Fuel supply with
strainer, 3 Valve (electromagnet armature),
4 Solenoid winding, 5 Swirl nozzle, 6 Valve seat.
220
This process is known as cold-start en¬
richment and results in a “richer” air-
fuel mixture, i.e. the excess-air factor A
istemporarily less than 1.
Cold-startvalve
The cold-start valve (Figure 22) is a sol¬
enoid-operated valve. The solenoid coil
is located inside the valve, and when the
valve is closed, it is sealed off by its
movable armature being pressed
againstthe seal by aspring.
When the solenoid is energized, the ar¬
mature is lifted from its seat and permits
fuel to flow into a so-called swirl nozzle
which causes it to rotate. The result is
that the fuel is atomized extremely finely
and enriches the mixture in the intake
manifold downstream of the throttle
valve. The cold-start valve is so
positioned in the inlet manifold that a
favorable distribution of the air-fuel mix¬
ture toall cylinders is ensured.
Thermo-time switch
The thermo-time switch limits the dura¬
tion of cold-start valve operation, de¬
pending upon temperature.
23) Thermo-time switch.
1 Electrical connection, 2 Housing, 3 Bimetal,
4 Heating filaments, 5 Electrical contact.
The thermo-time switch (Figure 23)
consists of an electrically heated bimetal
strip which, depending upon its
temperature, opens or closes a contact.
It is brought into operation by the ig¬
nition/starter switch, and is mounted at a
spot which is representative of engine
temperature.
During a cold start, it limits the “on”
period of the cold-start valve. In case of
repeated start attempts, or when starting
takes too long, the cold-start valve
ceases to inject. Its “on ” period is deter¬
mined by the thermo-time switch which
is heated by engine heat as well as by its
own built-in heater. Both these heating
effects are necessary in order to ensure
that the “on” period of the cold-start
vaive is limited under all conditions, and
engine flooding is prevented.
During an actual cold start, the heat gen¬
erated by the built-in heater is mainly re¬
sponsible for the “on” period (switch
off, for instance, at-20°C after 7.5 sec¬
onds).
With a warm engine, the thermo-time
switch has already been heated up so
far by engine heat that it remains open
24) Engine temperature sensor.
1 Electrical connection, 2 Housing,
3 NTC resistor.
1
2
3
and prevents the cold-start valve from KE-Jetronic
going into action.
Post-start enrichment
Enrichment with additional fuel im¬
proves the post-start performance at
low temperatures.
This function is calibrated to give satis¬
factory throttle response at all tem¬
peratures together with minimum fuel
consumption.
Post-start enrichment is dependent
upon temperature and time and, starting
from a temperature-dependent initial
value, is decreased practically as a linear
function of time. This means thatthe en¬
richment duration is a function of the in¬
itial temperature.
The ECU maintains the temperature-
dependent mixture enrichment at its
maximum level for about 4.5 seconds
and then reduces to zero. For instance,
following a start at 20°C, the reduction to
zero takes 20 seconds.
Engine-temperature sensor
The engine temperature is measured by
the engine-temperature sensor which
provides the ECU with a corresponding
electric signal.
The engine-temperature sensor (Figure
24) is mounted in the engine block on
air-cooled engines. With water-cooled
engines, it projects into the coolant.
The sensor “reports” the particular en¬
gine temperature to the ECU in the form
of a resistance value. The ECU then
controls the electro-hydraulic pressure
actuator which carries out the appropri¬
ate adaptation of the injected fuel quan¬
tity during the post-start and warm-up
periods. The temperature sensor con¬
sists of an NTC resistor embedded in a
threaded sleeve.
NTC stands for Negative Temperature
Coefficient, the decisive characteristic
of this resistor. When the temperature
increases, the electrical resistance of
the semiconductor resistor decreases.
227
KE-Jetronic Warm-up enrichment
During warm-up, the engine receives
extra fuel depending upon the tem¬
perature, the load and the engine
speed.
The engine-temperature sensor regis¬
ters the coolant temperature and re¬
ports this to the ECU which then con¬
verts this data into a control signal for
the electro-hydraulic pressure actuator.
The mixture adaptation through the
pressure actuator (see Page 218) is
arranged such that perfect combustion
is achieved at all temperatures while, at
the same time, keeping the fuel enrich-
mentas low as possible.
Acceleration enrichment
During acceleration, the KE-Jetronic
meters additional fuel to the engine as
long as it is still cold.
If the throttle is opened abruptly, the
air-fuel mixture is momentarily leaned-
off, and a short period of mixture en¬
richment is needed to ensure good
transitional response.
As a result of the change in the load
signal (referred to time), the ECU
recognizes when acceleration is taking
place and, as a result, triggers the
acceleration enrichment. This prevents
the familiar “flat spot”. When the en¬
gine is cold, it requires additional en¬
richment due to the less than optimum
air-fuel mixing and due to the possibility
of fuel being deposited on the intake-
manifold walls.
The maximum value for acceleration
enrichment is a function of the tem¬
perature. The acceleration enrichment
is triggered at < 80°C by a needle-
shaped enrichment pulse with a dur¬
ation of 1 second. The enrichment
quantity is higher the colder the engine,
and is also dependent upon changes in
load.
The speed with which the pedal is de¬
pressed when accelerating is deter¬
mined from the deflection of the air-flow
sensor. This has only a very slight lag
referred to the throttle-plate movement.
This signal, which corresponds to the
222 change in the intake-air quantity and
therefore approximately to the engine
power, is registered by the potentiome¬
ter in the air-flow sensor and passed to
the ECU which controls the pressure
actuator accordingly. The potentiome¬
ter curve is non-linear, so that the
acceleration signal is at maximum when
accelerating from idle. It decreases
along with the increase in engine
power. The result is a reduction in the
ECU circuit complexity.
Sensor-plate potentiometer
The potentiometer in the air-flow
sensor (Figure 25) is manufactured
using film techniques on a ceramic
base.
A brush-type wiper moves across the
potentiometer track. The brushes con¬
sist of a number of fine wires which are
welded to a lever. The individual wires
apply only a very low pressure to the
potentiometer track with the result that
wear is extremely low. Due to the large
number of wires in the brush, excellent
electrical contact is guaranteed even on
a rough track surface and also when the
wiper moves quickly.
The potentiometer lever is attached to
the sensor-plate shaft but is electrically
insulated from it. The wiper voltage is
tapped off by a second wiper brush
which is electrically connected to the
main wiper.
The wiper is designed to travel past the
ends of the tracks in both directions so
far that damage is ruled out when back¬
firing occurs in the intake manifold. A
fixed film resistor is included in series
with the wiper to prevent damage in the
case of short-circuit.
Full-load enrichment
The engine delivers its maximum
power at full load, when the air-fuel
mixture must be enriched compared
with that at part-load.
In contrast to part load, where the cali¬
bration is for minimum fuel consump¬
tion and low emissions, at full load it is
necessary to enrich the air-fuel mixture.
This enrichment is programmed to be
engine-speed dependent. It provides
maximum possible torque over the en¬ nition of these two engine-operating KE-Jetronic
tire engine-speed range, and this en¬ modes is essential for the engine-
sures optimum fuel-economy figures management system.
during full- load operation.
At full load, e.g. in the engine-speed
ranges between 1500 and 3000 min"1
and above 4000 min"1, the KE-Jetronic
enriches the air-fuel mixture. The full¬ 26) Throttle-valve switch.
1 Full-load contact, 2 Contoured switching
load signal is delivered by a full-load
plate, 3 Throttle-valve shaft, 4 Idle contact,
switch on the throttle valve, or by a 5 Electrical connection.
microswitch on the accelerator-lever
linkage. The information on engine
speed is taken from the ignition. From
this data, the ECU calculates the ad¬
ditional fuel quantity needed, and this
is put into effect by the pressure ac¬
tuator.

Throttle-valve switch
The throttle-valve switch com¬
municates the “idle” and “full load”
throttle positions to the ECU.
The throttle-valve switch (Figure 26) is
mounted on the throttle body and actu¬
ated by the throttle-valve shaft.
Attached to this shaft is a contoured
switch guide that closes the idle con¬
tacts at one end of its travel and the
full-load contacts at the other. Recog¬

25) Potentiometer for determining the sensor-plate position.

1 Pickoff brush, 2 Main brush, 3 Wiper lever, 4 Potentiometer plate (shifted out of the focal plane),
5 Air-flow sensor housing, 6 Sensor-plate shaft.

223
KE-Jetronic 27) Auxiliary-air device (section).
1 Plate opening, 2 Pivot, 3 Electrical heating,
4 Air passage, 5 Perforated plate.
Top: Airpassage partially opened by the
perforated plate.
Bottom: Perforated plate blocks off the air
passage since the engine has reached the
appropriate operating temperature.
4 5
28) Electrically heated auxiliary-air device.
1 Electrical connection, 2 Electrical heating,
3 Bimetal strip, 4 Perforated plate.
224
Controlling the idle speed by means
of the auxiliary-air device
In order to achieve smoother running at
idle, the idle-speed is increased. This
also leads to a more rapid warm-up of
the engine. Depending upon engine
temperature, an auxiliary-air device in
the form of a bypass around the throttle
plate allows the engine to draw in more
air. This auxiliary air is also measured by
the air-flow sensor, and leads to the KE-
Jetronic providing the engine with more
fuel. Precise adaptation is by means of
the electrical heating facility. The engine
temperature then determines how
much auxiliary air is fed in initially
through the bypass, and the electrical
heating is mainly responsible for subse¬
quently reducing the auxiliary air as a
function of time.
Auxiliary-air device
The auxiliary-air device incorporates a
perforated plate (Figures 27, 28 and 30)
which is actuated by the bimetallic strip
and which controls the cross-section of
the bypass passage. Initially, the bypass
cross-section opened by the perforated
plate is determined by the engine tem¬
perature, so that during a cold start, the
bypass opening is adequate for the
auxiliary air required. The opening closes
steadily along with increasing engine
temperature until, finally, it is closed
completely. The bimetal strip is electri¬
cally heated and this limits the opening
time, starting from the initial setting which
is dependent upon engine temperature.
The auxiliary-air device is fitted in the
best possible position on the engine for it
to assume engine temperature. It does
notfunction when the engine is warm.
Closed-loop idle-speed control by
rotary idle actuator
The air quantity or charge is the best
correcting variable for closed-loop idle-
speed control. Closed-loop idle-speed
control via the charge (also termed idle-
mixture control) permits a stable, low
and, thus, economical idle speed which
does not vary throughout the service
lifeofthe vehicle.
Excessive idle speed increases the fuel
consumption at idle and, as a result, the
vehicle’s overall fuel consumption. This
problem is solved by the closed-loop
idle-speed control which always pro¬
vides exactly the right amount of mix¬
ture in order to maintain the idle speed,
regardless of the engine load (e.g. cold
engine with increased frictional resist¬
ance). Furthermore, the emission fig¬
ures remain constant in the long term
without having to adjust the idle speed-.
To a certain extent, closed-loop idle-
speed control also compensates for
changes in the engine which are at¬
tributable to aging. It also stabilizes the
idle speed throughout the entire ser¬
vice life of the engine.
The rotary idle actuator opens a bypass
around the throttle valve. Depending
upon the signal applied to it, the ac¬
tuator adjusts a given opening in the
bypass. Due to the fact that KE-Jetronic
registers the resulting extra air with its
sensor plate, the injected fuel guantity
changes accordingly. By contrast with
other idle-speed controls on the mar¬
ket, this closed-loop idle-speed control
controls the idle speed efficiently due to
it actually carrying out a comparison be¬
tween the desired and actual values
and, in case of deviation, correcting
accordingly.
29) Control loop for the closed-loop idle-speed control.
1 Controlled system: engine
2 Controlled variable: engine
speed (n)
3 Controller: control unit
(delivers the control "
voltage t/v)
4 Final controlling element:
Idle-speed rotary actuator
5 Manipulated variable:
bypass cross-section
(intake-airquantity VG)
6 Auxiliary actuating variable:
Engine temperature (rM)
7 Auxiliary actuating variable:
Throttle-valve end position
(o = 0)
Rotary idle actuator KE-Jetronic
Depending upon the deviation of the
idle speed from the set value, the rotary
idle actuator supplies the engine with
more or less intake air through a by¬
pass around the throttle valve. It
assumes the function of the auxiliary-air
device which is nolongerneeded.
The rotary idle actuator of the KE-Jet-
ronic (Figures 30 and 31) receives its
control signal from the ECU. This con¬
trol signal depends upon engine speed
and temperature, and causes the rotat¬
ing plate in the idle actuator to change
the bypass opening.
The rotary idle actuator is powered by a
rotary-magnet drive comprising a wind¬
ing and a magnetic circuit. Its rotational
range is limited to 60 degrees. The
rotating slide is attached to the arma¬
ture shaft and opens the bypass
passage far enough for the specified
idle speed to be maintained indepen¬
dent of the engine loading. The closed-
loop control circuit in the ECU, which is
provided by the engine-speed sensor
with the necessary information con¬
cerning engine speed, compares this
with the programmed set idle speed
and adjusts the air throughflow by
means of the idle actuator until the ac¬
tual idle speed coincides with the set
idle speed. With the engine warm and
unloaded, the bypass opening is very
nearto its lower limit.
225
KE-Jetronic 30) Rotary idle actuator (left) for closed-loop idle-speed control and auxiliary-air device with
temperature sensor (right) for idle-speed control.

Further inputs from the ECU, such as 31) Rotary idle actuator (single-winding
temperature and throttle-valve position, rotary actuator).
ensure that errors do not occur at low 1 Electrical connection, 2 Housing, 3 Return
spring, 4 Winding, 5 Rotating armature,
temperatures or due to accelerator- 6 Air passage as bypass around the throttle
pedal movements. The ECU transforms plate, 7 Adjustable stop, 8 Rotating slide.
the engine-speed signal into a voltage
signal which it compares with a voltage
corresponding to the set value. The
ECU generates a control signal from the
difference voltage, and inputs this to the
rotary idle actuator. A pulsating DC is
applied to the winding of the coil and
causes a torque at the rotating armature
which acts againstthe return spring. The
resulting bypass opening depends
upon the strength of the current.
In the absence of current (vehicle mal¬
function), the return spring forces the
rotating slide against an adjustable stop
and provides an emergency opening. At
the maximum on/off ratio of the applied
pulsating DC, the bypass is fully
opened.

226
Supplementary functions
Overrun fuel cutoff
Overrun fuel cutoff is the complete in¬
terruption of the supply of fuel to the en¬
gine during deceleration in order to re¬
duce the fuel consumption and exhaust
gas emission when driving downhill and
decelerating (i.e. even in town traffic).
Since no fuel is burned, there are no
emissions.
When the driver takes his foot off the
accelerator pedal while driving, the
throttle valve returns to the zero position.
The throttle-valve switch reports the
“throttle-valve closed” condition to the
ECU, which, at the same time, receives
from the ignition the data concerning the
enginespeed. Iftheactualenginespeed
is within the operating range of the over¬ KE-Jetronic
run cutoff (i.e. above idle), the ECU re¬
verses the current in the electro-hydrau¬
lic pressure actuator. The pressure drop
at the actuator is then practically zero.
This means that in the fuel distributor, the
differential-pressure valves are closed
by the springs in their lower chambers
(Figure32) and interrupttheflowoffuelto
the injection valves.
Since the injection valves inject continu¬
ously, the overrun fuel cutoff operates
perfectly smoothly. Its response is also
dependent upon the coolant tempera¬
ture (Figure 33), and in order to avoid
continuous switching in and out at a
given engine speed, a different switch¬
ing point is specified depending upon
whetherthe engine speed is decreasing

32) Fuel distributor with overrun fuel cutoff.

1 Fuel distributor, 2 Fuel inlet, 3,5 Inlets to the injection valves, 4 To the cold-start valve, 6 To the
primary-pressure regulator, 7 Upper chamber, 8 Diaphragm (closes inlets 3,5 to the injection valves),
9 Lowerchamber, 10 Nozzle, 11 Winding, 12 Baffle plate.

227
KE-Jetronic or increasing. The switching thresholds
are chosen to be as low as possible for
the warm engine in order that maximum
fuel savings are achieved. On the other
hand, with a cold engine, the thresholds
are somewhat higher so that the engine
does not stop when the clutch pedal is
suddenly pressed.
Engine-speed limiting
Engine-speed limiting shuts off the fuel
supply to the injection valves when the
maximum permissible engine speed is
reached. Conventional mechanical en¬
gine-speed limiters have a distributor
rotor arranged to short-circuit the ig¬
nition when the maximum permissible
engine speed is reached.
Today, for reasons of exhaust-gas
emissions and fuel economy, this
method is no longer entirely satisfac¬
tory. It has been superseded by elec¬
tronic engine-speed limiting using fuel-
injection cutoff. When the current
through the electro-hydraulic actuator is
reversed, the baffle plate is pulled away
from the nozzle. The pressure drop ap¬
proaches zero and the diaphragms in
the differential-pressure valves stop the
flow of fuel to the injection valves. This
involves the same process as on the
overrun fuel cutoff facility. In the ECU,
the actual engine speed is compared
with the programmed maximum speed
n0. If the maximum speed is exceeded,
33) The lowest engine speed for the
overrun fuel cutoff facility depends upon
coolant temperature.
Coolant temperature
228
the ECU suppresses the injection
pulses. This function operates within a
bandwidth of 80 min"1 above and below
the permissible maximum speed (Fig¬
ure 34). This electronic engine-speed
limiting facility prevents the engine from
“overspeeding” and, at the same time,
limits fuel consumption and
exhaust-gas emission.
Adaptation of the air-fuel mixture
at high altitudes
At high altitudes, due to the lower air
density, the volumetric flow measured
by the air-flow sensor corresponds to a
lower air-mass flow. Depending upon
the facilities incorporated in the particu¬
lar KE-Jetronic, this error can be com¬
pensated for by correcting the injection
time. Over-enrichment is avoided and,
therefore, excessive fuel consumption
at high altitudes.
The altitude compensation is provided
by a sensor which measures the air
pressure. In accordance with the pre¬
vailing air pressure, the sensor inputs a
signal to the ECU which changes the
pressure-actuator current accordingly.
This alters the lower-chamber pressure,
and therefore the pressure difference at
the metering slits, (this thus changes the
injected-fuel quantity). It is also possible
to incorporate continuous adaptation of
the injected-fuel quantity according to
the changing air pressure.
34) Limiting the maximum engine speed nQ
by stopping the flow of fuel to the injection
valves.
min Fuel injection
switched off
6000
/\/\Pdz
. _ i
s p,,Cil injection
T3
Q) switched in
a> 4500 -
Cl
</) isisi.
(V
c
3000
LU
Engine-
speed limit¬
ing effective
1500
Time t
Lambda closed-loop control
The lambda closed-loop control permits
the excess-air factor to be maintained
very precisely at A = 1.
The lambda closed-loop control is an
add-on facility which can basically be
retrofitted to any electronically controll¬
able fuel-management system. The
lambda closed-loop control is also par¬ KE-Jetronic
ticularly suitable for use in conjunction
with the KE-Jetronic. The signal of the
lambda sensor is processed in the con¬
trol unit which is already fitted and the
required control intervention for correc¬
tion of the fuel allocation is carried out
via the pressure actuator.

1 Air-flow sensor, 2 Mixture-control unit, 3 Fuel distributor, 4 Pressure actuator, 5 Electronic control
unit, 6 Fuel filter, 7 Fuel accumulator, 8 Electric fuel pump, 9 Fuel-injection valves, 10 Throttle-valve-
switch, 11 Thermo-time switch, 12 Cold-start valve, 13 Engine-temperature sensor, 14 Auxiliary-air
device, 15 Primary-pressure regulator.
229
KE-Jetronic Electrical circuitry
If the engine stops but the ignition re¬
mains switched on, the electrical fuel
pump is switched off by a safety circuit.
The KE-Jetronic system is equipped
with a number of electrical components
such as electric fuel pump, auxiliary-air
device, cold-start valve and thermo¬
time switch. All these components are
controlled by the control relay which, it¬
self, is switched by the ignition and start¬
ing switch.
Apart from its switching functions, the
control relay also has a safety function.
A commonly used circuit is described
below.
Function
When cold-starting the engine, voltage
is applied to the cold-start valve and the
thermo-time switch through terminal 50.
If the cranking process takes longerthan
between 8 and 15 seconds, the thermo¬
time switch switches off the start valve in
order that the engine does not “flood”.
In this case, the thermo-time switch per¬
forms a time-switch function.
If the temperature of the engine is above
approximately + 35°C when the starting
process is commenced, the thermo¬
time switch will have already open-cir¬
cuited the connection to the start valve
which, as a result, does not inject extra

36) Circuit without

voltage applied
(without control unit).
O Ignition and starting
switch
0 Cold-start valve
0 Thermo-time switch
O Control relay
0 Electric fuel pump
0 Auxiliary-air device

37) Starting (with the

engine cold).
Cold-start valve and
thermo-time switch are
switched on. The engine
turns (pulses are taken
from terminal 1 of the
ignition coil). The control
relay, electric fuel pump
and auxiliary-air device
are switched on.

230
fuel. In this case, the thermo-time switch
functions as a temperature switch.
Voltage from the ignition and starting
switch is still present at the control relay
which switches on as soon as the en¬
gine runs. The engine speed reached
when the starting motor cranks the en¬
gine is high enough to generate the
“engine running” signal which is taken
from the ignition pulses coming from
terminal 1 of the ignition coil.
An electronic circuit in the control relay
evaluates these pulses. After the first
pulse, the control relay switches on and
applies voltage to the electric fuel pump
and the auxiliary-air device. The control
relay remains switched on providing the KE-Jetronic
ignition is switched on and the engine is
running.
If the pulses from terminal 1 of the ig¬
nition coil stop because the engine has
stopped turning (for instance in the case
of an accident), the control relay
switches off approximately 1 second af¬
ter the last pulse is received. This safety
circuit prevents the fuel pump from
pumping fuel when the ignition is
switched on but the engine is not turn¬
ing.

38) Operation.
Ignition on and engine
running.
Control relay, electric fuel
pump and auxiliary-air
device are switched on.

39) Ignition on but

engine stopped.
No pulses can be taken
from terminal 1 of the
ignition coil. The control
relay, electricfuel pump
and auxiliary-air device
are switched off.

231
L-Jetronic
L-Jetronic
Outline of system
The L-Jetronic is an electronically
controlled fuel-injection system
which injects fuel intermittently into
the intake ports. It does not require
any form of drive. It combines the
advantages of direct air-flow sens¬
ing and the special capabilities
afforded by electronics.
As is the case with the K-Jetronic
system, this system detects all
changes resulting from the engine
(wear, deposits in the combustion
chamber and changes in valve set¬
tings), thus guaranteeing a uniformly
good exhaust gas quality.
The task of the gasoline injection sys¬
tem is to supply to each cylinder pre¬
cisely the correct amount of fuel as is
necessary for the operation of the en¬
gine at that particular moment. A pre¬
requisite for this, however, is the pro¬
cessing of as many influencing factors
as possible relevant to the supply of
fuel. Since, however, the operating
condition of the engine often changes
quite rapidly, a speedy adaptation of the
fuel delivery to the driving situation at
any given moment is of prime import¬
ance. Electronically controlled gasoline
injection is particularly suitable here. It
enables a variety of operational data at
any particular location of the vehicle to
232
be registered and converted into elec¬
trical signals by sensors. These signals
are then passed on to the control unit of
the fuel-injection system which pro¬
cesses them and calculates the exact
amount of fuel to be injected. This is
influenced via the duration of injection.
Function
A pump supplies the fuel to the engine
and creates the pressure necessary for
injection. Injection valves inject the fuel
into the individual intake ports and onto
the intake valves. An electronic control
unit controls the injection valves.
The L-Jetronic consists principally of
the following function blocks:
- fuel supply system,
- operating-data sensing system and
- fuel-metering system.
Fuel-supply system
The fuel system supplies fuel from the
fuel tank to the injection valves, creates
the pressure necessary for injection
and maintains it at a constant level.
Operating-data sensing system
The sensors register the measured
variables which characterize the
operating mode of the engine.
The most important measured variable
is the amount of air drawn in by the
engine and registered by the air-flow
sensor. Other sensors register the po¬
sition of the throttle, the engine speed,
the air temperature and the engine
temperature.
Fuel-metering system
The signals delivered by the sensors
are evaluated in the electronic control
unit (ECU) where they are used to
generate the appropriate control pulses
for the injection valves.
Advantages of
the L-Jetronic system
Low fuel consumption
In carburetor systems, due to segre¬
gation processes in the intake manifold,
the individual cylinders of the engine do
not all receive the same amount of air-
fuel mixture. Optimum fuel distribution
cannot be achieved if a mixture is
created which is suitable for supplying
sufficient fuel even to the worst-fed
cylinder. This would result in high fuel
consumption and unequal stressing of
the cylinders.
In L-Jetronic systems, each cylinder
has its own injection valve. The injec¬
tion valves are controlled centrally;
this ensures that each cylinder re¬
ceives precisely the same amount of
fuel, the optimum amount, at any par¬
ticular moment and under any particu¬
lar load.
Adaptation to operating conditions
The L-Jetronic system adapts to
changing load conditions virtually im¬
mediately since the required quantity of
fuel is computed by the control unit
(ECU) within milliseconds and injected
by the injection valves onto the engine
intake valves.
Low-pollution exhaust gas L-Jetronic
The concentration of pollutants in the
exhaust gas is directly related to the air-
fuel ratio. If the engine is to be operated
with the least pollutant emission, then a
fuel-management system is necessary
which is capable of maintaining a given
air-fuel ratio. The L-Jetronic works so
precisely that the precise mixture for¬
mation necessary for observing the
present-day exhaust regulations is
guaranteed.
Higher power output per litre
The fact that there is no carburetor
enables the intake passages to be
designed aerodynamically in order to
achieve optimum air distribution and
cylinder charge and, thus, greater
torque. Since the fuel is injected di¬
rectly onto the intake valves, the engine
receives only air through the intake
manifold. This results in a higher power
output per litre and a torque curve
appropriate to practice.
233
L-Jetronic Fuel supply system
The fuel supply system comprises the
following components:
- electric fuel pump,
- fine filter,
- fuel rail,
- pressure regulator and
- fuel-injection valves.
An electrically driven roller-cell pump
pumps the fuel from the fuel tank at a
pressure of approximately 2.5 bar
through a filter into the fuel rail. From
the fuel rail, fuel lines diverge to the
injection valves. At the end of the fuel
rail is a pressure regulator which main¬
tains the injection pressure at a con¬
stant level (Figure 3). More fuel cir¬
culates in the fuel system than is
needed by the engine even under the
most extreme conditions. The excess
fuel is returned to the fuel tank by the
pressure regulator but not under
pressure. The constant flushing
through of the fuel system enables it to
be continually supplied with cool fuel.
This helps to avoid the formation of fuel
vapour bubbles and guarantees good
hot-starting characteristics.
Electric fuel pump
The electric fuel pump is a roller-cell
pump driven by a permanent-magnet
electric motor. The rotor plate which is
3) Fuel supply
system.
1 Fuel tank
2 Electric fuel
pump
3 Fuel filter
4 Fuel rail
5 Pressure regulator
6 Injection valve
7 Cold-start valve
234
eccentrically mounted in the pump
housing is fitted with metal rollers in
notches around its circumference
which are pressed against the pump
housing by centrifugal force and act as
seals. The fuel is carried in the cavities
which form between the rollers. The
pumping action takes place when the
rollers, after having closed the inlet
port, force the trapped fuel around in
front of them until it can escape from
the pump through the outlet port (Fig¬
ure 5). The fuel flows directly around
the electric motor. There is no danger
of explosion, however, because there
is never an ignitable mixture in the
pump housing.
The electric fuel pump delivers more
fuel than the maximum requirement of
the engine so that the pressure in the
fuel system can be maintained under all
operating conditions. A check valve in
the pump disconnects the fuel system
from the fuel tank by preventing return
flow of fuel to the fuel tank.
The electric fuel pump starts immedi¬
ately when the ignition and starting
switch is operated and remains
switched on continously after the en¬
gine has started. A safety circuit pre¬
vents fuel from being delivered when
the ignition is switched on, but when
the engine is stationary (e.g. after an
accident). The fuel pump is located in 4) Electric fuel pump. L-Jetronic
the direct vicinity of the fuel tank and 1 Intake, 2 Pressure limiter, 3 Roller-cell pump,
requires no maintenance. 4 Motor armature, 5 Check valve, 6 Outlet port.

Fuel filter
The fuel filter filters off impurities in the
fuel which could impair the function of
the injection system. The filter contains
a paper element with an average pore
size of 10 fim, which is backed up by a
fluff strainer (Figure 6). This combi¬
nation ensures a high degree of filtra¬
tion. A support plate secures the filter in 5) Pumping action roller-cell pump.
its metal housing. The filter is installed 1 Intake, 2 Rotor plate, 3 Roller, 4 Roller race
in the fuel line downstream of the fuel plate, 5 Outlet port.
accumulator.
When the filter is changed, it is impera¬
tive that the throughflow direction as
indicated by the arrow on the housing
be observed.

Fuel rail
The fuel rail supplies all injection valves
with an equal quantity of fuel and en¬
sures the same fuel pressure at all
injection valves.
The fuel rail has a storage function. Its
volume, compared with the amount of
fuel injected during each working cycle
of the engine, is large enough to pre¬
vent variations in pressure. The injec¬
tion valves connected to the fuel rail are
therefore subjected to the same fuel
pressure.
The fuel rail also facilitates easy fitting
of the injection valves.
Pressure regulator
The pressure regulator keeps the
pressure differential between the fuel
pressure and manifold pressure con¬
stant. Thus, the fuel delivered by the
electromagnetic injection valve is de¬
termined solely by the valve opening
time.
The pressure regulator is a diaphragm-
controlled overflow pressure regulator
which controls pressure at 2.5 or 3 bar,
dependent upon the system in ques¬
tion. It is located at the end of the fuel
rail and consists of a metal housing,
divided into two spaces by a flanged
diaphragm: a chamber for the spring
6) Fuel filter.
1 Paper filter
2 Strainer
3 Support plate
that preloads the diaphragm, and a
chamber for the fuel (Figure 7). When
the preset pressure is exceeded, a
valve operated by the diaphragm opens
the return line for the excess fuel to
flow back, not under pressure, to the
fuel tank.
The spring chamber is connected by a
tube with the intake manifold down¬
stream of the throttle valve. This has the
effect that the pressure in the fuel
system is dependent upon the absolute
manifold pressure; therefore, the
pressure drop across the fuel-injection
valves is the same for any throttle
position.
235
L-Jetronic Fuel-injection valves 7) Pressure regulator.
The electronically controlled fuel-injec¬ 1 Fuel-inlet connection, 2 Fuel-return connec¬
tion valves inject precisely metered fuel tion, 3 Valve, 4 Valve holder, 5 Diaphragm,
6 Compression spring, 7 Intake-manifold con¬
into the intake ports and onto the intake
nection.
valves.
Each engine cylinder has its own fuel-
injection valve. The valves are sol¬
enoid-operated and are opened and
closed by means of electric pulses from
the electronic control unit. The fuel-
injection valve consists of a valve body
and the needle valve with fitted sol¬
enoid armature. The valve body con¬
tains the solenoid winding and the
guide for the needle valve. When there
is no current flowing in the solenoid
winding, the needle valve is pressed
against its seat on the valve outlet by a
helical spring. When a current is pas¬
sed through the solenoid winding, the
needle valve is lifted by approximately
0.1 mm from its seat and the fuel can
be injected through the precision annu¬
lar orifice. The front end of the needle
valve has a specially ground pintle for
atomizing the fuel (Figure 8). The
pickup and release times of the valve
lie in the range of 1 to 1.5 ms. To
achieve good fuel distribution together
with low condensation loss, it is
necessary that wetting of the intake-
manifold walls be avoided.
The means that a particular spray angle
in conjunction with a particular distance
of the injection valve from the intake
valve must therefore be maintained,
specific to the engine concerned. The
fuel-injection valves are fitted with the
help of special holders and are
mounted in rubber mouldings in these
holders. The insulation from the heat of
the engine thereby achieved prevents
the formation of fuel-vapour bubbles
and guarantees good hot-starting
characteristics. The rubber mouldings
also ensure that the fuel-injection
valves are not subjected to excessive
vibration.

236
Operating-data
sensing system
Sensors detect the operating mode of
the engine and signal this condition
electrically to the control unit. The sen¬
sors and ECU form the control system.
The sensors are described in conjunc¬
tion with the relevant main function or
compensation function.
Measured variables
The measured variables characterizing
the operating mode of the engine are
as follows:
- main measured variables
- measuredvariablesforcompensation
- measured variables for precise com¬
pensation.
The ECU evaluates all measured vari¬
ables together so that the engine is
always supplied with exactly the
amount of fuel required for the instan¬
taneous operating mode. This achieves
optimum driveability.
Main measured variables
The main measured variables are the
engine speed and the amount of air
drawn in by the engine. These deter¬
mine the amount of air per stroke which
then serves as a direct measure for the
loading condition of the engine.
Measured variables for compensation
For operating conditions such as cold
start and warm-up and the various load
conditions which deviate from normal
operation, the mixture must be adapted
to the modified conditions. Starting and
warm-up conditions are detected by
sensors which transmit the engine
temperature to the control unit. For
compensating various load conditions,
the load range (idle, part-load, full-load)
is transmitted to the control unit via the
throttle-valve switch.
Measured variables
for precision compensation
In order to achieve optimum driving
behavior, further operating ranges and
influences can be considered: the sen¬
sors mentioned above detect the data L-Jetronic
for transition response when acceler¬
ating, for maximum engine-speed limi¬
tation and during overrun. The sensor
signals have a particular relationship to
each other in these operating ranges.
The control unit recognizes these re¬
lationships and influences the control
signals of the injection valves accord¬
ingly.
Calculating engine speed
Information on engine speed and the
start of injection is passed on to the L-
Jetronic ECU in breaker-triggered ig¬
nition systems by the contact-breaker
points in the ignition distributor, and, in
breakerless ignition systems, by termi¬
nal 1 of the ignition coil.
Measuring the air flow
The amount of air drawn in by the
engine is a measure of its loading
condition. The air-flow measurement
system allows for all changes which
may take place in the engine during the
service life of the vehicle, e.g. wear,
combustion-chamber deposits and
changes to the valve setting.
Since the quantity of air drawn in must
first pass through the air-flow sensor
before entering the engine, this means
that, during acceleration, the signal
leaves the sensor before the air is
actually drawn into the cylinder. This
permits correct mixture adaptation at
any time during load changes.
237
L-Jetronic 10) Air-flow sensor in the intake system.
1 Throttle valve Air-flow sensor signal
2 Air-flow sensor to the ECU
3 Intake air temperature 6 Air filter
signal to the ECU Q,l Inducted air.quantity
4 ECU a Deflection angle

11) Air-flow sensor (air side).

1 Compensation flap
2 Damping volume
3 Bypass
4 Sensor flap
5 Idle-mixture
adjusting screw
(bypass)

12) Air-flow sensor (connection side).

1 Ring gear for spring preloading
2 Return spring
3 Wiper track
4 Ceramic substrate
with resistors
and conductor straps
5 Wiper tap
6 Wiper
7 Pump contact

4 3
238
The sensor flap in the air-flow sensor
measures the entire air quantity in¬
ducted by the engine, thereby serving
as the main controlled variable for de¬
termining the load signal and basic
injection quantity.
Air-flow sensor
The principle is based on the mea¬
surement of the force emanating from
the stream of air drawn in by the
engine. This force has to counteract
the opposing force of a return spring
acting upon the air-flow sensor flap.
The flap is deflected in such a manner
that, together with the profile of the
measurement channel, the free cross-
section increases along with the rise
in the quantity of air passing through
it.
The change in the free air-flow sensor
cross-section, depending on the pos¬
ition of the sensor flap, was selected so
that a logarithmic relationship results
between flap angle and air throughput.
The result is that, at low air throughput,
where measurement precision must be
particularly high, the sensitivity of the
air-flow sensor is also high. In order to
prevent the oscillations in the intake
system caused by the engine intake
strokes from having more than a
minimum effect upon the sensor-flap
position, a compensation flap is
attached rigidly to the sensor flap. The
pressure oscillations have the same
effects upon both flaps and the mo¬
ments of force therefore cancel each
other out so that the measurement is
not affected. The angular position of the
sensor flap is transformed by a poten¬
tiometer into a voltage. The poten¬
tiometer is calibrated such that the
relationship between air throughput and
voltage output is inversely proportional.
In order that aging and the temperature
characteristic of the potentiometer have
no effect upon the accuracy, only re¬
sistance values are evaluated in the
ECU. In order to set the air-fuel ratio at
idle, an adjustable bypass channel is
provided.
Fuel metering L-Jetronic
As the central unit of the system, the
ECU evaluates the data delivered by
the sensors on the operating mode of
the engine. From this data, control
pulses for the injection valves are gen¬
erated, whereby the quantity to be
injected is determined by the length of
time the injection valves are opened.
Electronic control unit (ECU)
Configuration
The L-Jetronic ECU is in a splash-proof
sheet-metal housing which is fitted
where it is not affected by the heat
radiated from the engine. The elec¬
tronic components in the ECU are
arranged on printed-circuit boards; the
output-stage power components are
mounted on the metal frame of the ECU
thus assuring good heat dissipation. By
using integrated circuits and hybrid
modules, it has been possible to re¬
duce the number of parts to a
minimum. The reliability of the ECU
was increased by combining functional
groups into integrated circuits (e.g.
pulse shaper, pulse divider and division
control multivibrator) and by combining
components into hybrid modules.
A multiple plug is used to connect the
ECU to the injection valves, the sen¬
sors and the vehicle electrical system.
The input circuit in the ECU is designed
so that the latter cannot be connected
with the wrong polarity and cannot be
short-circuited. Special Bosch testers
are available for carrying out measure¬
ments on the ECU and on the sensors.
The testers can be connected between
the wiring harness and the ECU with
multiple plugs.
Operating data processing
Engine speed and inducted air quantity
determine the basic duration of injec¬
tion.
The timing frequency of the injection
pulses is determined on the basis of
the engine speed.
The pulses delivered by the ignition
system for this purpose are processed 239
L-Jetronic by the ECU. First of all, they pass
through a pulse-shaping circuit which
generates square-wave pulses from
the signal “delivered” in the form of
damped oscillations, and feeds these to
a frequency divider.
The frequency divider divides the pulse
frequency given by the ignition se¬
quence in such a manner that two
pulses occur for each working cycle
regardless of the number of cylinders.
The start of the pulse is, at the same
time, the start of injection for the injec¬
tion valves. For each turn of the
crankshaft, each injection valve injects
once, regardless of the position of the
intake valves. When the intake valve is
closed, the fuel is stored and the next
time it opens the fuel is drawn into the
combustion chamber together with the
air. The duration of injection depends
on the amount of air measured by the
air-flow sensor and the engine speed.
(point D). In addition, a specific flap
angle a is established as a function of
the air intake quantity. The poten¬
tiometer actuated by the air-flow sen¬
sor flap supplies a voltage signal Us
to the ECU (point B) which controls
the injection valves, whereby point C
represents the injected fuel quantity
VE. It can be seen that the fuel quan¬
tity injected in practice and the
theoretically required injection quantity
are identical (line C-D).
14) Interrelationships between intake-air
quantity, sensor-flap angle, voltage at the
potentiometer and injection quantity.

The ECU also evaluates the signal

supplied by the potentiometer. Fig. 14
shows the interrelationships between
intake air quantity, flap angle, poten¬
tiometer voltage and injected quantity.
Assuming a specific intake-air quantity
Qi flowing through the air-flow sensor
(point Q), we thus obtain the theoreti¬
cally required injection quantity

13) Block diagram of the ECU.

7j Injection pulses, corrected, Tp Basic injection duration, n Engine speed.

Engine speed Load range

Intake-air Engine Air Vehicle-

quantity temperature temperature system voltage
240
Generation of injection pulses trol pulses. The duration Tp of this L-Jetronic
The generation of the basic injection pulse determines the basic injection
duration is carried out in a special circuit quantity, i.e. the quantity of fuel to be
group in the ECU, the division control injected per intake stroke without con¬
multivibrator. sidering any corrections. Tp is therefore
The division control multivibrator (DSM) regarded as the “basic injection dur¬
receives the information on speed n ation”. The greater the quantity of air
from the frequency divider and drawn in with each intake stroke, the
evaluates it together with the air-quan¬ longer the basic injection duration.
tity signal Us. For the purpose of inter¬ Two border cases are possible here: if
mittent fuel injection, the DSM converts the engine speed n increases at a
the voltage Us into square-wave con¬ constant air throughput Q, then the

15) Complete schematic pulse timing diagram of the L-Jetronic for 4-cylinder engines.
/ Ignition pulse frequency Tm Pulseduration extension T\ Pulse control time. The actual injection
or sparking rate resulting from corrections duration per cycle differs from the pulse
n Engine speed ru Pulse duration extension control time since both a response
7p Basic duration of resulting from voltage delay and a release delay change the
injection compensation injection duration.

Cylinder

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540° 0° 180° 380° 540° 0° 180° 380° 540° 0° 180°kW
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/////////// 3
,

Intake valve open f Ignition point

rrii
r I l
Ignition i i
(/ 2
= n)
K s. \ _Ik_Ik K Ik Jk Ik Ik K.
■
Pulse shaper
(/= 2 n) 1 1 i n i 1 n n 1
Frequency divider

Division --
\ \
*
1
control < 1
multivibrator
\
— 7p h*-
1
/
\ /V x\
-1-
1
/\ x\
Multiplier stage / n n n
l
Tm -*

\ n 1
i i
n n n n
i
i ]T
iv_

r
l
1 i
Output stage 1 i

T =7p+7m +7u

Time
241
L-Jetronic absolute pressure sinks downstream of
the throttle valve and the cylinders draw
in less air per stroke, i.e. the cylinder
charge is reduced. As a result, less fuel
is needed for combustion and the dur¬
ation of the pulse Tp is correspondingly
shorter. If the engine output and
thereby the amount of air drawn in per
minute increase and providing the
speed remains constant, then the cylin¬
der charge will improve and more fuel
will be required: the pulse duration Tp
of the DSM is longer.
During normal drivng, engine speed
and output usually change at the same
time, whereby the DSM continually
calculates the basic injection duration
Tp. At a high speed, the engine output
is normally high (full load) and this
results ultimately in a longer pulse
duration Tp and, therefore, more fuel
per injection cycle.
The basic injection duration is extended
by the signals from the sensors de¬
pending on the operating mode of the
engine.
16) Signals and controlled variables at the ECU.
Q\_ Intake air quantity, Air temperature, n Engine speed, P Engine load range,
temperature, VE Injection quantity, QLZ Auxiliary air, FES Excess fuel for starting, UB Vehicle-system
voltage.
Input variables Control unit
and supply
242
Adaptation of the basic injection dur¬
ation to the various operating condi¬
tions is carried out by the multiplying
stage in the ECU. This stage is con¬
trolled by the DSM with the pulses of
duration Tp. In addition, the multiply¬
ing stage gathers information on vari¬
ous operating modes of the engine,
such as cold start, warm-up, full-load
operation etc. From this information,
the correction factor k is calculated.
This is multiplied by the basic injection
duration Tp calculated by the division
control multivibrator. The resulting
time is designated Tm. rm is added to
the basic injection duration Tp, i.e. the
injection duration is extended and the
air-fuel mixture becomes richer. Tm is
therefore a measure of fuel enrich¬
ment, expressed by a factor which
can be designated “enrichment fac¬
tor”. When it is very cold, for exam¬
ple, the valves inject two to three
times the amount of fuel at the begin¬
ning of the warm-up period (Figures
13 and 15).
Engine
Output variables
Voltage correction L-Jetronic
The pickup time of the fuel-injection
valves depends very much on the
battery voltage. Without electronic vol¬
tage correction, the response delay
which results from a low-voltage battery
would cause the injection duration to be
too short and, as a result, insufficient
fuel would be injected. The lower the
battery voltage, the less fuel the engine
would receive. For this reason, a low
battery voltage, i.e. after starting with a
heavily discharged battery, must be
compensated for with an appropriate
extension Tu of the pre-calculated
pulse time in order that the engine
receives the correct fuel quantity. This
is known as “voltage compensation”.
For voltage compensation, the effective output stage. In these control units, the
battery voltage is fed into the control fuel-injection valves are operated with¬
unit as the controlled variable. An elec¬ out series resistors. Control of the fuel-
tronic compensation stage extends the injection valve takes place then as
valve control pulses by the amount Tu follows: as soon as the valve armatures
which is the voltage-dependent pickup have picked up at the beginning of the
delay of the injection valves. The total pulse, the valve current is regulated for
duration of the fuel-injection pulses 7] the rest of the pulse duration to a
is thus the sum of Tp, Tm and Tu. considerably reduced current, the hold¬
ing current. Since these valves are
Amplification of the injection pulses switched on at the start of the pulse
The fuel-injection pulses generated by with a very high current, short response
the multiplying stage are amplified in a times are the result. By means of the
following output stage. The injection reduction in current strength after
valves are controlled with these am¬ switching on, the output stage is not
plified pulses. subjected to such heavy loading. In this
All the fuel-injection valves in the en¬ way, up to 12 fuel-injection valves can
gine open and close at the same time. be switched with only one output stage.
With each valve, a series resistor is
wired into the circuit and functions as a Mixture formation
current limiter. The output stage of the Mixture formation is carried out in the
L-Jetronic supplies 3 or 4 valves simul¬ intake ports and in the engine cylinder.
taneously with current. Control units for The fuel-injection valve injects its fuel
6 and 8-cylinder engines have two directly onto the engine intake valve
output stages with 3 and 4 injection and, when this opens, the cloud of fuel
valves respectively. Both output stages is entrained along with the air which is
operate in unison. The injection cycle of drawn in by the engine and an ignitable
the L-Jetronic is selected so that for mixture is formed by the swirling action
each revolution of the camshaft (= 1 which takes place during the intake
working cycle) half the amount of fuel cycle.
required by each working cylinder is
injected twice.
In addition to controlling the fuel-injec¬
tion valves through the series resistors,
some control units have a regulated 243
L-Jetronic Adaptation to
operating modes
In addition to the basic functions de¬
scribed up to now, the mixture has to
be adapted during particular operating
modes.
These adaptations (corrections) are
necessary in order to optimize the
power delivered by the engine, to im¬
prove the exhaust-gas composition and
to improve the starting behavior and
driveability. With additional sensors for
the engine temperature and the
throttle-valve position (load signal), the
L-Jetronic ECU can perform these
adaptation tasks. The characteristic
curve of the air-flow sensor determines
the fuel-requirement curve, specific to
the particular engine, for all operating
ranges.
Cold-start enrichment
When the engine is started, additional
fuel is injected for a limited period
depending on the temperature of the
engine. This is carried out in order to
compensate for fuel condensation
losses in the inducted mixture and in
order to facilitate starting the cold en¬
gine.
This extra fuel is injected by the cold-
start valve into the intake manifold. The
injection duration of the cold-start valve
is limited by a thermo-time switch de¬
pending upon the engine temperature.
18) Cold-start enrichment by start control.
1 Engine-temperature sensor, 2 Control unit,
3 Injection valves, 4 Ignition and starting
switch.
244
This process is known as cold-start
enrichment and results in a “richer” air-
fuel mixture, i.e. the excess-air factor A
is temporarily less than 1.
There are two methods of cold-start
enrichment:
- start control with the aid of the ECU
and injection valves (Figure 18) or
- cold-start enrichment via thermo¬
time switch and cold-start valve (Figure
19).
Start control
By extending the period during which
the fuel-injection valves inject, more
fuel can be supplied during the starting
phase. The electronic control unit con¬
trols the start procedure by processing
the signals from the ignition and starting
switch and the engine-temperature
sensor (Figure 18). The construction
and method of operation of the temper¬
ature sensor are described in Chapter
“Warm-up enrichment”.
Cold-start valve
The cold-start valve (Figure 20) is a
solenoid-operated valve. The solenoid
winding is located in the valve. In
neutral position, a helical spring
presses the movable solenoid armature
against a seal, thereby shutting off the
valve.
When a current is passed through the
solenoid, the armature, which now
rises from the valve seat, allows fuel to
19) Cold-start enrichment by cold-start
valve.
1 Cold-start valve, 2 Thermo-time switch,
3 Relay combination, 4 Ignition and starting
switch.
20) Coid-start valve operated.
1 Electrical connection, 2 Fuel inlet with filter
strainer, 3 Valve (solenoid armature),
4 Solenoid winding, 5 Swirl nozzle, 6 Valve seat.
flow along the sides of the armature to a
nozzle where it is swirled. The swirl
nozzle atomizes the fuel very finely and
as a result enriches the air in the intake
manifold downstream of the throttle
valve with fuel. The cold-start valve is
mounted on the intake manifold in such
a way as to provide a favourable dis¬
tribution of the air-fuel mixture to all
engine cylinders.
Thermo-time switch
The thermo-time switch limits the dur¬
ation of injection of the cold-start valve
depending on the temperature of the
engine.
The thermo-time switch (Figure 21) is
an electrically heated bimetal switch
which opens or closes a contact de¬
pending on its temperature. It is con¬
trolled via the ignition and starting
switch. The thermo-time switch is
attached in a position representative
of the engine temperature. During a
cold start, it limits the “on” period of
the cold-start valve. In the case of
repeated start attempts, or when start¬
L-Jetronic
ing takes too long, the cold-start valve
ceases to inject.
The “on” period is determined by the
thermo-time switch which is heated
by the heat of the engine as well as
by its own built-in electric heater. The
electrical heating is necessary in order
to ensure that the “on” period of the
cold-start valve is limited under all
conditions, and engine flooding is pre¬
vented. During an actual cold start,
the heat generated by the built-in
heating winding is mainly responsible
for the “on” period (switch-off, for
instance, at -20°C after approx. 7.5 s).
With a warm engine, the thermo-time
switch has already been heated so far
by engine heat that it remains open
and prevents the cold-start valve from
going into action.
Post-start and warm-up enrichment
During warm-up, the engine receives
extra fuel.
The warm-up phase follows the cold-
start phase of the engine. During this
phase, the engine needs substantially 245
L-Jetronic more fuel since some of the fuel con¬
denses on the still cold cylinder walls.
In addition, without supplementary fuel
enrichment during the warm-up
period, a major drop in engine speed
would be noticed after the additional
fuel from the cold-start valve has
been cut off.
For example, at a temperature of
-20°C, depending on the type of en¬
gine, two to three times as much fuel
must be injected immediately after
starting compared with when the en¬
gine is at normal operating tempera¬
ture. In this first part of the warm-up
phase (post-start), there must be an
enrichment dependent on time. This
is the so-called post-start enrichment.
This enrichment has to last about 30 s
and, dependent upon temperature, re¬
sults in between 30% and 60% more
fuel.
When the post-start enrichment has
finished, the engine needs only a slight
mixture enrichment, this being con¬
trolled by the engine temperature. The
diagram (Figure 22) shows a typical
enrichment curve with reference to
time with a starting temperature of
22) Warm-up enrichment curve.
Enrichment factor Fas a function of time:
a) proportion mainly dependent on time,
b) proportion mainly dependent on engine
temperature.
246
22°C. In order to trigger this control
process, the electronic control unit
must receive information on the engine
temperature. This comes from the
temperature sensor.
Engine-temperature sensor
The engine-temperature sensor (Fi¬
gure 23) measures the temperature of
the engine and converts this into an
electrical signal for the ECU.
It is mounted on the engine block on
air-cooled engines. With water-cooled
engines, it projects into the coolant.
The sensor “reports” the particular
engine temperature to the ECU in the
form of a resistance vaiue. The ECU
then adapts the quantity of fuel to be
injected during post-start and during
warm-up. The temperature sensor
consists of an NTC resistor embed¬
ded in a threaded sleeve.
NTC stands for Negative Temperature
Coefficient, the decisive characteristic
of this resistor. When the temperature
increases, the electrical resistance of
the semiconductor resistor decreases.

Part-load adaptation
By far the major part of the time, the
engine will be operating in the part-load
range. The fuel-requirement curve for
this rarrge is programmed in the ECU
and determines the amount of fuel
supplied. The curve is such that the fuel
consumption of the engine is low in the
part-load range.
Acceleration enrichment
During acceleration, the L-Jetronic me¬
ters additional fuel to the engine.
If the throttle is opened abruptly, the
air-fuel mixture is momentarily leaned-
off, and a short period of mixture en¬
richment is needed to ensure good
transitional response.
With this abrupt opening of the throttle
valve, the amount of air which enters
the combustion chamber, plus the
amount of air which is needed to bring
the manifold pressure up to the new
level, flow through the air-flow sensor.
This causes the sensor plate to “over¬
swing” past the wide-open-throttle
point. This “overswing” results in more
fuel being metered to the engine
(acceleration enrichment) and ensures
good acceleration response.
Since this acceleration enrichment is
not adequate during the warm-up
phase, the control unit also evaluates a
signal representing the speed at which
25) Throttle-valve switch. L-Jetronic
1 Full-load contact, 2 Contoured switching
guide, 3 Throttle-valve shaft, 4 Idle contact,
5 Electrical connection.
the sensor flap deflects during this
operating mode.
Full-load enrichment
The engine delivers its maximum
torque at full load, when the air-fuel
mixture must be enriched compared to
that at part-load.
In contrast to part-load where the cali¬
bration is for minimum fuel consump¬
tion and low emissions, at full load it is
necessary to enrich the air-fuel mixture.
This enrichment is programmed in the
electronic control unit, specific to the
particular engine. The information on
the load condition is supplied to the
control unit by the throttle-valve switch.
Throttle-valve switch
The throttle-valve switch (Figure 25)
communicates the “idle” and “full
load” throttle positions to the control
unit.
It is mounted on the throttle body and
actuated by the throttle-valve shaft. A
contoured switching guide closes the
“idle” contact at one end of switch
travel and the “full-load” contact at the
other.
247
L-Jetronic Controlling the idle speed Adaptation to the air temperature
The air-flow sensor contains an adjust¬ The quantity of fuel injected is adapted to
able bypass via which a small quantity the air temperature. The quantity of air
of air can bypass the sensor flap. necessary for combustion depends
The idle-mixture-adjusting screw in the upon the temperature of the air drawn in.
bypass permits a basic setting of the Cold air is denser. This means that with
air-fuel ratio or mixture enrichment by the same throttle-valve position the
varying the bypass cross-section (Fi¬ volumetric efficiency of the cylinders
gure 26). drops as the temperature increases.
In order to achieve smoother running To register this effect, a temperature
even at idle, the idle-speed control sensor is fitted in the intake duct of the
increases the idle speed. This also air-flow sensor. This sensor measures
leads to a more rapid warm-up of the the temperature of the air drawn in and
engine. Depending upon engine temp¬ passes this information on to the con¬
erature, an electrically heated auxiliary- trol unit which then controls the amount
air device in the. form of a bypass of fuel metered to the cylinders accord¬
around the throttle plate allows the ingly.
engine to draw in more air (Figure 26).
This auxiliary air is measured by the air¬
flow sensor, and leads to the L-Jetronic
providing the engine with more fuel.
Precise adaptation is by means of the
electrical heating facility. The engine
temperature then determines how
much auxiliary air is fed in initially
through the bypass, and the electrical
heating is mainly responsible for sub¬
sequently reducing the auxiliary air as a
function of time.

Auxiliary-air device
The auxiliary-air device incorporates a
perforated plate (Figure 27) which is
actuated by the bimetallic strip and
which controls the cross-section of the
bypass passage.
Initially, the bypass cross-section 27) Electrically heated auxiliary-air device.
1 Electrical connection, 2 Electric heating ele¬
opened by the perforated plate is deter¬
ment, 3 Bimetallic strip, 4 Perforated plate.
mined by the engine temperature, so
that during a cold start the bypass
opening is adequate for the auxiliary air
required. The opening closes steadily
along with increasing engine tempera¬
ture until, finally, it is closed completely.
The bimetal strip is electrically heated
and this limits the opening time, starting
from the initial setting which is depen¬
dent upon the engine temperature.
The auxiliary-air device is fitted in the
best possible position on the engine for
it to assume engine temperature. It
does not function when the engine is
248 warm.
Supplementary functions
Lambda closed-loop control
By means of the lambda closed-loop
control, the air-fuel ratio can be main¬
tained precisely at A = 1. In the control
unit, the lambda-sensor signal is com¬
pared with an ideal value (setpoint),
thus controlling a two-position control¬
ler. The intervention in fuel-metering is
accomplished through the opening
time of the fuel-injection valves.
Overrun fuel cutoff
Overrun fuel cutoff is the interruption of
the supply of fuel to the engine in order
to reduce consumption and emissions
during downhill driving and braking. L-Jetronic
When the driver takes his foot off the
accelerator pedal while driving, the
throttle-valve switch signals “throttle-
valve closed” to the ECU and fuel
injection is interrupted. The engine-
speed switching threshold for injection-
pulse cutoff, as well as that for the
resumption of fuel injection, depend
upon engine temperature.
Engine-speed limiting
When the maximum permissible en¬
gine speed is reached, the engine-
speed limiting system suppresses the
injection signals and interrupts the sup¬
ply of fuel to the injection valves.

28) Lambda closed control loop of the L-Jetronic.

The lambda closed control loop is superimposed upon the open-loop air-fuel mixture control. The
injection quantity, as determined by the air-fuel mixture control, is modified by the lambda closed-loop
control in orderto provide optimum combustion. t/Lair-quantity signal, Ux lambda-sensor signal.

249
L-Jetronic 29) Components of the L-Jetronic.
I Air-flow sensor, 2 ECU, 3 Fuel filter, 4 Fuel pump, 5 Fuel pressure regulator, 6 Auxiliary-air device,
7 Thermo-time switch,8 Temperature sensor, 9 Throttle-valve switch, 10 Cold-start valve
II Injection valves.

250
Electric circuitry
The complete circuitry of the L-Jetronic
has been designed so that it can be
connected to the vehicle electrical sys¬
tem at a single point.
At this point, you will find the relay
combination which is controlled by the
ignition and starting switch, and which
switches the vehicle voltage to the
control unit and the other Jetronic com¬
ponents.
The relay combination has two separate
plug connections, one to the vehicle
electrical system and one to the Jet¬
ronic.
Safety circuit
In order to prevent the electric fuel
pump from continuing to supply fuel
following an accident, it is controlled by
means of a safety circuit. When the
engine is running, the air passing
through the air-flow sensor causes a
switch to be operated. This switch
30) Example of a connection diagram.
L-Jetronic with closed-loop controlled output stage. TF Engine-temperature sensor, TZS Thermo¬
time switch, KSV Cold-start valve, EV Injection valve, LMM Air-flow sensor, ZLS Auxiliary-air
device, DKS Throttle-valve switch, EKP Electric fuel pump, RK Relay combination, ZS Ignition coil,
BA Battery, ST Multi-pole connector to the ECU.
ZSKI1 BA+ KI50
controls the relay combination which in L-Jetronic
turn switches the electric fuel pump. If
the engine stops with the ignition still
on, air is no longer drawn in by the
engine and the switch interrupts the
power supply to the fuel pump. During
starting, the relay combination is con¬
trolled accordingly by terminal 50 of the
ignition and starting switch.
Terminal diagram
The example shown here is a typical
terminal diagram for a vehicle with a 4-
cylinder engine. Please note with the
wiring harness that terminal 88z of the
relay combination is connected directly
and without a fuse to the positive pole
(terminal post) of the battery in order to
avoid trouble and voltage drops caused
by contact resistances. Terminals 5, 16
and 17 of the control unit, as well as
terminal 49 of the temperature sensor,
must be connected with separate
cables to a common ground point.
KI15 Kl 30
251
L3-Jetronic
L3-Jetronic
Specific systems for specific markets
have in the meantime been developed
on the basis of the L-Jetronic. These
systems includethe LE-Jetronic without
lambda closed-loop control for Europe
and the LU-Jetronic system with lambda
closed-loop control for countries with
strict exhaust gas emission legislation
(e.g. the USA). The most recent stage of
development is the L3-Jetronic which
differs from its predecessors in respect
of the following details:
- the control unit, which is suitable for
installation intheenginecompartment, is
attached to the air-flow sensor and thus
no longer requires space in the
passenger compartment,
- the combined unit of control unit and
air-flow sensor with internal connections
simplifiesthecableharnessand reduces
installation expense,
- the use of digital techniques permits
new functions with improved adaptation
252
capabilities to be implemented as com¬
pared with the previous analog tech¬
niques used.
The L3-Jetronic system is available both
with and without lambda closed-loop
control. Both versions have what is called
a “limp-home” function which enables
the driver to drive the vehicle to the
nearest workshop if the microcomputer
fails. In addition the input signals are
checked for plausibility, i.e. an implaus¬
ible input signal (e.g. enginetemperature
lower than -40° C) is ignored and a
default value stored in the control unit is
used in its place.
Fuel supply
On this system, the fuel is supplied to the
injection valves in the same way as on the
L-Jetronic system via an electric fuel
pump, fuel filter, fuel rail and pressure
regulator.
Operating-data sensing system
The ignition system supplies the infor¬
mation on engine speed to the control
unit. A temperature sensor in the coolant
circuit measurestheenginetemperature
and converts it to an electrical signal for
the control unit. Thethrottle-valve switch
signals the throttle-valve positions
“idle” and “full load” to the control unit
for controlling the engine in orderto allow
for the different optimization criteria in
the various operating conditions. The
control unit senses the fluctuations in
the electrical vehicle supply and com¬
pensates for the resultant response
delays of the fuel-injection valves by
correcting the duration of injection.
Air-flow sensor
The air-flow sensor of the L3-Jetronic
system measures the amount of air
drawn in by the engine using the same
measuring principle as the air-flow sen¬
sor of the conventional L-Jetronic sys¬
tem. Integrating the control unit with the
air-flow sensor to form a single measur¬
ing and control unit requires a modified
configuration however. The dimensions
of the potentiometer chamber in the air¬
32) Integrating the control unit and air-flow sensor of the L3-Jetronic to form a single
measuring and control unit.
1 Control unit, 2 Air-tlow sensor with potentiometer.
flow sensor and of the control unit have L3-Jetronic
been reduced to such an extent that the
overall height of the entire unit does not
exceed that of the previous air-flow
sensor alone. Other features of the new
air-flow sensor include the reduced
weight due to the aluminum used in place
of the zinc material for the housing, the
extended measuring range and the
improved damping behavior in the event
of abrupt changes in the intake air
quantity. Thus, the L3-Jetronic incor¬
porates clear improvements both in
respect of electronic components and in
respect of mechanical components
whilst requiring less space.
Fuel metering
Fuel is injected onto the intake valves of
the engine by means of solenoid-oper¬
ated injection valves. Onesolenoid valve
is assigned to each cylinder and is
operated once percrankshaft revolution.
In orderto reduce the circuit complexity,
all valves are connected electrically in
parallel. The differential pressure be-
253
L3-Jetronic tween the fuel pressure and intake-
manifold pressure is maintained con¬
stant at 2.5 or3 barsothatthe quantity of
fuel injected depends solely upon the
opening time of the injection valves. For
this purpose, the control unit supplies
control pulses, the duration of which
depends upon the inducted air quantity,
the engine speed and other actuating
variables which are detected by sensors
and processed in the control unit.
Electronic control unit (ECU)
By contrast with the L-Jetronic system,
the digital control unit of this system
adapts the air-fuel ratio by means of a
load/engine-speed map. On the basis of
the input signals from the sensors, the
control unit computes the injection dur¬
ation as a measure of the amount of fuel
to be injected. The microcomputer sys¬
tem of the control unit permits the
required functions to be influenced. The
control unit for attachment to the air-flow
sensor must be very compact and must
have very few plug connections in
addition to being resistant to heat, vibra¬
tion and moisture. These conditions are
met by the use of a special-purpose
hybrid circuit and a small PC board in the
control unit. In addition to accommodat¬
ing the microcomputer, the hybrid circuit
also accommodates 5 other integrated
circuits, 88 film resistors and 23
capacitors. The connectionsfrom the ICs
to the thick-film board comprise thin gold
wires which are a mere 33 thousandths
of a millimeter in thickness.
Adaptation to operating conditions
During certain operating conditions (cold
start, warm-up, acceleration, idle and full
load), thefuel requirementdiffers greatly
from the normal value so that it is
necessary to intervene in mixture forma¬
tion.
Throttle-valve switch
This switch is operated by the throttle-
valve shaft and has a switching contact
for each of the two end positions of the
throttle-valve. When the throttle valve is
254 closed (idle) or fully open (full load), the
33) Air-flow sensor of the L3-Jetronic.
1 Sensor flap, 2 Compensation flap,
3 Damping volume.
switch issues a switching signal to the
control unit.
Auxiliary-air device
A plate which is moved by a bimetallic
spring or expansion element supplies
extra air to the engine during the warm¬
up phase. This results in the higher idle
speed which is required during the
warm-up phase for smooth running of
the engine.
A closed-loop idle-speed control sys¬
tem, intheformofaseparatesystem, can
be used instead of the auxiliary-air
device to control the idle speed.
Engine-temperature sensor
The engine-temperature sensor, a
temperature-dependent resistor, con¬
trols warm-up enrichment. The overrun
fuel cutoff function, and the speed
limiting function at maximum permiss¬
ible engine speed, permit fuel economy
and a reduction in pollutant emission.
Lambda closed-loop control
In the control unit, the signal from the
lambda sensor is compared with an ideal
value (setpoint), thus controlling a two-
position controller. Dependent upon the
result of the comparison, either an
excessively lean air-fuel mixture is en¬
riched or an excessively rich mixture is
leaned. Fuel metering is influenced via
the opening time of the injection valves.
LH-Jetronic
The LH-Jetronic is closely related to
the L-Jetronic. The difference lies in
the hot-wire air-mass meter which
measures the air mass inducted by
the engine. The result of measure¬
ment is thus independent of the air
density which is itself dependent
upon temperature and pressure.
Fuel supply
The fuel is supplied to the injection
valves in the same way as on the L-
Jetronic system via an electric fuel
pump, fuel filter, fuel rail and pressure
regulator.
Operating-data sensing system
The information on engine speed is
supplied to the control unit by the
ignition system. A temperature sensor
in the coolant circuit measures the
engine temperature and converts it to
an electronic signal for the control unit.
34) Schematic diagram of an LH-Jetronic system.
1 Fuel tank, 2 Electric fuel pump, 3 Fuel filter, 4 ECU, 5 Injection valve, 6 Fuel rail, 7 Pressure regulator,
8 Intake manifold, 9 Throttle-valve switch, 10 Flot-wire air-mass meter, 11 Lambda sensor,
12 Engine-temperature sensor, 13 Ignition distributor, 14 Rotary idle actuator, 15 Battery,
16 Ignition and starting switch.
The throttle-valve switch signals the
throttle-valve positions “idle” and “full
LH-Jetronic
load” to the control unit for engine
control in order to allow for the different
optimization criteria in the various
operating conditions. The control unit
detects the fluctuations in the vehicle
electrical supply and compensates for
the resultant response delays of the
injection valves by correcting the dur¬
ation of injection.
Hot-wire air-mass meter
The intake air stream is routed past a
heated wire (hot wire). This wire is part
of an electrical bridge circuit; the cur¬
rent flowing through it keeps it at a
temperature which is always above the
intake-air temperature by a constant
amount. The required heating current is
a measure of the air mass inducted by
the engine. It is converted to a voltage
signal which is processed by the con¬
trol unit as the main input variable in
addition to the engine speed. A temp¬
erature sensor incorporated in the hot-
255
LH-Jetronic wire air-mass meter ensures that the
output signal is not dependent upon the
intake-air temperature. The air-fuel ratio
during idle can be adjusted with a
potentiometer. Since soiling of the hot¬
wire surface may change the output
signal, the hot-wire is heated up briefly
each time the engine is switched off
and thus any dirt and impurities are
burnt off.
The hot-wire air-mass meter has no
moving parts and causes only a negli¬
gible flow resistance in the intake duct.
Fuel metering
Fuel is injected by means of solenoid-
operated injection valves onto the in¬
take valves of the engine. A solenoid
valve is assigned to each cylinder and
is operated once per crankshaft revolu¬
tion. In order to reduce the circuit
complexity, all valves are connected
electrically in parallel. The differential
pressure between the fuel pressure
35) Hot-wire air-mass meter. The 70 pm thin platinum wire is suspended inside the measuring venturi.
256
and intake-manifold pressure is main¬
tained constant at 2.5 or 3 bar so that
the quantity of fuel injected depends
solely upon the opening time of the
injection valves. For this purpose, the
control unit supplies control pulses, the
duration of which are dependent upon
the inducted air quantity, the engine
speed and other actuating variables
which are detected by sensors and
processed in the control unit.
Electronic control unit (ECU)
By comparison with the L-Jetronic sys¬
tem, the digital control unit of this
system adapts the air-fuel ratio by
means of a load/engine-speed map.
On the basis of the input signals from
the sensors, the control unit computes
the injection duration as a measure of
the quantity of fuel to be injected. The
microcomputer system of the control
unit permits the required functions to
be influenced.
Adaptation to operating conditions
During certain operating conditions
(cold start, warm-up, acceleration, idle
and full load), the fuel requirement
differs greatly from the normal value,
thus necessitating an intervention in
mixture formation.
Throttle-valve switch
This switch has a switching contact for
each of the two end positions of the
throttle valve. It issues a switching
signal to the control unit when the
throttle valve is closed (idle) or fully
open (full load).
Rotary idle actuator
The idle speed can be reduced and
stabilized with the idle-speed control
function. For this purpose, the rotary
idle actuator opens a bypass line to the
throttle valve and supplies the engine
with more or less air. Since the hot¬
wire air-mass meter senses the extra
air, the injected fuel quantity also
changes as required.
Engine-temperature sensor LH-Jetronic
The engine-temperature sensor, a
temperature-dependent resistor, con¬
trols warm-up enrichment.
Supplementary functions
The overrun fuel cutoff function, and
the speed limiting function at maximum
permissible engine speed, permit fuel
economy and a reduction in pollutant
emission.
Lambda closed-loop control
The lambda sensor supplies a signal
which represents the instantaneous
mixture composition. In the control unit,
the signal of the lambda sensor is
compared with an ideal value (setpoint),
thus controlling a two-position control¬
ler. Dependent upon the result of com¬
parison, either an excessively lean air-
fuel mixture is enriched or an exces¬
sively rich mixture is leaned. Fuel me¬
tering is influenced via the opening time
of the injection valves.

36) Bridge circuit of the hot-wire air-mass

meter.
/?H Hotwire
Rk Temperature-compensation sensor
/q, R2 High-impedance resistors
R3 Measuring resistor
UM Signal voltage for the air-flow rate
/(_i Heating current
m Incoming air mass per unit time
tL Air temperature

Th
<> ^-

:r } Ai fc

u
Jri «
— K>
l
Amplifier
--0

]r3 ,Um

’-0
257
 Mono-
Jetronic
Mono-Jetronic
The Mono-Jetronic is an electroni¬
cally controlled gasoline-injection
system. In contrast to the Motronic
and the K- and L-Jetronic systems,
which inject through a separate
injector for each cylinder, with this
system the fuel is injected intermit¬
tently through a single solenoid-
operated injector situated at a cen¬
tral point above the throttle valve.
Fuel is distributed to the individual
cylinders through the intake man¬
ifold in the same manner als with
carburetor engines.
Fuel supply
The fuel is drawn from the tank by the
fuel-supply pump and delivered, via a
fuel filter, at a pressure of 1 bar to the
central injection unit which comprises
throttle-valve housing and hydraulic
section. The fuel-supply pump is a
centrifugal pump and is usually of the in¬
258
tank type.. The hydraulic section con¬
tains the solenoid-operated injector and
the primary-pressure regulator which
maintains the differential pressure at the
injector metering point constant inde¬
pendent of the injected fuel quantity.
Central injection unit
The heart of the central injection unit is
the high-speed solenoid-operated in¬
jector which generates a cone-shaped
spray pattern by metering the fuel
through six radially arranged slanted
metering bores. The injected fuel is
atomized by a combination of swirl and
rebound action instead of by the pintle
nozzle incorporated in conventional in¬
jectors. The jet of fuel is shaped so that
it is injected directly from the metering
bores into the sickle-shaped gap be¬
tween housing and throttle-valve. The
resulting extremely fine fuel atomiz¬
ation ensures that the air-fuel-mixture
distribution always remains efficient,
even in the critical full-load range. The
injector is triggered in time with the
ignition pulses. In order to prevent the
formation of vapor locks, fuel passes
through the injector body permanently.
Acquisition of operating data
A variety of different sensors register all
the important operating variables of the
engine and transmit a corresponding
electrical signal to the ECU.
Engine-speed signal
The engine-speed signal comes from
the ignition system.
Throttle-valve potentiometer
The accelerator pedal opens the throttle
valve and in doing so defines the
operating point of the engine as
selected by the driver. The required
amount of air at a given operating point
is determined from the throttle-valve
position as registered by the throttle-
valve potentiometer, and from the
relevant engine speed.
It is important that the operating modes
“Idle” and “Full load” are registered for
2) Central injection unit.
1 Pressure regulator, 2 Air-temperature sensor, 3 Solenoid-operated injector, 4 Throttle-valve
housing, 5 Throttle valve.
the full-load enrichment and for the Mono-
overrun fuel cutoff facilities in order to Jetronic
comply with the differing optimization
criteria in these modes. The throttle-
valve potentiometer evaluates the par¬
ticular throttle-valve position so that fuel
metering is always appropriate to the
changes in engine speed and engine
load.
Engine-temperature sensor
The engine temperature has consider¬
able influence upon fuel consumption.
A temperature sensor located in the
coolant circuit measures the engine
temperature and provides the ECU with
an appropriate signal.
Air-temperature sensor
The density of the intake air depends
upon its temperature. In order to com¬
pensate for this influence, a tempera¬
ture sensor is installed in the intake
passage of the central injection unit and
reports the intake-air temperature to
the ECU.
259
 Mono- Battery voltage
Jetronic The pickup and release times of the
solenoid-operated injectors depend
upon the battery voltage. In order to
compensate for the injector pickup de¬
lay resulting from fluctuations in the
electrical system voltage, the ECU
changes the duration of injection.
Fuel metering
In order to ensure that the air-fuel
mixture formation is homogenous and
that mixture distribution is uniform to all
cylinders, the injector is situated in the
intake-air stream directly above the
throttle .valve. The ECU triggers the
injection pulses in time with the ignition
pulses.
Electronic control unit (ECU)
The ECU uses digital techniques and
processes the input signals from the
sensors. From these signals it cal¬
culates the duration of injection as a
measure for the quantity of fuel to be
injected. The ECU contains a micro¬
computer, a data memory, a pro¬
gram memory and an A/D converter.
3) Solenoid-operated injector.
1 Electrical connection, 2 Winding, 3 Valve ball,
4 Slanted bores, 5 Fuel inlet and outlet.
r engine additional fuel must be injected.
Err ' \
260
Taking the throttle-valve angle and the
engine-speed signal, the ECU calcu¬
lates the basic injection duration. For
this, a map is stored which contains 15
throttle-valve-angle data points and 15
engine-speed data points. These 225
data points contain the appropriate du¬
ration of injection, as specified during
trials and application work, to obtain
Lambda = 1.0. This 15x15 basic maB
has superimposed upon it an adap¬
tation map with 8x8 data points. When
a given deviation from the basic map is
exceeded, an adaptation algorithmus
which is based upon the evaluation of
the Lambda-sensor signal, writes
correction values into the 8x8 map.
This compensates for the individual
tolerances and drifts in values of the
engine and the fuel-injection assem¬
blies which occur as a function of time.
The basic injection duration is specified
for the warm engine with the vehicle
stationary, and depending upon the
operating conditions it is corrected
accordingly.
Adaptation of
the operating conditions
Cold-start enrichment
When starting cold, the leaning-off of
the mixture due to the wetting of the
cold intake-manifold walls is excessive.
Therefore, to facilitate starting the cold
This is done by extending the duration
of injection.
Post-start enrichment
and warm-up enrichment
In order to ensure that the engine runs
smoothly following a start at low tem¬
peratures, the mixture must be en¬
riched with additional fuel. The warm¬
up enrichment function is designed so
that engine run-up is optimum for all
temperatures while keeping the extra
fuel to a minimum.
Idle speed control
By applying idle-speed control, the idle
speed can be reduced and stabilized
and the idle-speed curve can be
adapted precisely to the engine tem¬
perature. For this, a servomotor opens
the throttle valve and in doing so
allocates more or less air to the engine
depending upon the deviation of the
actual idle speed from the set idle
speed.
Depending upon the engine speed and
temperature, the ECU provides the
servomotor with an actuating signal to
move the throttle plate. This control
system is maintenance-free because
neither the engine speed nor the mix¬
ture need to be adjusted at idle and the
adaptive ECU functions provide for drift
compensation during the service life of
the engine.
Part-load adaptation
In the part-load range, the Mono-
Jetronic adapts the air-fuel mixture
for minimum exhaust emissions in the
vicinity of Lambda = 1.0.
Full-load enrichment
At full-load, the engine delivers its
maximum power. For this, the air-fuel
4) Functional schematic of the Mono-
Jetronic with Lambda closed-loop control.
1 Central injection unit
2 Injector
3 Motor
4 Lambda sensor
5 Catalytic converter
6 ECU with controller
U\ Sensor voltage
Uy Valve-control voltage
Fuel
mixture must be enriched compared to Mono-
the part-load adaptation. The degree of Jetronic
fuel enrichment required at full-load is
programmed in the ECU in the form of
changes in the duration of injection for
the specific engine. The ECU receives
the information on throttle-valve pos¬
ition from the throttle-valve potentio¬
meter.
Acceleration enrichment
For good transition response, enrich¬
ment must take place during acceler¬
ation. The ECU recognizes when accel¬
eration is taking place from the throttle-
valve potentiometer signal. The degree
of enrichment depends upon the en¬
gine temperature and the rate of
throttle-valve movement.
Supplementary functions
Overrun fuel cutoff
By switching off the supply of fuel to the
engine during downhill driving, a
marked reduction in exhaust emissions
and fuel consumption is achieved.
Engine speed limiting
The supply of fuel can be switched off
in order to limit the maximum permiss¬
ible engine speed.
Lambda closed-loop control
If the current air-fuel mixture deviates
from the ideal, the lambda sensor in the
exhaust-gas stream sends a signal to
the ECU. The closed control loop mod¬
ifies the duration of injection or the
injected fuel quantity as already calcu¬
lated by the engine. Using this method,
it is possible under all operating con¬
ditions to meter the fuel so precisely
that the air-fuel ratio only deviates very
slightly from the ideal Lambda = 1
value.
By means of self-adaptation circuitry, a
high system accuracy is guaranteed for
the system throughout its complete
service life to compensate for engine
changes in major assemblies and in the
engine.
261
Motromc
Motronic
Outline of system
The Motronic system combines
both ignition system and fuel-injec¬
tion system and controls both elec¬
tronically. This permits ignition con¬
trol and fuel metering to be op¬
timized jointly in order to achieve
greater flexibility and more func¬
tions than with the corresponding
individual systems.
However, if required, this engine man¬
agement system can also incorporate
other subsystems for improved engine
control. One characteristic feature is
the large number of 3-dimensional ig¬
nition maps, which can be pro¬
grammed as required, for many sub¬
functions. The heart of Motronic is its
electronic control unit with digital
microcomputer.
The microcomputers available today
(description as from Page 298) allow
the control of fuel injection and ignition
together. Only one microcomputer, one
voltage supply and one housing are
necessary for the control unit. In addi¬
tion, the same sensors can be used for
fuel injection and for ignition. More is
thus achieved at lower cost.
This basic advantage is behind Bosch’s
development of the Motronic system,
which gives spark-ignition engines
greater efficiency, lower emissions and
improved running refinement.
Ignition subsystem
Instead of mechanically operated cen¬
trifugal and vacuum advance mechan¬
isms in the distributor, Motronic has a
spark-advance characteristic map
stored in its control unit. In addition, the
ignition angle can be modified accord¬
ing to engine coolant and intake-air
temperature as well as throttle position.
Fuel-injection subsystem
The electronically controlled intermit¬
262 tent fuel-injection system described
here is based on the proven L-Jetronic
gasoline-injection system.
An important difference between this
system and the basic version of the
L-Jetronic is found in the signal pro¬
cessing which is digital on the Motronic
system.
Advantages of Motronic
Greater fuel economy
The Motronic system permits fuel
savings, especially in comparison with
carburetors and coil ignition but even
compared with engines with gasoline
injection and conventional transis¬
torized ignition:
Fuel savings because of precisely
metered mixture enrichment during
warm-up and appropriate adjustment of
ignition timing.
Fuel savings by way of precisely
metered, rpm-dependent mixture en¬
richment for full-load operation.
Overrun fuel cutoff further reduces fuel
consumption.
Reduction of fuel consumption while
meeting emission regulations, by tailor¬
ing ignition advance to all operating
conditions.
Adaptation to operating conditions
Optimum ignition advance and precise
fuel metering during starting gives de¬
pendable starting and cold-starting be¬
havior.
Stable idling.
Good torque characteristics at low en¬
gine speeds enhance engine flexibility,
which, in turn, allows fuel-saving oper¬
ation in higher gears at low engine
speed.
Full-load ignition advance set for max¬
imum torque, except where the knock
limit must be considered; and set for
minimum fuel consumption while meet¬
ing emission limits in the part-load
range.
Optimization of non-stationary pro¬
cesses without dispensing with the ad¬
vantages of stationary adaptation.
Low exhaust emissions
Low exhaust emissions thanks to favor¬
able matching of fuel quantity and ig¬
nition point, dependent upon load con¬
ditions.
Further improvements in emissions
with lambda closed-loop control and
catalytic exhaust-gas aftertreatment.
Freedom from maintenance
No change in ignition characteristics
throughout the life of the engine.
of sensors and interface circuits in Motronic
addition to edited information (software).
High flexibility of the microcomputer
concepts.
Digital system with ignition maps and
long-time constancy.
Simple application thanks to clarity,
reproducibility and documentation.
Simple engine optimization via com¬
puter-controlled engine dynamometer.

Control System
The components of the control system
require very little space in the vehicle.
The Motronic permits multiple utilization

1) Schematic diagram of a typical Motronic system.

1 Fuel tank, 2 Electric fuel pump, 3 Fuel filter, 4 Pressure regulator, 5 Control unit, 6 Ignition coil,
7 High-tension distributor, 8 Spark plug, 9 Fuel-injection valves, 10 Throttle valve, 11 Throttle-valve
switch, 12 Air-flow sensor, 13 Potentiometer and air-temperature sensor, 14 Lambda sensor,
15 Engine temperature sensor, 16 Rotary idle actuator, 17 Engine-speed and reference-mark sensor,
18 Batten/, 19 Ignition and starting switch, 20 Air-conditioning switch.

263
Motronic Ignition subsystem
Electronic ignition control
Ignition-timing control
the microcomputer computes the ig¬
nition angle between consecutive spark
pulses from the information it receives
about engine load and speed, tempera¬
ture and throttle position. Thus, it is able
to adjust quickly to every operating
condition and give optimum perform¬
ance, fuel consumption and emissions.
The ignition map of the Motronic is
determined by tests on the engine
dynamometer and then optimized for
fuel consumption, emissions and
driveability in the vehicle itself (example
Figure 2).
The map is then stored electronically,
so that the timing characteristics remain
completely unchanged for the life of the
engine.
In the Motronic system, the microcom¬
puter, on the basis of the ignition map
which has been stored in it, determines
(between one spark pulse and the next)
the next ignition angle from the infor¬
mation it receives concerning engine
load and speed. It also corrects the
map value on the basis of further in¬
coming variables, such as engine-cool-
ant and intake-air temperature and
throttle position, thus arriving at the
2) Complex Motronic ignition-advance map (left) by comparison with the ignition-advance
map of a mechanical spark-advance system (right).
264
optimum ignition timing. This electronic
ignition control has two advantages that
are particularly important for fuel con¬
sumption:
- An inductive engine-speed sensor
takes its information directly from the
crankshaft, which results in far greater
precision than is the case with an
inductive pickup or Hall trigger in the
ignition distributor. This means that the
margin of safety to the knock limit can
be reduced and the ignition point set
closer to the curve for maximum
torque. The result is better fuel utiliza¬
tion and higher torque.
- With the digitally stored map, the
ignition angle for each operating con¬
dition can be set without affecting the
ignition angle which applies for other
operating conditions. This raises the
engine’s efficiency and reduces the
fuel consumption.
The adjustment to various operating
conditions is weighted to varying de¬
grees according to the following
criteria: fuel consumption, torque, ex¬
haust emissions, knocking tendency
and driveability.
As an example, for idling the timing can
be set for low emissions, smoothness
and fuel economy, whereas, for part¬
load operation, the emphasis is on
driveability and economy. For full load,
maximum torque without knocking is
the goal.
Ignition angle
For all operating conditions as well as
starting, corrections are superimposed
on the map values. A switch in the
electronic control unit provides a
correction in the high-load range for
various qualities of fuel; that is, if fuel
with an octane rating lower than normal
must be used, the system adjusts the
ignition timing to it.
The ability to adjust the ignition timing
on the basis of logical interaction
among various signals permits it to be
adjusted individually to every engine
operating condition. This means that
considerable attention can be devoted
to the engine’s specific requirements
for particular conditions like starting,
idling, deceleration and wide-open
throttle. For instance, the ignition timing
during starting can be made dependent
upon the cranking speed, which im¬
proves starting ability.
On the basis of various switch signals,
the ignition angle can also be shifted by
any desired amount.
Dwell-anqle control
At constant dwell angle, the energy
stored in the ignition coil’s magnetic
field decreases with increasing spark
frequency, thus resulting in a falloff of
the high tension available for ignition.
To attain the required ignition-system
power with minimum losses in coil and
output transistor, the primary current
must reach a certain value at the igni¬ Motronic
tion point. Some form of dwell-angle
control, depending upon engine speed
and battery voltage, is necessary; it
is obtained from a dwell-angle map
(Figure 3).
The current-flow time in the coil is
controlled with respect to the engine
speed and the battery voltage so that
the stable primary current at the end of
the flow time just reaches the desired
value (Figure 4). An acceleration
correction is applied at low engine
speed, so that during acceleration the
necessary value is attained despite the
shorter dwell time. The output stage
limits current so that when the current
reaches its final value before the igni¬
tion point, it is held constant until igni¬
tion takes place.
Engine speed detection
An inductive rotational-speed sensor
detects the engine speed from the
flywheel teeth or the teeth of a special
toothed wheel. The sensor delivers one
output pulse per tooth. The magnitude
and shape of this sensor output signal
depend on engine speed, air gap be¬
tween sensor and teeth, tooth form and
sensor position (axial or radial to the
crankshaft) as well as the sensor mount¬
ing’s material. This signal is processed in
the ECU in ordertogenerate information
which is acceptable to the computer.
4) Primary current at various battery
voltages.
265
Motronic Measuring the crankshaft angle
A reference-mark sensor is necessary
to define the crankshaft position. Simi¬
lar to the engine-speed sensor, this is
an inductive sensor and sends an out¬
put signal to the control unit when it
is passed by a reference mark (pin,
bore or recess). It therefore generates
one output pulse per crankshaft revolu¬
tion.
Engine-speed and
reference-mark sensor.
The engine speed and the crankshaft
position are measured at the flywheel
ring gear on a separate toothed wheel
or using a reference mark. Either a
combination rod-type sensor (engine
speed and reference mark sensor, Fig.
5) is used, or two separate inductive
rod-type sensors. The different possi¬
bilities are made necessary by the
mechanical conditions prevailing at the
engine and the reguired dynamic be¬
havior of the ignition point.
Mode of operation:
A soft iron core bundles part of the
permanent magnet’s field, which is
then released into space to be closed
again through air or by magnetically
conductive engine parts, such as the
sensor mountings for instance. When
the flywheel ring gear, separate toothed
steel wheel, or reference mark (such as
266
a steel pin or recess) move past the
end face of the sensor, they influence
the magnetic field with respect to mag¬
nitude and direction; this change in the
magnetic field induces an electrical
voltage in the coil winding of the sen¬
sor, which is sent to the electronic
control unit.
High-tension circuit
Compared with a transistorized ignition
system with distributor, Motronic has
a much simplified high-tension dis¬
tributor, driven directly by the cam¬
shaft.
The high-tension circuit (Figure 6) con¬
sists of:
ignition coil (2),
high-tension distributor (3),
spark plugs (6),
plug connectors with interference sup¬
pressors (5) and
Fl.T. ignition cables (4).
The ignition-coil (2) primary side is
connected with the positive battery ter¬
minal (8) through the ignition switch (1).
During the primary current-flow time,
the coil is connected to ground through
the output transistor in the electronic
control unit (7).
Ignition-timing variations according to
engine speed and load, as well as
control of the dwell angle, are per¬
formed by the electronic control unit.
Vacuum unit, centrifugal advance and 7) High-tension distributor. Motronic
trigger sensor are therefore eliminated; 1 Insulating cap
the high-voltage distributor (Figure 7), 2 Distributor rotor
3 Terminal tower
has the single function of distributing
4 Distributor cap
the high voltage to the spark plugs. 5 Two-piece protective cover
made of conductive and
Ignition coil non-conductive plastic
Along with the spark duration, the mag¬
nitude of the spark current and the
secondary voltage rise time, the
secondary available voltage generated
by the ignition system is particularly
significant for the efficiency of the sys¬
tem. The secondary available voltage
comes principally from the energy
stored in the ignition coil. This coil
consists of two copper windings wound
one over another around an iron core.
The windings are isolated from each
other appropriate to their potential
difference. After the energy-storing
step, the primary current circuit in the
coil is interrupted at the ignition point.
At the same instant, the magnetic field
collapses and induces the required ig¬
nition voltage in the secondary winding.

High-voltage distributor
The high-voltage distributor has the
sole task of distributing the high voltage
from the ignition coil to the individual
spark plugs. It no longer incorporates a
control function (as does the ignition
distributor) and is, therefore, very flat in 4 5
shape.
Great precision is not necessary for its
operation. Normally, the high-voltage 4-cylinder engines and, to a limited
distributor is mounted on the cylinder degree, some symmetrical 6-cylinder
head with its rotor directly on the end of engines have a so-called compact
the camshaft. high-voltage distributor. The limitation
applying to certain 6-cylinder engines
The high-voltage distributor (Figure 7) can be due to the integration of a
consists of: centrifugal mechanism for distributor-
insulating cap (1), rotor control.
rotor with suppressor (2),
distributor cap (4) with terminal towers
(3) and
protective cover (5).
The protective cover, made of graphite-
impregnated, electrically conductive
plastic, contributes to interference sup¬
pression. In the tower area, however, it
is not conductive. 267
Motronic Injection subsystem
Fuel supply
The fuel supply system consists of:
- electric fuel pump,
- fine filter,
- fuel rail,
- pressure regulator,
- vibration damper
(not always fitted) and
- fuel-injection valves.
The fuel system components differ little
from those used in the L-Jetronic sys¬
tem.
An electric roller-cell pump feeds fuel
from the fuel tank through a filter into a
fuel rail at a pressure of approximately
2.5 bar. The lines to the individual fuel-
injection valves branch off from the fuel
rail. At the fuel rail’s downstream end,
there is a pressure regulator that main¬
tains the injection pressure constant
(Figures 8 and 9). More fuel is always
pumped around the fuel system than
the engine consumes even under ex¬
treme conditions. The excess fuel is
directed unpressurized by the pressure
regulator (on many systems via a
vibration damper) back to the fuel tank.
Because of the flow of fuel which is
continually pumped through the fuel-
supply system, cool fuel is always avail¬
able. This prevents the formation of
vapor bubbles and ensures good hot
starting.
Electric fuel pump
The electric fuel pump is a roller-cell
pump driven by a permanent-magnet
electric motor. The rotor disk which is
eccentrically mounted in the pump
housing is fitted with metal rollers in
notches around its circumference.
When the rotor disk turns, these rollers
are pressed against the roller race plate
in the pump housing by centrifugal
force and act as rotating seals. The fuel
is carried around in the cavities which
form between the rollers. The pumping
action takes place when the rollers,
after having closed the inlet bore, force
the trapped fuel around in front of them

8) Example of a Motronic fuel supply system.

1 Fuel tank
2 Electric
fuel pump
3 Fuel filter
4 Fuel rail
5 Pressure
regulator
6 Vibration damper
(not always fitted)
7 Return line
8 Fuel-injection
valve
9 Cold-start
valve

268
9) Components of the fuel supply system. Motronic
1 Electric fuel pump, 2 Fuel filter, 3 Fuel rail, 4 Fuel-injection valve, 5 Cold-start valve, 6 Pressure
regulator.
—» Direction of flow.

until it can escape from the pump 10) Fuel filter.

through the outlet bore (Figure 12). 1 Paper element
The fuel flows around the electric 2 Fluff strainer
3 Support plate
motor. There is no risk of explosion
since, in the process, there is never an
ignitable mixture in the motor pump
housing.
The electric fuel pump always delivers
more fuel than the engine needs. This
means that there is always sufficient
pressure in the fuel system under all
conditions. A non-return valve in the
pump decouples the fuel system from 11) Electric fuel pump.
the fuel tank by preventing reverse flow 1 Suction side, 2 Pressure limiter, 3 Roller-cell
of fuel to the fuel tank. pump, 4 Motor armature, 5 Check valve,
6 Pressure side.
The electric fuel pump starts to operate
as soon as the ignition and starting 2 3 4 5
switch is turned and remains continu¬
ously switched on after the engine has
started. However, with the ignition
switched on and the engine stopped,
for instance in the case of an accident,
a safety circuit switches off the fuel-
supply pump and thus prevents con¬
tinued delivery of fuel. 12) Operation of roller-cell pump.
The electric fuel pump is located in the 1 Suction side, 2 Rotor disk, 3 Roller, 4 Roller
direct vicinity of the fuel tank and re¬ race plate, 5 Pressure side.

quires no maintenance.
2 3 4
Fuel filter
The fuel filter retains contamination and
dirt which may be in the fuel and which
could impair the function of the injection
system. The filter contains a paper
element with an average pore width of 269
Motronic 10 jum and a downstream fluff strainer
(Figure 10). This combination ensures
a high degree of filtration is achieved. A
support plate secures the filter in its
metal housing. Filter life is dependent
upon the degree of contamination in
the fuel.
The filter is installed in the fuel line
downstream of the fuel accumulator.
When the filter is changed, it is impera¬
tive that the throughflow direction as
indicated by the arrow on the housing is
observed.
Fuel rail
The fuel rail supplies all injection valves
with an equal fuel quantity and ensures
the same fuel pressure at all injection
valves.
The fuel rail also serves as a fuel
accumulator. Compared with the
amount of fuel injected per working
cycle of the engine, the fuel-rail volume
is large enough to suppress pressure
fluctuations. This means that the same
fuel pressure is applied at all fuel-
injection valves. In addition, the fuel rail
allows simple installation and removal
of the injection valves.
Pressure regulator
The pressure regulator maintains the
pressure differential between the fuel
pressure and the manifold pressure at a
constant level. Thus the fuel delivered
13) Pressure regulator.
1 Fuel entry, 2 Return-line connection, 3 Valve,
4 Valve holder, 5 Diaphragm, 6 Compression
spring, 7 Intake-manifold connection.
270
by the solenoid injection valves is de¬
termined solely by the valve opening
time.
The pressure regulator is of the dia¬
phragm-controlled overflow type, which
depending upon the installation con¬
trols pressure at 2.5 to 3 bar. It is
located at the end of the fuel rail and
consists of a metal housing, which is
divided into two chambers by a flanged
diaphragm:
A spring chamber for accomodating the
helical spring that preloads the dia¬
phragm, and chamber for the fuel. (Fig¬
ure 13).
When the preset pressure is exceeded,
a valve which is operated by the dia¬
phragm opens the return line for the
excess fuel to flow back to the fuel tank.
Return fuel is pressureless.
The spring chamber is connected by a
tube with the intake manifold down¬
stream of the throttle valve. This has the
effect that the pressure in the fuel
system (as controlled by the pressure
regulator) is dependent upon absolute
manifold pressure. This means, there¬
fore, that the pressure drop across the
injection valves is the same for any
throttle position.
Pulsation damper
A pulsation damper can be mounted in
the fuel-return line between the
pressure regulator and the fuel tank. It
14) Vibration damper.
1 Fuel connection, 2 Fastening threads,
3 Diaphragm, 4 Compression spring,
5 Flousing, 6 Adjusting screw.
is similar to the pressure regulator but
with no connection to the intake man¬
ifold (Figure 14). The pulsation damper
reduces the pressure fluctuations in the
fuel-return line, and in this manner
suppresses noise emanating from the
normal pressure variation caused by
the fuel-injection valves’ opening and
closing or the pressure regulator’s
operation.
Fuel-injection valves
The electronically controlled fuel-injec¬
tion valves spray precisely metered fuel
into the cylinder intake ports and onto
the intake valves.
There is a fuel-injection valve allocated
to each cylinder. The valves are
opened and closed electromagnetically
with electrical pulses from the control
unit; they are connected in parallel and
thus deliver fuel simultaneously once
per crankshaft revolution or twice per
working cycle. The control unit’s mi¬
crocomputer calculates the injection
time according to engine operating
conditions.
The fuel-injection valve consists of a
body and a needle with an attached
solenoid armature; the body holds the
solenoid winding and needle guide. If
there is no current in the solenoid
winding, the needle is forced against its
seat at the valve outlet side by a helical
spring. When current flows the sole¬
15) Electromagnetic
fuel-injection valve. a b
a) Cross-section
b) Plug connector
to the fuel rail
1 Strainer
2 Electrical connection
3 Solenoid winding
4 Solenoid armature
5 Needle valve
6 Pintle
7 Fuel rail
8 Locking clip
9 Upper O-ring
10 Lower O-ring
noid winding is excited and the needle Motronic
is raised approximately 0.1 mm from its
seat, allowing fuel to pass through the
precision ring opening. The needle’s
forward end has a polished pintle that
efficiently atomizes the fuel (Figure 15).
Pickup and release times for the fuel-
injection valves are in the order of
1 ... 1.5 ms.
To achieve good fuel distribution while
at the same time ensuring low conden¬
sation losses, wetting of the intake
manifold walls must be avoided. A
particular spray angle in conjunction
with a particular distance of the fuel-
injection valve from the intake valve
must therefore be maintained specific
to the engine concerned.
The fuel-injection valves are fitted with
the help of special holders in rubber
moldings. The resulting insulation from
the heat of the engine prevents the
formation of fuel-vapor bubbles and
guarantees that the engine has good
hot-starting characteristics. The rubber
moldings used also ensure that the
fuel-injection valves are not subjected
to excessive vibration.
Fuel lines or plug connectors with lock¬
ing clips (Figure 15, right) provide the
connection between the fuel-injection
valves and the fuel rail.
8
10 10
27/
Motronic Air-flow measurement
The air quantity inducted by the engine
is an exact measurement of its oper¬
ating load.
The sensor flap in the air-flow sensor
measures the entire air quantity in¬
ducted by the engine, thereby serving
as the main control quantity for deter¬
mining the load signal and basic injec¬
tion quantity. On the basis of the mea¬
sured air quantity and the engine-
speed input, the microcomputer cal¬
culates the optimum ignition angle and
corresponding injection time. Like the
ignition angle, injection time is adjusted
to specific operating conditions.
Air-flow measurement takes into
account a variety of changes that
could occur in an engine during its
service life, such as wear, combus¬
tion-chamber deposits and changes in
valve clearances. Because the in¬
ducted air first has to pass through
the air-flow sensor before reaching
the engine, the resulting signal from
the air-flow sensor can be taken into
account before the cylinder is actually
filled; this makes for optimum mix¬
tures at all operating points during
load changes (Figure 16).
Air-flow sensor
The air-flow sensor works on the flap
principle, measuring air throughput
very precisely and delivering the signal
272
for air quantity per unit of time to the
control unit.
The principle used here in the air-flow
sensor is the measurement of force
exerted on the sensor flap by the
inducted air passing through it. A helical
spring exerts counterforce on the flap.
For a certain flow value, the flap
assumes a certain deflection angle;
along with an increase in this angle, the
effective cross-sectional flow area also
increases. To minimize the influence
on the flap of fluctuations in the intake
system caused by the individual cylin¬
der intake strokes, a compensation flap
is connected rigidly with the actual
sensor measuring flap. The result is
that these fluctuations affect the com¬
pensation flap equally but in the oppo¬
site direction, so that they cancel out
and have no effect on the air-flow
measurements (Figure 18).
When deflected by the inducted air, the
air-flow sensor flap moves the slider of
a potentimeter, which translates the flap
angle a into a corresponding voltage
signal Us and transmits it to the elec¬
tronic control unit. The potentiometer’s
wiper track is composed of eight high-
resistance segments, for each of which
there is a parallel-connected low-re¬
sistance resistor; wiper track and resis¬
tors are calibrated so that the voltage
Us increases with increasing flap
angle.
 17) Air-flow sensor (electrical connection side). Motronic
1 Wiper track, 2 Wiper, 3 Ring gear for spring preload, 4 Return spring, 5 Resistor.

The potentiometer of the air-flow sen¬ ments, the control unit evaluates only
sor is of the thick-film type, with a resistance ratios.
ceramic plate base. Its high-resistance An adjustable bypass diverts a small
wiper track as well as the two contact quantity of air past the air-flow sensor
rivets on the wiper itself are of an flap. Variations in this bypass-air quan¬
extremely wear-resistant material. The tity, which is independent of the sen¬
resistances are connected to the wiper sor-flap position, are applied as the
track by very narrow conducting seg¬
ments, the so-called data points. These
data points terminate under the wiper
track and thus define the specified
voltage steps (Figure 17).
In the Motronic, the wiper-type poten¬
tiometer is constructed so as to ensure
that there is a linear relationship be¬
tween inducted air quantity and slider
output voltage.
The high temperatures and abrupt
temperature changes that always pre¬
vail in the vehicle engine compartment
have no negative effects on the be¬
havior of the thick-film resistors. In
addition, in order that potentiometer
aging and temperature fluctuations do
not affect the accuracy of the measure¬ 273
Motronic basis for correction of the air-fuel mix¬
ture for idle adjustment.
In the Motronic system, the control unit
switches on the fuel pump by way of an
external pump relay; for reasons of
safety, no fuel is pumped if the ignition
is on and the engine stationary.
Engine-speed sensing
Because fuel is metered on a per-cycle
basis, engine speed must be measured
in addition to the air-flow measurement.
This means that the microcomputer
calculates and evaluates the air quantity
19) Air-flow sensor in engine compartment.
Intake manifold at top, air filter at right.
20) Determination of correction factors.
Injection duration
274
per piston stroke, not per time unit. The
necessary engine-speed sensor re¬
quired for this process has already
been described in connection with the
ignition control.
Signal processing
The control unit’s microcomputer cal¬
culates the fuel-injection duration on
the basis of the air-flow and engine-
speed signals and various correction
factors, and controls the injection out¬
put stage with this calculated signal
(Figure 21).
Calculating the injection duration
The computer calculates the duration of
fuel injection from the air-quantity and
engine-speed signals and various
correction factors. The air-quantity and
engine-speed signals give a measure
for the engine load (air quantity per
cycle), from which the basic injection
duration is calculated; according to the
particular operating conditions, correc¬
tion factors (Figure 20) influence the
duration. In addition, a voltage correc¬
tion is provided that compensates for
the effects of varying battery voltage.on
the fuel-injection valves’ pickup and
release times.
Because a constant differential be¬
tween fuel pressure and manifold
pressure is maintained at the fuel-
injection valves, the so-called “effec¬
tive” injection duration, this multiplied
by the valve constant is a measure of
the fuel quantity per piston stroke. The
valve constant is a value that takes into
account hydrodynamic effects on the
fuel in the fuel-injection valve.
The load signal “air quantity per stroke”
is calculated in the electronic control
unit from the air-quantity and engine-
speed input signals. This air-quantity
signal, though, is not in every case
proportional to the actual air quantity at
a given moment; deviations result from
system variations, such as pulsating air
quantity and differing air density.
21) Schematic of fuel metering.
Intake-air quantity per unit of time and engine speed are the basic measured variables to which
corrections are applied.
The influence of pulsation (Figure 22) Motronic
arises from the induction pumping fre¬
quency of the individual pistons and is
to some extent compensated for by
adjustment of the lambda characteristic
map. A correction factor dependent
upon intake air temperature (and if
necessary, upon a correction factor
related to absolute pressure) compen¬
sates in the computer for air density.
The calculation process for injection
duration allows for appropriate special
functions for various operating points.
Independently of the actual calculated
injection-duration values, injection du¬
ration has both lower and upper limits:
275
Motronic With less than the minimum injection
duration, a combustible mixture cannot
be achieved. The lower limit thus
serves to avoid the formation of un¬
burned hydrocarbons in the exhaust
from the very beginning.
Values above the maximum injection-
duration limit result from the air-flow
sensor overshooting, such as occurs
when the accelerator is suddenly de¬
pressed, for instance upon “kick-
down”, and could result in over-enrich¬
ment of the mixture. The upper limit is
therefore set to an appropriate value
which is dependent upon the engine
temperature.
22) Manifold-pressure fluctuation in a
4-cylinder engine.
revolution
23) Lambda map.
276
Lambda map
The optimum adjustment of the air-fuel
ratio to the operating conditions is stored
in the digital circuit section of the elec¬
tronic control unit. Such a map is first
determined by engine-dynamometer
tests, then optimized for fuel economy,
exhaust emissions and driveability in the
vehicle itself (Figure 23).
With a lambda map, it is possible to
adjust the air-fuel ratio for every oper¬
ating condition according to the follow¬
ing demands:
- minimum fuel consumption
- good driveability
- low exhaust emissions and
- power.
It should be noted that determining a
particular operating point has no influ¬
ence on determining the remaining
points.
At wide-open throttle (WOT), Motronic
controls the air-fuel ratio over the entire
engine-speed range to the value for
maximum torque, that is A ~ 0.85 ...
0.95, taking the avoidance of knocking
as a criterion. The throttle valve switch
determines the WOT or full-load
operating condition.
In part-load operation, Motronic adjusts
the air-fuel ratio to provide low fuel
consumption coupled with low exhaust
emissions.
At idle, smooth running is the prime
consideration in the case of a vehicle
engine.
In addition, with the help of a lambda
map, system deviations in the air-flow
sensor can be compensated for pre¬
cisely at the points in the map where
they actually occur, without influencing
other operating points.
Mixture formation
The air-fuel mixture is formed in the
intake ports and in the cylinders of the
vehicle engine.
The fuel-injection valve sprays a jet of
fuel in the exact quantity calculated by
the microcomputer in the electronic
24) The electronically controlled fuel-injection valve sprays fuel into the Intake port and onto the
cylinder’s intake valve.
control unit into the intake port and onto Motronic
the intake valve (Figure 24). When an
intake valve opens, the fuel is entrained
with the intake air and drawn into the
cylinder. The turbulence which takes
place during the intake and compres¬
sion strokes helps to atomize the fuel
and form an homogeneous air-fuel mix¬
ture with favorable ignition characteris¬
tics.
277
Motronic Adaptation to
operating conditions
In addition to the basic functions as
described up to now, specific operating
conditions necessitate adaptation. On
the one hand, Motronic corrects mix¬
ture formation and, on the other hand,
adapts the ignition angle in order to
optimize the power delivered, to im¬
prove the exhaust-gas composition and
to improve the starting behavior and
driveability.
Cold starting
During starting, an additional fuel quan¬
tity, dependent on engine temperature,
is injected for a limited period of time,
and ignition timing is adjusted accord¬
ingly.
Injection quantity
During a cold start, the air-fuel mixture
becomes lean. To compensate for this
phenomenon and thus facilitate starting
a cold engine, an additional quantity of
fuel must be injected and the ignition
timing adjusted during the engine¬
25) Cold-start valve operated.
1 Electrical connection, 2 Fuel inlet withfilter
strainer, 3 Valve (solenoid armature), 4 Solenoid
winding, 5 Swirl nozzle, 6 Valve seat.
278
cranking process. Because of sharp
variations in the rotational speed during
cranking which result in an inaccurate
air-flow signal from the air-flow sensor,
the control unit outputs a fixed load
signal instead, which is then weighted
with an engine-temperature-related
factor. There are two methods of inject¬
ing the extra fuel:
- cold-start enrichment by means of
the cold-start valve and the thermo¬
time switch or
- cold-starting control by means of the
control unit (ECU) and the fuel-injection
valves.
Cold-start enrichment via cold-start
valve and thermo-time switch
In addition to the increase in injected
fuel quantity for the individual cylinders
resulting from the fuel-injection valves
remaining open longer, extra fuel for all
cylinders is sprayed into the intake
manifold at a central point. A thermo¬
time switch limits the opening time of
the cold-start valve.The result is that a
“richer” air-fuel mixture is provided for
26) Thermo-time switch.
1 Electrical connection, 2 Housing, 3 Bimetal,
4 Heating coils, 5 Electrical contact.

27) Cold-start valve in intake manifold.
improved combustion conditions in the
cylinders.
Cold-start valve:
The cold-start valve (Figure 25) is a
solenoid-operated valve. The solenoid
winding is located inside the valve. In
its non-energized position, a spring
presses the movable solenoid armature
against a seal, thus holding the valve
closed. When current flows and the
solenoid is energized, the armature lifts
off its seat and allows fuel to flow. This
fuel now moves tangentially into a noz¬
zle where it is caused to swirl. This swirl
nozzle atomizes the fuel particularly
finely and in doing so enriches the air in
the intake manifold downstream of the
throttle valve. The cold-start valve is
installed in the intake manifold in a
position which ensures efficient dis¬
tribution of the air-fuel mixture to all
cylinders (Figure 27).
Thermo-time switch:
The thermo-time switch limits the dura¬
tion of cold-start valve operation
according to both engine temperature
Motronic
28) Thermo-time switch (1) and engine-tempera¬
ture sensor (2) in the thermostat housing.
and time. It consists of an electrically
heated bimetal strip that opens or
closes a contact in response to tem¬
perature changes (Figure 26). It is
switched on through the ignition and
starting switch. The thermo-time switch
is mounted at a spot which is represen¬
tative of the engine temperature (Figure
28). During cold starting, it restricts the
time during which the cold-start valve
remains in operation. Should it take a
long time to start the engine, or if
repeated attempts are necessary, the
valve delivers no more fuel. Valve
opening duration depends on both the
engine temperature and on the thermo¬
time switch’s internal electric heating.
This internal electric heating system is
required in order to limit the valve’s
maximum on-time and thus avoid over¬
enrichment and engine “flooding”.
During a cold start, the electric heating
is chiefly responsible for determining
the on-time; (switch-off occurs after
about 7.5 seconds at -20°C, for in¬
stance, Figure 29). With the engine at
operating temperature, the switch itself
is warm enough to remain open perma- 279
Motronic nently and prevent operation of the
cold-start valve.
Start control by control unit
and fuel-injection valves
On most engines, the electronic control
unit meters the additional fuel by
means of the fuel-injection valves in
such a way that there is no need for the
cold-start valve and the thermo-time
switch. This solution is achieved, how¬
ever, only with complex control of the
injection duration:
In order to obtain a more homogeneous
air-fuel mixture and to avoid depositing
fuel on the spark plugs, the fuel-injec¬
tion valves inject several times per
crankshaft revolution. Additionally, Mo¬
tronic controls the injection duration
and, therefore, fuel quantity, on the
basis of the number of revolutions
since starting began, cranking speed
and engine temperature. Reduction of
the large initial fuel quantity comes after
either a temperature-related engine-
speed threshold has been reached (for
example, 200-300 rpm) or a preset
number of revolutions. At first, the
valves inject only the quantity of fuel
necessary for coating the walls. Further
action is based on the fact that the
necessary quantity steadily decreases.
Cranking-speed dependence is
29) On-time of the cold-start valve as a
function of the coolant temperature.
CD
>
CO
>
2
w
I
o
o gine can be improved by injecting addi¬
CD
O
CD
E
c Post-start enrichment
o
-30 0 30 60 °C
Coolant temperature
280
superimposed on this function, be¬
cause the air inducted per stroke is
constant and independent of speed at
very low rotational speed. Only at
higher cranking speed does throttling
occur. Here, the intake air quantity per
stroke decreases with increasing en¬
gine speed, so the quantity of fuel per
stroke must be reduced. The micro¬
computer simultaneously adjusts the
ignition point to improve starting and
throttle response even further.
Ignition control during a cold start
"Motronic controls the ignition timing on
the basis of cranking speed and initial
temperature. Starting behavior is better
if the ignition timing is adjusted simul¬
taneously with the fuel quantity. The
optimum ignition point depends on the
cranking speed and temperature; with a
cold engine and low cranking speed,
ideal timing is near TDC. If the ignition
point is too far advanced > 10° BTDC),
starter-damaging reverse torques can
occur at low cranking speeds; starting
is more difficult, at worst impossible.
At high cranking speeds, advanced
timing is necessary for a good start and
throttle response. But with a hot en¬
gine, reverse torques occur at less
spark advance than during a cold start.
For this reason, the higher the temper¬
ature upon starting, the more the
microcomputer reduces the timing ad¬
vance. In addition, to avoid knocking
during starting (which occurs in many
high-compression engines), a retarda¬
tion of spark is called for at high intake-
air temperatures.
Post-start adaptation
Following a start at low temperatures,
the running characteristics of the en¬
tional fuel and by adjusting the ignition
point.
After having started the engine at low
temperatures, it is necessary to enrich
the air-fuel mixture for a short time in
order to compensate for the poor mix-
ture formation and for fuel deposits
which take place on the cylinder walls.
The richer mixture also results in a
higher torque and therefore improved
run-up from idle (improved throttle re¬
sponse). This function is adapted such
that throttle response is optimum at all
temperatures, while at the same time
the fuel consumption is kept to a
minimum.
The post-start enrichment depends
upon temperature and time. An initial
value depending upon temperature is
reduced to zero practically linearly as
a function of time. Fall-off time is
likewise a function of the initial tem¬
perature.
Ignition control in the case of post-start
Similar to the post-start enrichment of
the mixture following a start, advancing
the ignition timing for a short period
also improves engine running. In turn,
this ignition advance also means that
the post-start enrichment is reduced
with an accompanying improvement in
fuel economy. The advance of the
ignition angle is temperature-depend¬
ent, and is returned to normal after a
given period.
Warm-up adaptation
The engine warm-up phase follows the
cold-start and post-start phases. During
the warm-up phase, precisely the
correct amount of fuel is metered to the
engine depending upon temperature,
load and engine speed, and the ignition
is set exactly appropriate to this operat¬
ing mode. During this period, the en¬
gine also requires extra fuel enrichment
to compensate for the fuel that has
condensed on the still-cold cylinder
walls. Apart from this, if warm-up en¬
richment were not provided, a consid¬
erable drop in engine speed would
make itself felt as soon as the extra fuel
injected by the cold-start valve is cut
off.
During warm-up, the adaptation of fuel
injection and ignition must be coordi¬
nated. Various interdependencies apply
in the process, such as additional spark
advance at part load which is needed to Motronic
improve the driveability during the
warm-up phase.
Warm-up enrichment
At low temperatures, the mixture for¬
mation is inadequate. This is due, for
instance, to the poor mixing of the air
and the fuel, as well as to the larger fuel
droplets which form in the engine in¬
take ports. In addition, the lower the
temperature, the more fuel is deposited
on the intake valves and on the walls of
the intake ports, and this fuel does not
evaporate until higher engine tem¬
peratures have been reached. These
influences necessitate extra fuel en¬
richment which is reduced along with
rising temperature. With Motronic, this
adaptation is carried out so that satis¬
factory combustion takes place at all
temperatures with as little enrichment
as possible.
The characteristic curve of the warm-up
enrichment factor shows the depend¬
ence upon the engine temperature
(Figure 30).
Warm-up map
Instead of the customary purely tem¬
perature-dependent mixture enrich¬
ment, Motronic controls enrichment
according to engine speed and load as
30) Warm-up enrichment factor as a func¬
tion of engine temperature.
Engine temperature
281
Motronic
well by way of a further characteristic
map (Figure 31).
Thus, it is possible to provide some¬
what greater enrichment in the ranges
which are critical for both throttle re¬
sponse and driveability, whereas in the
speed/load ranges which are less criti¬
cal the air-fuel mixture is leaner during
warm-up. This is particularly important
for lean-burn engine concepts and re¬
duces fuel consumption, especially in
short-distance driving which is charac¬
terized by its high proportion of warm¬
up operation.
Ignition control during warm-up
Motronic also alters the ignition angle
on the basis of the engine temperature.
This influence is independently pro¬
grammed in the electronic control unit
for starting, idling, deceleration, part¬
load and full-load operation (WOT).
Engine temperature sensor:
The engine temperature sensor (Figure
282 32) measures the engine temperature
and issues an electrical signal to the
control unit. On air-cooled engines, it is
screwed into the engine block. On
water-cooled engines, it projects into
the coolant.
The sensor “reports” a resistance
value corresponding to engine temper¬
ature to the control unit which adjusts
the guantity of fuel to be injected during
post-start and when the engine is
warming up. The temperature sensor is
an NTC resistor embedded in a
threaded sleeve.
NTC denotes negative temperature
coefficient and thus the basic charac¬
teristic of this type of resistor: with
increasing temperature, the resistance
of the device, made of semiconductor
material, decreases.
Acceleration adaptation
During acceleration, Motronic meters
additional fuel to the engine and en¬
sures optimum ignition timing.
Acceleration enrichment
Acceleration enrichment not only de¬
pends upon the acceleration time but
also upon the engine temperature (Fig¬
ure 33). If, at constant engine speed,
the throttle valve is suddenly opened,
the air-fuel mixture is leaned-off briefly.
In order to obtain good transitional
response, it is necessary here to pro¬
vide extra mixture enrichment. The
ECU recognizes that acceleration is
taking place from the difference in the
load signal, and in such cases triggers
the acceleration enrichment. It then
controls the mixture towards A = 0.9 for
maximum torque which avoids an
acceleration flat-spot. During the en¬
gine warm-up phase, though, this basic
acceleration enrichment is not suffi¬
cient.
With the engine cold, increased enrich¬
ment is required due to poor air-fuel
mixing and possibly due to the fuel
condensation in the intake ports. The
temperature-dependent acceleration
enrichment factor is decreased practi¬
cally linearly as a function of time. The
slope of its curve is independent of
temperature.
32) Engine-temperature sensor.
1 Electrical connection, 2 Housing,
3 NTC resistor.
1 2 3
Ignition control during acceleration Motronic
A limitation on ignition-point change
ensures smooth transitions upon load
changes.
As in other operational modes, during
acceleration the microcomputer adjusts
ignition timing optimally between one
firing and the next, according to ap¬
propriate correction factors and its in¬
formation on load and engine speed. If
a certain magnitude of load change is
exceeded, Motronic applies an addi¬
tional timing change, which is then
eliminated over a period of time. With
this function, Motronic hinders the brief
acceleration knocking that occurs in
some engines with normal ignition ad¬
vance for a few cycles as sharp accel¬
eration begins. Additionally, the high
NOx emissions normally occurring dur¬
ing acceleration are reduced.
In the cases where an abrupt change in
the ignition angle impairs engine re¬
sponse, this change is accomplished
gradually to reduce jerk to a minimum.
In those instances where a fast change
is absolutely necessary to avoid knock¬
ing, such as in a transition from part to
full load, the control unit permits this.
33) Acceleration enrichment as a function
of duration of acceleration and engine
temperature tfM.
Time from beginning of acceleration
283
Motronic Full-load adaptation
An engine delivers its maximum power
at full load, when the air-fuel mixture is
richer than at part load and ignition
timing is set for maximum torque.
Full-load enrichment
The extent of enrichment is program¬
med for each specific engine in the
control unit by way of ignition duration.
The control unit receives the full-load
(WOT) signal from the throttle-valve
switch. In contrast to part load, where
the calibration is for minimum fuel con¬
sumption and low emissions, at full load
Motronic enriches the mixture. This
enrichment is programmed to be en¬
gine-speed dependent. On the one
hand, this compensates for any pulsa¬
tion inaccuracies in the air-flow sensor;
on the other hand, it provides for max¬
imum possible torque over the entire
engine-speed range while avoiding
knocking. Apart from this, the fuel con¬
sumption at full load should not be
increased more than is necessary
either. An engine’s maximum torque is
achieved with mixtures in the range
A = 0.9 ... 0.95.
Throttle-valve switch:
The throttle-valve switch com¬
municates “idle” and “full-load” throt-
34) Throttle-valve switch on the throttle-valve
assembly upstream of the Intake manifold.
284
tie positions to the control unit. The
throttle-valve switch is attached to the
throttle-valve assembly; the throttle
shaft, on which the throttle plate sits,
actuates the switch. Attached to the
shaft is a switching guide that en¬
gages the contacts of the throttle-
valve switch (Figure 34 and 35). It
closes a contact at the end position
for idle and another at the end posi¬
tion for full-load.
Recognition of these two operating
modes is essential to the engine-man¬
agement system in order to allow for
various optimization criteria in the vari¬
ous operating conditions.
Ignition control at full load
At full load, the ignition point is set for
maximum torque without knocking.
With a high-compression engine set for
relatively lean running, due to the
danger of knocking it is normally im¬
possible to follow the optimum torque
curve over the entire rpm range. The
limited curve form of a mechani¬
cal advance mechanism therefore
necessitates a curve that, in maintain¬
ing a margin of safety from the knock¬
ing limit, is too far from the limit and
thus results in power loss as well as
excessive fuel consumption in certain
ranges. Motronic, however, allows free
choice of the timing curve. Its narrow
tolerances and freedom from wear
35) Throttle-valve switch.
1 Full-load contact, 2 Contoured switching
guide, 3 Throttle shaft, 4 Idle contact,
5 Electrical connection.
allow operation closer to the knocking
limit.
Motronic’s control unit takes into
account the dependence of the knock¬
ing limit on intake-air and engine tem¬
perature. It does this by way of approp¬
riate temperature functions that correct
the ignition point according to the tem¬
perature in those engine-load ranges
where the knocking tendency is great¬
est. Thus, the safety margin from the
knocking limit is determined only by the
engine, its operating environment, its
wear and variations in fuel quality - not
by the system itself.
Idle adaptation
Fuel consumption during idling is de¬
termined principally by the engine’s
thermal efficiency and by its idle
speed. If the air-fuel mixture is too
lean, missing (and thus rough run¬
ning) occurs. If it is too rich, fuel
consumption is excessive.
Up to 30% of a motor vehicle’s fuel
consumption in heavy traffic occurs
during idling; for this reason, the idle
speed should be as low as possible.
But idle speed must, under all condi¬
tions be adjusted so that even when the
engine is cold, it is also sufficient to
sustain heavy electrical loads, an air-
conditioning compressor, the load of an
engaged automatic transmission and
power steering cranked full over with¬
36) Characteristic curve of the auxiliary-air
device.
0_i_i_i_i-i-
-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
Engine temperature
out rough running or, in extreme cases, Motronic
dying.
Controlling the idle speed by the auxili¬
ary-air device
In order to achieve smooth idling even
with the engine cold, Motronic in¬
creases the idle speed, which also
serves to speed up warm-up. An auxili¬
ary air device in the form of a bypass
around the throttle controls auxiliary air
to the engine on the basis of engine
temperature (Figure 36).
Motronic takes this auxiliary air into
account and meters an appropriate ex¬
tra fuel quantity to the engine through
the fuel-injection valves. Precise
accommodation is provided by an elec¬
trically heated auxiliary air device: en¬
gine temperature determines the initial
amount of auxiliary air, the electric
heating determines its time-dependent
cutoff.
Auxiliary-air device:
The cross sectional area of the bypass
around the throttle valve is controlled
by the perforated plate in the auxiliary-
air device (Figure 37, 39). This plate is
moved by an electrically heated bimetal
strip, and depending upon the com¬
bined effect on the bimetal strip of
engine temperature and electrical heat¬
ing, the perforated plate either closes
off the bypass, or opens it to a greater
37) Electrically heated auxiliary-air device.
1 Electrical connection, 2 Electric heating,
3 Bimetal strip, 4 Perforated plate.
°C
285
Motronic or lesser degree by means of the
opening in the plate. This means that
for a cold start, the bypass is opened
wide and with increasing temperature
closes steadily until it is shut com¬
pletely.
Positioning of the auxiliary-air device is
such that it responds well to engine
heat (Figure 38). With a warm engine, it
is out of operation.
Idle speed controlled by
rotary idle actuator
The air quantity or air charge represents
the best correcting variable for control¬
ling the idle-speed. Idle-speed control
as a function of the cylinder charge (this
38) Auxiliary-air device on the engine.
39) Auxiliary-air device (cross-section).
1 Plate opening, 2 Air passage, 3 Perforated
plate, 4 Pivot, 5 Electric heating.
1 2 3 4 5
286
is also termed idle-mixture control) per¬
mits a stable, low and, thus, economical
idle speed which does not change
throughout the service life of the vehi¬
cle.
Excessive idle speed increases the fuel
consumption at idle and, as a result, the
overall fuel consumption of the vehicle.
This problem is best solved by the idle-
speed control which always provides
exactly the right amount of mixture in
order to maintain the idle speed, no
matter what the engine load (e.g. cold
engine with increased frictional resist¬
ance). Furthermore, the exhaust-emis¬
sion figures remain constant in the long
term without having to adjust the idle
speed.
To a certain extent, idle-speed control
also compensates for changes in the
engine which are attributable to aging.
It also stabilizes the idle speed
throughout the entire service life of
the engine.
Depending on the signal applied to it,
the rotary idle actuator opens or closes
the bypass passage around the throttle
valve (Figure 40). Since the air-flow
sensor detects this additional air, the
injected fuel quantity changes accord¬
ingly. In contrast to other idle-speed
controls on the market, this idle-speed
control controls the idle speed effec¬
tively due to it actually carrying out a
comparison between desired and ac-
tual values and, in case of deviation, tuator’s two windings which, as a result, Motronic
correcting the injected fuel quantity generate opposing forces at the rotat¬
accordingly. ing armature. By virtue of the ar¬
mature’s inertia, the rotary slide
Rotary idle actuator: assumes an angle corresponding to the
The rotary idle actuator (Figure 41) voltage ratio.
supersedes the auxiliary-air device The range of this ratio over which the
(open-loop idle-speed control) and is bypass cross-sectional area can be
responsible for closed-loop idle-speed varied, lies between about 18 percent
control. Depending upon the deviation (rotary slide closed) and about 82 per¬
of the idle speed from the set value at a cent (rotary slide opened fully). Without
given instant in time, the rotary idle applying additional loading to the en¬
actuator supplies the engine with more gine, the programmed set idle speed is
or less intake air through a bypass reached with a voltage ratio of about 25
around the throttle valve. The actuator percent, that is, with a small bypass
receives its control signal from the opening.
ECU. This control signal depends upon
engine speed and engine temperature,
and causes the rotary slide in the idle
actuator to change the cross section of
the bypass opening.
The rotary idle actuator has two wind¬
ings and its rotational range is limited to
90 degrees. The rotary slide is attached
to the armature shaft and opens the
bypass passage far enough for the
specified idle speed to be maintained
regardless of engine loading. The
closed-loop control circuit in the ECU,
which is provided by the engine-speed
sensor with the necessary information
concerning engine speed, compares
this with the programmed, specified
idle speed and adjusts the air through-
flow accordingly by means of the idle
actuator until the actual idle speed
coincides with the set idle speed. When
the engine is warm and unloaded, the
bypass opening is very near to its lower
limit.
Further input signals to the ECU, such
as temperature and throttle-valve posi¬
tion, ensure that errors do not occur at
low temperatures or due to accelerator-
pedal movements. The ECU transforms
the engine-speed signal into a voltage
signal which it compares with a voltage
corresponding to the set value. The
ECU generates a control signal from
the difference voltage, and inputs this
to the rotary idle actuator.
During a given period, voltage is ap¬
plied alternately to each of the ac¬ 287
Motronic With high additional loading, and for
increased idle speed during warm-up,
the control range reaches a figure of 82
percent.
Idle injection quantity
In general, for smooth idling and good
off-idle engine response, an idle mix¬
ture setting somewhat on the rich side
is necessary. With appropriate ignition
control, however, Motronic achieves
these goals without it being necessary
to enrich the mixture at idle. On the
other hand, during deceleration - if no
overrun fuel cutoff is used - a certain
enrichment action controlled by an
rpm-related injection characteristic
curve can improve combustion and,
thus, driveability and exhaust emis¬
sions.
Ignition control during idling
The ignition angle during idling can be
advanced considerably further with
Motronic than is the case with mechani¬
cal distributors because the starting and
idling angles in the Motronic are com-
peletely independent of each other and
therefore the ignition angle for idling
can be optimized for efficiency and
exhaust emissions.
Timing is advanced with falling idle
speed, so the idle tends to be stabilized
by the resulting increase in torgue. In
turn, this gain in torgue tends, indi¬
288
rectly, to decrease fuel consumption,
because idle speed does not have to
be set so high, as would otherwise be
the case, in order to deal with the
various loads (automatic transmission,
air-conditioning etc.). This applies
egually to engines with idle-speed con¬
trol which is supported to a consider¬
able degree by the ignition control.
Overrun
During overrun, by cutting off the fuel
supply, fuel consumption can be re¬
duced not only when driving downhill
and when braking, but also during town
driving.
Overrun fuel cutoff
Overrun fuel cutoff is the complete
cutoff of fuel supply to the engine
during deceleration. It results in im¬
proved fuel economy even in city traffic.
Because no fuel is burned, there are no
emissions. The cutoff goes into action
with a certain lag when the ignition is
retarded from its normal value over a
few cycles, the result being a smooth
transition to engine braking. Once en¬
gine speed falls below a specified cut-
in speed again, which is only slightly
above the idle speed, within a few
cycles fuel flow returns to normal again
according to a time function.
Ignition control during overrun
When fuel flow resumes after decelera¬
tion, in order to achieve a smooth
transition when the engine cuts-in
again, the control unit gradually advan¬
ces the ignition timing from its relatively
retarded setting.
Air-temperature adaptation
Air density changes with temperature,
which is measured by an NTC tempera¬
ture sensor.
Injection guantity
The density of intake air is dependent
upon its temperature.
Cold air is denser than warm air. This
means that, for a given deflection of the
air-flow sensor plate, the guantity of air
 43) Intake-air temperature sensor.
1 Electrical connection, 2 Insulation tube, 3 Connector, 4 NTC
resistor, 5 Housing, 6 Rivet pin for mounting, 7 Mounting flange.
The arrow denotes the direction of intake air.
drawn in by the engine decreases
along with increases in air temperature.
To compensate for this error, a sensor
is built into the air-flow-sensor’s intake
tract to measure the temperature of the
air currently being drawn in by the
engine and to “report” this to the
control unit (Figure 43).
In calculating injection duration and,
therefore, injection quantity, the control
unit includes this measurement to¬
gether with an enrichment factor
(Figure 42).
Ignition control
Along with the intake-air temperature,
many other parameters of the combus¬
tion process change.
The control unit adjusts ignition timing
to achieve optimum combustion. This
influence is of particular importance in
the upper load range, because, gener¬
ally with increasing intake-air tempera¬
ture, the knocking limit calls for a reduc¬
tion in ignition advance. For tur¬
bocharged engines, this relationship is
particularly strict, since there is no
partial compensation for the higher
temperature by means of reduced
charge density.
Motronic
Intake-air temperature sensor:
The temperature sensor projects into
the air-flow sensor intake tract and
detects the current intake-air tempera¬
ture (Figure 43).
In particular cases, for example tur¬
bocharged engines, a separate temper¬
ature sensor is installed in the intake
manifold.
A semiconductor resistor with negative
temperature coefficient (NTC) serves
as the measuring element. Operation of
such resistors is described in the sec¬
tion on engine temperature measure¬
ment. The NTC resistor communicates
the changes in temperature of the in¬
take air to the control unit in the form of
resistance changes. So that air-temper¬
ature alterations can be registered
quickly, the NTC resistor is covered
with only a thin plastic coating, which
serves as heat insulation at the flow¬
meter housing and as seal to prevent
the intake of unmeasured air that could
otherwise lead to incorrect air-fuel mix¬
ture ratios.
289
Motronic Mixture adaptation at high altitudes
The low density at high altitudes
necessitates a leaner air-fuel mixture.
At high altitudes, the volumetric flow
measured by the air-flow sensor
corresponds only to a smaller air-mass
flow because of the lower air density.
Depending upon the facilities provided
by the particular model of Motronic, this
error can be compensated for by
correcting the injection duration. In ad¬
dition, power loss at high altitudes can
be partly compensated for and over¬
enrichment, with its attendant increase
in fuel consumption, is avoided.
A sensor that measures air pressure
provides the altitude correction. At cer¬
tain air-pressure limits, the sensor
transmits a signal to the control unit,
which modifies injection duration
accordingly. Depending upon the
facilities provided by the Motronic ver¬
sion concerned, continuous shifting of
injection time according to air pressure
is possible.
Battery-voltage fluctuations
The injection valves’ pickup and re¬
lease times depend on battery voltage.
In order to compensate for the valves’
pickup delay, the control unit increases
injection duration along with falling volt¬
age supply.
The more current a battery has to
deliver, the lower its temperature and
44) Extension of injection duration as a
function of battery voltage.
290
the poorer its condition, the faster will its
terminal voltage fall. This is particularly
significant when starting a cold engine.
Because of self-induction, the sol¬
enoid-operated injection valves have a
pickup delay at the beginning of a
current pulse and a closing lag at the
end. Their pickup and release times are
in the order of a millisecond. Pickup
time depends strongly on battery volt¬
age, release time on the other hand
very little. Without electronic voltage
correction, the resulting pickup delay
would thus give too short an injection
duration and therefore insufficient fuel
quantity. In other words, the lower the
battery voltage the less fuel would be
metered to the engine.
For this reason, any falloff in battery
voltage must be compensated for by a
voltage-dependent extension of the in¬
jection duration. This is called voltage
compensation and is illustrated in Fig¬
ure 44. The control unit reads the actual
voltage and extends the injection-valve
control pulses by the pickup delay
which would otherwise be caused by
the voltage drop. In addition, an exten¬
sion of the dwell period along with
falling battery voltage is necessary (Fig¬
ure 45).
Fuel-quality variations
Fuel quality varies from country to
country. Particularly for export vehi-
45) Control of dwell time with varying
battery voltage.
cles or for those that cross national for this purpose, the Motronic is prog¬ Motronic
borders, correction measures are cal¬ rammed to retard the ignition timing in
led for. the upper part-load range and in the
To avoid knocking when running on full-load range.
low-octane fuels, certain versions of
the Motronic are provided with a special
switch with which the appropriate maps
for premium and regular-grade fuels
can be selected (Figure 46). Usually,

46) Ignition maps for operation with premium fuel (top) and regular fuel (bottom).
The ignition map for premium fuel gives virtually identical advance to that for regular fuel in the low-
load range. At higher loads, however, the premium-fuel map gives greater ignition advance because
of the reduced knocking tendency.

291
Motronic Additional functions 47) Limiting the maximum speed nQ
by suppressing the injection pulses.

Engine-speed limiting
When a preset maximum engine
speed is reached, the control unit
suppresses the fuel-injection pulses.
This protects the engine against over¬
speeding and, at the same time, re¬
duces fuel consumption and exhaust-
gas emissions.
Conventional engine-speed limiters
have a distributor rotor, with engine-
speed limiter and flyweight, arranged
to short-circuit the ignition when the
maximum allowable engine speed is
reached. For reasons of exhaust
emissions and fuel economy, this
method is no longer entirely satisfac¬ Control of the fuel pump
tory. The electric fuel pump delivers fuel only
One modern alternative is to interrupt during the starting process and when
the fuel injection electronically. In the the engine is running, but not if the
control unit, actual engine speed is engine is stopped.
compared with a programmed max¬ For reasons of safety, with the ignition
imum speed n0 and, when the former switched on and the engine stopped no
reaches the latter, the fuel-injection fuel may be delivered by the fuel pump.
pulses are suppressed. The function For this reason, the control unit incor¬
operates within a range of ± 80 min-1 porates a power transistor which con¬
above and below the maximum speed trols an external pump relay (Figure
(Figure 47). The driver notices the 48). As a result, the fuel pump only
speed limitation, but it has no negative operates when either terminal 50 of the
effects on ride quality such as is the starting relay is connected to battery
case when at maximum engine speed positive or the engine speed is above
the ignition is interrupted or the timing the minimum. See also “Safety Circuit”
sharply retarded. on page 303.

48) Block diagram of the voltage supply.

292
Peak-coil-current cutoff
The control unit’s microcomputer turns
off the ignition whenever the engine
speed drops to below a preset value.
Motronic
49) “Listening posts” of knock sensors.
The knock sensor sits between the second and
third cylinders0. If two sensors are used, they
are placed between two cylinder groups O.

With the ignition on and the engine

stationary, both the ignition output
stage and the ignition coil could over¬
heat. Therefore, the microcomputer
turns off the ignition output stage
whenever the engine speed drops to
below its allowable minimum, for in¬
stance 30 min-1.
O <8> O A
Possibilities for expansion
In order to include further control and ]
regulation functions, it is possible to
expand the Motronic beyond the con¬
trol of fuel injection and ignition as
_: a_/
described above. A recognition circuit recognizes those
vibrations which are important for knock
Knock control detection. The knock sensor then con¬
Knock control is an independent sys¬ verts these vibrations to electrical sig¬
tem that can be combined with Mo¬ nals (Figures 49 to 51). By applying
tronic (description of knock control as appropriate logic, the control unit de¬
from Page 132). rives a “knock yes/no” signal from
these signals. Then, when knock does
The use of a knock sensor allows occur, the control unit immediately re¬
calibration of the ignition timing for tards the ignition timing of the Motronic
normal operating conditions, and the by a certain amount, and then slowly
danger of knock can be eliminated advances it until either the initial point is
separately by means of the closed-loop reached or the knock sensors register
knock control. As a consequence, the knock again.
compression ratio can be increased,
resulting in significantly improved ther¬
mal efficiency.

50) Knock-sensor signals.

The sensor generates a signal (c) that represents the pressure (a) in the cylinder. The filtered
pressure signal is shown as (b).

No knock

293
Motronic Boost-pressure control for
turbo charged engines
Knock in turbocharged engines can be
hindered by reducing the boost
pressure.
In turbocharged engines, simple retar¬
dation of the ignition is often inadvis¬
able because it would further increase
the already high temperatures at the
exhaust-driven turbine. On the other
hand, merely reducing the tur¬
bocharger boost pressure results in
unsatisfactory engine operation. To¬
gether, however, these two measures
can be effective. Control is such that as
soon as knock is detected ignition is
retarded simultaneously with a reduc¬
tion of boost pressure. The ignition
retard is effected immediately, but the
51) Knock sensor: a wide-band acceleration
sensor with a natural frequency of more than
25 kHz.
The active element Is of piezo-ceramic material.
For thermal decoupling, the sensor is coated with
plastic. Permissible operating temperature:
130°C.
294
boost reduction takes longer. As the
latter takes effect, the control unit
moves ignition timing back towards its
optimum value.
Transmission-shift control
Transmission-shift control integrated in
the Motronic improves fuel economy
and shift quality and increases a given
transmission’s torque capacity as well
as its life expectancy. Input signals for
the Motronic control unit include engine
speed, air flow, throttle-valve switch
and transmission output speed, as well
as signals from position, program and
kickdown switches. The control unit
calculates output signals to control the
transmission’s pressure regulator, sol¬
enoid valves and a malfunction warning
(Figure 52). Gear-shift control curves
stored in the memory of an electronic
control unit are far more effective than
their hydraulic equivalents. Such con¬
trol curves can be chosen with com¬
plete freedom. With them, several
gear-shift programs can be stored,
such as one for optimum economy, one
for manual shifting and one for sporty
driving.
With the transmission-shift control
(economy program), for instance, the
engine can be made to operate in its
most economical range. Another ad¬
vantage is the possibility of reducing
the torque of the engine during shifts
by electronically retarding the ignition. If
this is done during the full-load shift for
instance, which is particularly critical,
the shift can be accomplished by the
transmission as if it were under part
load, with the result that it is carried out
significantly more smoothly. After the
shift, Motronic then returns timing to its
normal value. The result is that trans¬
mission shifts are always smooth under
all operating conditions.
Stop-and-go operation
Another possibility for reducing idle
fuel consumption is the stop-start sys¬
tem as an alternative to controlling the
idle speed. Here, an additional control
unit has an output to the Motronic
 control unit which, according to the
signal “stop” or “start”, either sup¬
presses or calculates the fuel-injection
pulses.
Any time the vehicle is stationary for
more than just a few seconds, the
system switches off the fuel injection.
This occurs primarily in town traffic, at
traffic lights and during traffic jams.The
result of the switchoff is that fuel con¬
sumption and exhaust emissions are
reduced. Switchoff is suppressed if the
engine is still cold.
One disadvantage though is that the
engine uses extra fuel when starting
again. The stop-start system takes this
into account and ensures that the fuel
savings achieved by switching off the
engine are not outweighed by the extra
fuel needed for starting it again.
Operation:
The system shuts off the engine if the
clutch pedal is depressed and vehicle
speed is less than 2 km/h (1 mph). To
52) Block diagram of a transmission-shift control.
Pressure regulator and solenoid valves receive their signals from the control unit. Engine control
during shifting is accomplished through the ignition.
restart, the driver steps on the Motronic
accelerator with the clutch still de¬
pressed. The engine starts as soon
as the accelerator is moved within the
first third of its travel.
Electronic accelerator
In principle, the electronic accelerator
(also known as “drive-by-wire” or “E-
Gas”) replaces the mechanical linkage
between the accelerator pedal and the
throttle. A potentiometer integrated in
the accelerator pedal serves as the set-
point generator, giving information on
the pedal’s position to an electronic
control unit. The sensors which read
the engine operating parameters and
feed information to the Motronic control
unit can also be used for the electronic
accelerator. Motronic calculates the
correct throttle-plate position with re¬
gard to such factors as engine speed,
accelerator position, and their changes,
as well as other inputs like engine
temperature. It transmits this value to
295
Motronic an external control unit that controls the
throttle to the correct position in
accordance with the set value calcu¬
lated by the Motronic. In this way,
sources of errors such as play, friction
and wear in the mechanical linkage are
eliminated. The electronic accelerator
allows acceleration in the most fuel-
efficient manner, and it can function as
a cruise control as well.
Exhaust-gas recirculation (EGR)
The oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions
can be reduced effectively by mixing a
portion of the exhaust gas with the
engine’s fresh intake mixture. This
measure is very common in vehicles
built for the U.S. or Japan. In the future,
it will be used increasingly in Europe as
well.
53) Control of exhaust-gas recirculation.
54) Cylinder-cutout system.
Motronic can cut out cylinders in groups under part-load operation; here, three cylinders of a
6-cylinder in-line engine are cut out in the left-hand drawing. Hot exhaust gas circulates through the
inactive cylinders, maintaining them at normal operating temperatures. In the upper load range,
Motronic provides a smooth transition back to operation on all cylinders.
Part load
296
However, exhaust-gas recirculation
(EGR) can degrade driveability seri¬
ously, especially when idling, at low
speeds and loads and with a cold
engine. The best compromise between
conflicting demands can be found in
map control of EGR. Here, depending
upon operating conditions, the control
unit regulates a pneumatic valve so that
a smaller or larger cross-sectional area
in the exhaust recirculation line is open,
governing the amount of gas that flows
back to the engine intake (Figure 53).
Thus, the desired NOx reduction is
achieved while at the same time retain¬
ing good driveability.
Cylinder cutout
In city traffic and at moderate cruising
speeds, above all powerful engines
operate well down in their part-load
range, where the thermal efficiency of
the spark-ignition engine is at its worst.
If, during part-load operation, the fuel to
some cylinders is cut off, the others
work more efficiently and fuel con¬
sumption is reduced. Then, when more
cylinders are needed to produce the
required power, they can be returned to
action singly or in groups (Figure 54).
Motronic’s cylinder-cutout system has
the advantage that only the working
cylinders are filled with air-fuel mixture,
and these cylinders work with minimum
throttling. Thus, the throttling losses
normally unavoidable in part-load oper¬
ation of spark-ignition engines are re¬
duced considerably. In addition, hot
I I Air
Fuel
■ Exhaust
I ICombustion
Full load
exhaust circulates through the non¬
working cylinders to keep them at
operating temperature. This keeps fric¬
tion at normal levels, thereby prevent¬
ing the increased wear that might
otherwise result from “coasting” cylin¬
ders.
Electronic circuitry in the control unit
recognizes from the air-flow sensor’s
signal when cylinders can be switched,
thus providing continuous switching
between partial and all-cylinder opera¬
tion. The driver hardly notices the
switching. Passenger cars with cylinder
cutout are still in the experimental
stage.
must be led into the intake manifold. A Motronic
canister filled with active charcoal ab¬
sorbs the vapors when the engine is
stationary, and releases them to the
engine when it is running. Emissions
could be increased thereby, so the
vapors are fed to the engine only under
certain operating conditions. Venting
from the canister or directly from the
tank to the engine is controlled by a
Motronic-controlled solenoid valve
(Figure 55).

Evaporative emission control

For vehicles used in the U.S. and
Japan, vapors in the fuel tank may not
be vented freely to the atmosphere but

55) Evaporative-emission control system.

1 Fuel tank, 2 Fuel-vapor canister with active charcoal, 3 Solenoid valve, 4 Control unit, 5 Intake
manifold, 6 Lambda sensor, 7 Engine-temperature sensor, 8 Air-flow sensor, 9 Engine-speed
sensor.

297
Motronic Control unit
The electronic control unit (Figure 56)
evaluates the data supplied by the
sensors on the operating condition of
the engine. On the basis of this data
and with the aid of programmed maps,
it generates control pulses for the elec¬
tromagnetic fuel-injection valves and
ignition timing.
Construction
Printed-circuit boards accommodate
some 200 electronic components. The
top board contains mainly the digital
circuits, the bottom one the power-
output stages for fuel injection and
ignition as well as the fuel-pump con¬
trol. Power elements of the fuel-injec¬
tion and ignition output stages are
mounted on special cooling brackets
for better heat dissipation. A 35-pole
plug connector connects the control
unit with the battery, sensors and ac¬
tuators. The control unit incorporates
additional circuitry to safeguard against
reverse-connection and short-circuit of
the terminals.
Operation
The control unit is Motronic’s data-
processing center. It processes the
sensors’ input signals and calculates
from them the fuel-injection duration
(as the measure for fuel quantity) and
the optimum dwell and ignition angles.
In addition, it is capable of taking on
further control and regulation functions,
such as lambda closed-loop control (for
meeting emission regulations) and idle
control. The control unit contains a
microcomputer with microprocessor,
program and data memory and input-
output unit as well as an analog-digital
converter.
For control-unit operation, a suitable
voltage source is necessary, as is a
stable basic clock rate at which the
computing processes are carried out.
This is provided by a crystal oscillator
which operates at a frequency of
298 6MHz.
Injection signal
With constant fuel pressure, the fuel
quantity injected per piston stroke is
determined principally by the injection
valves’ opening duration. The micro¬
computer in the control unit calculates
the fuel-injection duration on the basis
of engine operating conditions and
controls the injection output stage
accordingly.
Ignition signal
On the basis of the engine-speed and
load inputs as well as the various
correction factors, the control-unit
microcomputer calculates an ignition
angle, which is transmitted as the trail¬
ing edge of the ignition signal and
synchronized with the instantaneous
crankshaft angle. Similarly, the mic¬
rocomputer determines the necessary
dwell angle, which is output as the
leading edge of the ignition signal.
This signal, whose duration represents
the dwell period, controls current flow
through the ignition coil by way of the
ignition output stage so that sufficient
ignition energy to ignite the air-fuel
mixture is available to the spark plugs at
the right instant.
The microcomputer’s output signals
are too weak for the system’s actuators
and must be amplified at their output
stages before they are suitable for
controlling an ignition coil or fuel-injec¬
tion valve, for instance.
Fuel-injection output stage
To minimize power losses in the control
unit, to keep the injection valves’ pic¬
kup and release times short and to
eliminate current-limiting resistances,
current to the injection valves is reg¬
ulated. It increases to a switch-on value
of approximately 7.5 A (in 6-cylinder
engines, for instance) and falls back at
the end of the injection duration to the
low holding current of about 3 A. The
control system contains a specific inte¬
grated circuit for this purpose.
56) Control unit with PC-board tipped back. Motronic
1 Additional program memory, 2 Analog-digital converter, 3 Microcomputer for standard program
and data, 4 Integrated circuit for engine-speed and reference-mark signal processing, 5 Ignition
output stage, 6 Fuel-injection output stage.

299
Motronic Ignition output stage
The ignition output stage’s primary
assignment is current amplification. To
dispense with conventional ballast re¬
sistors and maintain the desired igni¬
tion energy over the entire operating
range, current-flow time in the ignition
coil is determined by the microcom¬
puter on the basis of battery voltage
and engine speed. For reasons of
safety, the controlled output stage
also incorporates a control circuit to
limit the maximum primary current
through the coil.
300
Pump control
On the basis of operating conditions,
the microcomputer in the ECU
switches the fuel pump on and off via
an output stage and relay.
Further output stages
If necessary, further output stages are
possible. For instance, turbocharger
boost pressure can be controlled as
well as EGR bypass valves and a
bypass valve around the throttle for
idle-speed control.
 Data processing
in the microcomputer
The structure shown in the block dia¬
gram (Figure 58) and the operational
principles described apply in general to
all microcomputers with micropro¬
cessors. Differences lie mainly in the
memory capacities of the integrated
circuits (ICs) used, the necessary pro¬
grams and the data quantity to be
processed.
Input periphery
The input signals are supplied by the
sensors which are located in the input
periphery.
Input stages in the control unit
The input stages convert the input
signals from the sensors to a form
suitable for further processing in the
microcomputer.
Pulse shaper (IF)
The pulse shaper changes the in¬
coming pulses. This is done in such a
way that they can be processed by the
microcomputer.
Analog-digital converter (A/D)
Most sensors deliver signals which are
analogous to the measured data
(analog). Microcomputers, however,
are only able to process a string of
digits. Thus, it is necessary that the
analog signal be converted into a digital
signal.
Example: voltage measurement. A
sawtooth voltage (analog quantity) in¬
creasing along with time is counted
with pulses; the number of pulses is
the digital value.
Microcomputer systems
Input-output unit (I/O)
The input-output unit (I/O) handles data
traffic with the environment.
Input signals are read with the required
frequency; output signals are given at
processing speed and in the optimum
sequence, or they are stored until be¬ Motronic
ing read.
Clock generator
The clock generator has the task of
controlling the computing sequence as
a function of time.
Bus
Buses are data busbars by which all
main units are connected.
The buses provide all units with data
(data bus), memory addresses (ad¬
dress bus) and control signals (control
bus).
Microcomputer (CPU)
The microprocessor (CPU: Central
Processing Unit), being a central unit, is
subdivided as follows:
Arithmetic-logic unit (ALU):
Being the “calculator”, the ALU per¬
forms arithmetic (addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division) and logical op¬
erations (and, or, no) with stored data.
The necessary programs and theoreti¬
cal values are delivered by the read¬
only memory, measuring data (operat¬
ing data) by the random-access mem¬
ory.
Accumulator:
The instantaneous intermediate values
from the ALU are stored in the
accumulator.
Logic:
The logic controls the processing se¬
quence, orders the steps, reads the
necessary data and controls the Input-
Output.
Read-only memory (ROM)
Here, all programs (software), all
characteristic values, all characteristic
curves and all theoretical values etc.
are stored permanently.
This data is “burned” into the ROM-IC
during the production process. This
“burned-in” data cannot be altered and
it applies solely to the specific applica¬
tion. 301
Motronic Random-access memory (RAM)
The operating-data memory is a read-
write memory, a so-called RAM (ran¬
dom-access memory). Here, data de¬
livered by the sensors are stored until
they are called by the microprocessor
or updated (overwritten).
Data are erased every time the system
is switched off and data must be con¬
tinuously updated during operation. In¬
termediate storage of calculated values
for subsequent processes also occurs
here.
302
Output stages in the control unit
The amplification of the output signals
takes place in the output stages of the
control unit.
Output periphery
The individual components of the out¬
put periphery (for instance, electric
fuel pump, ignition coil, fuel-injection
valves) serve to translate the signals
into actions.
Electrical circuits
Safety circuit
A protective diode prevents the main
relay from switching on should the
system be connected with reverse po¬
larity. Depending upon the operating
mode, the pump relay is switched on or
off by an output stage in the microcom¬
puter. This prevents the fuel pump from
continuing to deliver fuel following an
accident. It is switched on, or continues
to run, only when terminal 50 of the
starting relay is connected to battery
positive or the instantaneous engine
speed is above a set minimum. If the
59) Schematic diagram of electrical circuit.
1 Battery
2 Ignition starting switch
3 Main relay
4 Pump relay
5 Motronic components
(e.g. fuel-injection valve)
6 Control unit
7 Electric fuel pump
engine stops with the ignition turned Motronic
on, the microcomputer-controlled
pump relay interrupts current to the fuel
pump.
Electrical disturbance protection
Both electrical noise-voltage am¬
plitudes exceeding 100 V resulting
from the ignition and operation of the
headlamp flasher and also spurious
pulses picked up from CB radio or radio
and television transmitters could affect
operation. To protect against such dis¬
turbances, connections for the engine-
■
soeed and reference-mark sensors are
enclosed in wire mesh.
6
303
Emission
control Emission control
Fuel and emissions
Spark-ignition engine fuels
Spark-ignition engine fuels are pro¬
duced almost exclusively from pet¬
roleum. The processing techniques
used in manufacture are divided into
three main groups:
- separating the individual components
of the petroleum by distillation
- conversion into other hydrocarbons
through cracking, reforming and similar
processes
- refining in order to remove undesired
components, such as sulphur, for in¬
stance.
Different end products result from
combinations of the individual process¬
ing methods. Blending (mixing of diffe¬
rent products) and additives adjust the
fuel to give it its desired characteris¬
tics. The result is that spark-ignition
engine fuels thus consist of a mixture
of various hydrocarbons as well as
certain additives.
Antiknock agents in the form of lead
compounds (tetraethyl lead and tet-
ramethyl lead) are important fuel
additives. The octane-number-increas¬
ing components used for the produc¬
tion of unleaded fuels are composed of
organic oxygen compounds such as
alcohols (methanol or ethanol) or cer¬
tain ethers (methyl-tertiary-butyl-ether,
MTB). Other additives are used for the
purposes of residue conversion (in or¬
der to prevent the formation of com¬
bustion-chamber deposits), as oxida¬
tion and corrosion inhibitors (to keep
the induction system clean), as well as
304 to prevent icing.
Characteristics of
spark-ignition engine fuels
German Industrial Standard DIN 51600
stipulates minimum requirements made
of spark-ignition engine fuels.
Antiknockquality
The antiknock quality of the fuel is of
great practical importance. It is basically
defined by two codes: RON (Research
Octane Number) and MON (Motor Oc¬
tane Number).
The RON characterizes the fuel’s be¬
havior at low engine speeds (acceler¬
ation knock), the MON the fuel’s be¬
havior at higher engine speed (high¬
speed knock).
German Industrial Standard DIN 51600
defines a RON of at least 98.0 and a
MON of at least 88.0 for premium
gasoline, and a RON of at least 91.0 and
a MON of at least 82.7 for regular
gasoline.
Boiling curve and vapour pressure
The boiling curve and vapour pressure
ofaspark-ignition enginefuel are impor¬
tant as a measure of its volatility and,
hence, of its behavior under cold and
very hot engine conditions.
A cold engine requires a low boiling
temperature and a high vapour pressure
in order to provide good cold starting,
even engine idling, and good transition
response.
However, high engine temperatures re¬
quire low fuel volatility in order to pre¬
vent the formation of vapour locks in the
fuel line system.
For this reason, a low-volatility fuel is
mixed in the summer and a volatile fuel
in the winter. With summer gasoline,
50 % of the fuel evaporates at a temper¬
ature of approximately 105°C, while the
same occurs at approximately 90°C with
winterfuel.
Unleaded gasoline
The required octane number for spark-
ignition engine fuels is obtained by mix¬
ing the individual components and
additives. Lead alcyls have proven to be
particularly effective additives. How¬
ever, engines which operate with cata¬
lytic converters require the use of un¬
leaded fuel.
The same octane number can be
achieved without lead additives with the
use of multivalent components, such as
aromatics. This is an expensive process
and requires a higher primary energy in¬
vestment. An extensive demand for un¬
leaded premium gasoline could not be
met by the so-called “octane pool” of
petroleum, even with an increase in the
number of reforming plants producing
higher-octane reformate gasoline.
Other additives, such as MTB, are avail¬
able at present only in small quantities
and are quite expensive. For these
reasons, an octane number of only 95 to
96 RON must be assumed for unleaded
premium fuel, instead of the current oc¬
tane number of 98 to 100 RON.
As a consequence, many engine con¬ Emission
cepts will have to be revised for oper¬ control
ation with unleaded fuel, such as re¬
duction in compression ratio and adap¬
tation of ignition timing to take into
account the lower octane number. This
leads to higher gasoline consumption.
In addition, fuel additives containing
lead act as a type of lubricant at the in¬
take and exhaust-valve seats, due to the
fact that lead deposits at these points
form a coating which reduces wear.
Thus, engines planned for lead-free op¬
eration must be equipped with different
metal combinations of valve and valve
seat. In this regard, almost all vehicles
produced from 1980 onwards are
equipped for operation with unleaded
fuel. However, the suitability of indi¬
vidual vehicles for operation with un¬
leaded fuel in terms of knocking resist¬
ance must be examined on the basis of
the lowest octane number recom¬
mended by the manufacturer.
The availability of unleaded fuel is cur¬
rently increasing in parallel with the in¬
crease in vehicles fitted with catalytic
converters.

Essential components of spark-ignition-engine fuels.

Fuel Chief constituents Density RON MON

components g/ml

Distillate gasoline Alkanes (straight-chain), 0.680...0.700 62...64 60...62

cycloalkanes

Cracked benzine Paraffinic 0.720...0.750 88...92 78...80

naphthenic
alkenes, alkanes
(branched-chain)

Reformate gasoline Aromatics 0.740...0.790 93...98 83...88

Alkylate gasoline Alkenes, alkanes 0.690...0.710 92...94 90...92

(branched-chain)

Polymer gasoline Alkanes 0.720...0.740 95...100 80...90

(branched-chain)

Pyrolysis gasoline Aromatics 0.800...0.840 98...100 83...85

Isopentane/ Alkanes 0.620...0.660 88... 92 87...90

isohexane (branched-chain)

Aromatics approx. 0.875 108...112 90...95

Enginetoluene 305
Emission
control
Pollutants
Combustion
Complete combustion of gasoline re¬
sults only in the harmless substances
carbon dioxide (C02) and water
vapour (H20). Engine exhaust gas
also contains products of incomplete
combustion such as carbon monoxide
(CO) and partially combusted or non-
combusted hydrocarbons (HC). In ad¬
dition to nitrogen in the inducted com¬
bustion air, the exhaust gas also con¬
tains the oxidation products of nitro¬
gen (NOx). The emission of solids
(particulate emissions) is very low on
the spark-ignition engine by com¬
parison with the diesel engine and
is thus negligible. Owing to the
minimum sulphur content of the
gasoline, only a very slight amount of
harmful sulphur dioxide is contained
in the exhaust gas of the spark-ig¬
nition engine,
Formation
of pollutants
Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide is a product of in¬
complete combustion under conditions
of air deficiency. Hence, the level of
carbon-monoxide emissions is strongly
dependent upon the air-fuel ratio. The
CO concentration in the cylinder is
highest during combustion. During the
subseguent expansion phase, a portion
is oxidized to C02.
Hydrocarbons
As with carbon monoxide, air defi¬
ciency leads to incomplete combustion
and thereby to the emission of un¬
burned and partly-burned hydrocar¬
bons. Under excess-air conditions, no
measurable concentrations of hydro¬
carbons occur behind the flame front.
Rather, HC emissions originate from
those areas of the combustion
chamber which are not included or
only incompletely included in combus¬
tion. These zones comprise the
boundary layers near the cylinder
walls, where the flame is extinguished
by cooling (guench effect), as well as
crevices into which the flame cannot
penetrate. During the exhaust phase,
the hydrocarbons are mixed with the
hot exhaust. This means that some of
the hydrocarbons can still be com¬
busted by means of afterburning reac¬
tions while being forced out.
In addition to incomplete combustion,
one further source of hydrocarbon
emissions is what is called “blow-by”,
a process in which fresh mixture es¬
capes through gaps between the piston
and the cylinder into the crankcase.

With excess air, the CO concentration

in the exhaust is primarily dependent
on inhomogeneous mixture distribution
and on fluctuations in mixture compo¬
sition from cycle to cycle. In addition,
under extreme conditions of excess air
and, thus, low process temperatures,
carbon monoxide emissions are also
influenced by the fact that post-oxi¬
dation in the expansion phase can no
longer take place in a state of ther¬
306 modynamic eguilibrium.
However, by crankcase ventilation into
the intake manifold, these hydrocar¬
bons are returned for combustion, thus
causing no impact on the environment.
Two further important sources of un¬
burned hydrocarbons are the evapora¬
tion losses from the fuel tank and
carburetor.
Oxides of nitrogen
The peak temperature in the combus¬
tion chamber and the duration of its
effect have a decisive influence on the
concentration of NO emissions. Be¬
sides nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen diox¬
ide (N02) and nitrous oxide (N20) are
also produced in small quantities.
Other harmful
exhaust components
Soot is produced by combustion only
under extreme air deficiency. This
does not normally occur with a cor¬
rectly tuned spark-ignition engine.
Since the sulphur content of gasoline
is very slight (less than 0.1 %), emis¬
sions of sulphur dioxide (S02) are
insignificant.
Lead compounds in the exhaust gas,
in the form of finely distributed par¬
ticles, result from the lead-containing
knock inhibitors in the fuel. About
75% of the lead contained in fuel is
expelled into the environment through
the exhaust. The rest goes into the
lubricating oil.
Phosphorus, chlorine, bromine and bo¬
ron compounds are added to the fuel in
small quantities and are thus also found
in the exhaust gas in very low concen¬
trations.
Characteristics of
pollutant components
The major components of exhaust gas
are nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water
vapour. These are harmless.
Carbon monoxide
CO is a colorless, odorless gas. It is
toxic due to the oxygen deficiency
caused by its having a considerably
higher affinity to the hemoglobin in the Emission
blood than does oxygen. control
Hydrocarbons
Exhaust gas contains a variety of hy¬
drocarbons with differing characteris¬
tics:
Saturated hydrocarbons (paraffins) are
almost odorless, have a narcotic effect,
and cause slight irritation of mucous
membranes.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons (olefins,
acetylenes) have a slightly sweet smell
and in some cases can lead to irritation
of the mucous membranes. They are
an essential factor in the formation of
smog, since, in the presence of NO and
under the influence of sunshine, they
react further to form oxidants which
irritate the mucous membranes, while
at the same time producing ozone.
Aromatic hydrocarbons have a charac¬
teristic smell. They are better known as
nerve toxins with a narcotic effect, in
part carcinogenic (e.g. benzpyrene).
Aldehydes (e.g. formaldehyde) have a
pungent odour and irritate the eyes and
nose even at very low concentrations.
Oxides of nitrogen
NO is a colorless gas which oxidizes to
N02 in air. It is considered to be a
severe hemotoxin, as it combines with
the hemoglobin in the blood and
causes rapid central paralysis. N02 is a
reddish-brown gas with a sharp, pun¬
gent odour. It causes pronounced irrita¬
tion of the respiratory system and
damages lung tissues. In combination
with unsaturated hydrocarbons, oxides
of nitrogen cause smog formation
under the influence of sunlight. NO and
N02 are usually considered as one and
are designated together as NOx.
Lead compounds
Lead compounds act as severe cyto-
toxins (cellular poisons) in blood, bone
marrowandthe nervous system, as they
impair the cell’s ability to absorb oxygen.
307
Emission
control
Engine design
and emissions
The pollutant emission of an engine
is influenced by many of its design
details. Of course, in addition to
pollutant emissions, other engine
characteristics must be con¬
sidered, such as fuel consumption,
power output, torque, knocking and
smooth running etc. For this
reason, every engine development
represents a compromise among a
number of contradictory require¬
ments.
Compression ratio
The compression ratio is decisive for
the thermal efficiency of the engine.
However, two factors stand in the way
of a general introduction of high com¬
pression ratios: the increased tendency
to knock and the high pollutant emis¬
sions.
A high compression ratio increases the
temperature level in the combustion
chamber. This leads in turn to in¬
creased pre-reaction of the fuel, which
can cause the self-ignition of parts of
the air-fuel mixture before they are
reached by the normal flame front. This
increased tendency to knock increases
the octane number required by the
engine. Suitable combustion-chamber
design can inhibit this tendency some¬
what.
In addition, the higher temperature
level in the combustion chamber which
is associated with higher compression
ratios causes an increase in the NOx
emissions, since a higher combustion-
chamber temperature moves the reac¬
tion equilibrium more in the direction of
the NOx concentration, and in particular
due to the fact that the speed of reac¬
tion of NOx formation is increased. This
fact, together with the lower octane
number of unleaded fuel, has led to
engine designs for countries with
stringent emission regulations, such as
308 the USA and Japan, that have lower
compression ratios than do comparable
European designs. For this reason, the
fuel consumption of these designs is
correspondingly higher.
In the case of vehicles having catalytic
converters, an attempt is made to avoid
this increase in consumption due to
lower compression ratios by means of
design changes in the intake manifold
and combustion chamber, and through
complex forms of engine management.
Combustion chamber shape
The shape of the combustion
chamber has a considerable influence
on the emission of unburnt hydrocar¬
bons. Since the emission of unburned
hydrocarbons originates from crevices
and layers next to the cylinder walls,
combustion chambers with compli¬
cated shapes and large surface areas
cause high HC emissions. For this
reason, compact combustion cham¬
bers with small surface areas are
ideal. With their intensive charge turbu¬
lence, they reduce the octane require¬
ment by means of rapid combustion.
Together with the high compression
ratios thus made possible, such a de¬
sign facilitates the realization of a lean-
burn concept. This results in lower
exhaust emissions along with good
efficiency, since a defined charge tur¬
bulence at the spark plug is important
to ensure reliable ignition of the air-fuel
mixture. With less turbulence, the con¬
ditions (mixture condition, residual ex¬
haust-gas content) at the spark plug at
the moment of ignition vary from work¬
ing cycle to working cycle due to ran¬
dom local factors. This causes fluctua¬
tions in the duration of ignition, result¬
ing in variations in the combustion
process from cycle to cycle. Turbu¬
lence in the combustion chamber con¬
siderably reduces these cyclical fluctu¬
ations.
The position of the spark plug in the
combustion chamber is likewise very
important for pollutant emissions and
for fuel consumption. When the spark
plug is positioned centrally in the cyl-
inder this provides short flame travel.
The result is rapid and relatively com¬
plete conversion, and thereby lower
emissions of unburned hydrocarbons.
Ignition with two spark plugs in the
combustion chamber (so-called dual
ignition) provides a further shortening
of flame travel and, as a result, positive
effects on pollutant emissions and fuel
consumption. In addition, due to the
short flame travel, a compact combus¬
tion chamber with central plug position¬
ing or with dual ignition reduces the
engine’s octane requirement. This fact
can be exploited by increasing the
compression ratio and, as a result, the
engine efficiency. Four-valve engines
with two intake and two exhaust valves
per cylinder are particularly favorable in
this respect. The four-valve design per¬
mits compact combustion chambers
with central spark plug position and,
thus, short flame travel. Charge-cycle
characteristics are also improved.
2) Influence of spark-plug position on
fuel consumption and HC emissions.
Excess-air factor A
Emission
Valve timing control
The charge cycle, i.e. the exchange of
burned gas in the cylinder for fresh
mixture, occurs through the alternate
opening and closing of the intake and
exhaust valves. The valve timing, which
times the opening and closing of these
valves, and the valve lift curve, which is
determined by the cam profile, affect
the charge cycle process. The fresh
charge quantity which is drawn into the
cylinder determines the torque and
power of the engine. The residual gas,
i.e. the quantity of burned mixture re¬
maining in the cylinder and not ex¬
hausted during the time the exhaust
valve is open, influences ignition and
combustion. This quantity is important
for efficiency and for the emissions of
unburned hydrocarbons and oxides of
nitrogen. During the valve-overlap
phase, i.e. when the intake and exhaust
valves are simultaneously open, de¬
pending on pressure conditions, fresh
3) Reduction of fuel consumption and
HC emissions using four-valve design.
Excess-air factor A
309
Emission mixture can be exhausted or exhaust
control gas can flow back into the intake mani¬
fold.This exerts a significant influence
on the level of efficiency and on emis¬
sions of unburned hydrocarbons.
It is possible to optimize the valve timing
for only one engine speed. For example,
at higher engine speeds, a longer open¬
ing period of the intake valves provides
an increase in power. On the other
hand, at lower engine speeds in the idle
range, the resulting larger valve overlap
can cause an increase in the emissions
of unburned hydrocarbons and uneven
engine running due to the higher re¬
sidual-gas content. Engine-speed and
load-dependent valve timing is there¬
fore the ideal.
To do this, in engines fitted with two
camshafts, the camshafts are turned.
This allows large valve overlap at high
engine speeds, resulting in high per¬
formance and good engine running. At
the same time, in the lower speed
range, the smaller valve overlap results
in low emissions of unburned hydrocar¬
bons.
The intake passage can be optimized
particularly effectively for good charge
cycling with fuel-injection systems
which spray the fuel directly onto the
intake valves. The effects on power,
consumption and exhaust emissions
are favourable, because it is not
necessary to take into account the
mixture distribution in the design of the
intake passage, as is the case with
carburetor engines.
An intake passage which causes intake
swirl acts in a similar fashion to the
turbulence in the combustion chamber.
4) Valve timing diagram.
s Valve stroke, a Valve clearance,
b Valve overlap.
EO Exhaust valve opens
EC Exhaust valve closes
10 Intake valve opens
1C Intake valve closes

Intake-passage design
The charge cycles are influenced not
only by the valve timing, but also by
the design of the intake and exhaust
passages. Periodic pressure fluctu¬
ations are generated in the intake
passage by the cylinder intake strokes.
These pressure waves run through the
intake passage and are reflected at the
ends of the passage. If the intake
passage is designed to harmonize with
the valve timing, a pressure peak
reaches the intake valve shortly before
it closes. This boost effect forces a
larger quantity of fresh air-fuel mixture
into the cylinder. A similar situation
applies to the exhaust passage. If the
intake and exhaust passages are de¬
signed so that there is a positive
pressure difference during valve over¬
lap, good charge cycling is obtained,
with the accompanying positive effects
on pollutant emissions, power and
310 consumption.
The motion of the charge makes poss¬
ible the rapid conversion of the air-fuel
mixture in the combustion chamber.
This increases efficiency and improves
lean-running ability. Hence, defined in¬
take swirl is one means of achieving
lower pollutant emissions through en¬
gine design.
Charge stratification
Most spark-ignition engines are de¬
signed for a homogeneous air-fuel
mixture. The combustion process can
be significantly influenced with care¬
ful charge stratification. So-called
stratified-charge engines are designed
so that a rich mixture forms in the
vicinity of the spark plug in order to
provide reliable ignition; the main
combustion then takes place with a
lean mixture. A particularly effective
(although relatively expensive) method
is to use a divided combustion
chamber, with a small prechamber
containing the spark plug. This pre¬
chamber is fed a rich mixture by a
second fuel-induction system. Such a
design has the advantage that despite
a lean mixture in the main combustion
chamber reliable ignition is guaran¬
teed. This makes it possible to reach
considerably lower NOx emission val¬
ues, since combustion occurs only
with very rich and very lean mixtures.
However, due to the greater combus¬
tion chamber surface, stratified-charge
engines with divided combustion
chambers have significantly higher
emissions of unburned hydrocarbons
than do engines with open combus¬
tion chambers.
Charge stratification in the combustion
chamber can also be attained through
direct injection of gasoline into the
combustion chamber. A rich mixture is
generated in the vicinity of the spark
plug despite an overall lean adjustment,
similar to a diesel engine. However,
such direct injection has considerable
disadvantages, such as low efficiency
and high costs etc.
A certain amount of charge stratification Emission
is also possible by means of suitable control
charge motion and swirl motion as
the mixture enters the combustion
chamber. This form of stratification is
not very well-defined and is hard to
control; it changes significantly de¬
pending on the operating conditions of
the engine.
Other measures
in the engine
Exhaust emissions can be influenced
as well by measures applied on the
periphery of the engine, which reduce
the power demand and thus the fuel
consumption. This includes reducing
the friction loss of the pistons and the
valvegear and reducing the driving
power required for auxiliary systems
such as fan and alternator. In such
cases a reduction in the fuel consump¬
tion results in a directly proportional re¬
duction in pollutant emissions. The
opposite is the case with almost all
measures which involve the thermo¬
dynamics of the engine.
During actual driving, a large percent¬
age of the carbon monoxide emissions
and the emissions of unburned hydro¬
carbons stem from the engine warm-up
phase, in which the engine has not yet
reached its operating temperature. The
proper design of the coolant system
and the lubrication system can shorten
the warm-up phase considerably. Be¬
sides reducing the fuel consumption,
this provides a superproportional re¬
duction of pollutant emissions of carbon
monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons.
311
Emission
control
Operating
conditions and
emissions
Engine operating range
Engine speed
A higher engine speed causes greater
friction loss in the engine itself and
higher power consumption in auxiliary
systems. Thus, for the same energy
input, there is a lower output, i.e. effi¬
ciency worsens. If a certain output is
obtained at a high engine speed, it
means a higher fuel consumption than
would be the case if the same output
were achieved at a lower engine speed.
This naturally results in higher pollutant
emissions. The influence of engine
speed is more or less the same for all
pollutant components.
Engine load
A change in engine load has various
effects on the individual components.
As the load increases, so does the
temperature level in the combustion
chamber. The thickness of the zone
where the flame is extinguished in
proximity to the combustion-chamber
wall thus decreases with increasing
load. In addition, the higher exhaust
temperature improves post-reaction
during the expansion and exhaust
phases. Hence, the power-related
emission of unburned hydrocarbons is
reduced with increased engine load. A
similar condition applies to CO emis¬
sions, whereby the higher process
temperatures likewise favor post-reac¬
tion to C02 during the expansion
phase. However, the reverse is the
case for NOx emissions. The increase
in combustion chamber temperature
with increased engine load favors the
formation of NOx. NOx emissions
therefore increase superproportionally
with engine load.
312
Speed
An increase in vehicle speed results in
an increase in fuel consumption due to
an increase in power requirements.
With respect to hydrocarbons and car¬
bon monoxide, the above-mentioned
effects compensate for the effects of
higher emissions through higher con¬
sumption, so that the emissions of
these pollutants are basically indepen¬
dent of vehicle speed. However, for
NOx, emissions increase with vehicle
speed.
Dynamic operation
In dynamic operation of a spark-ignition
engine, there are considerably higher
emission values than in steady-state
operation. This results from imperfect
mixture adaptation during engine-
speed change. When the throttle valve
is opened quickly, part of the fuel
supplied from the carburetor or from
the single-point (or throttle-body) injec¬
tion system remains in the intake man¬
ifold. As compensation, therefore,
these systems require acceleration en¬
richment, which in particular with a
carburetor cannot be metered so that
all cylinders are provided with the
correct air-fuel ratio during acceleration.
The result is an increase in emissions
of unburned hydrocarbons and carbon
monoxide.
Injection systems which spray the fuel
directly onto the intake valves of the
cylinders have an advantage in this
regard. When the engine is at operating
temperature, therefore, there is no
need for acceleration enrichment in
most cases. This advantage of the
injection system applies in all types of
dynamic operation, since there is no
additional fuel accumulator - with cen¬
tral metering of the air-fuel mixture, the
intake manifold acts as such - that must
be filled and emptied. This also has its
effect on fuel consumption. The more
dynamically a vehicle is operated, the
greater the consumption advantage of
an injection system compared to a
carburetor.
Mixture formation
Air-fuel ratio
Engine pollutant emissions are very
dependent on the air-fuel ratio. They
can therefore be decisively influenced
by engine management.
CO emissions
In the rich range (with air deficiency),
CO emissions show an almost linear
dependence on the air-fuel ratio. In the
lean range (with excess air), CO emis¬
sions are very low and almost indepen¬
dent of the air-fuel ratio. In the range
around the stoichiometric point with its
excess-air factor A = 1, CO emissions
are determined by the equal distribution
of the fuel to the individual cylinders. If
some cylinders are operated rich and
others lean, there will result a higher
average CO emission than if all cyl¬
inders were operated at the same
excess-air factor .
HC emissions
The same as CO emissions, HC emis¬
sions also fall in the rich range along
with increasing Lambda. In the lean
6) Only a fuel jet with good atomization can give a homogeneous mixture which makes possible good
combustion with low emissions of unburned hydrocarbons.
range, however, HC emissions rise Emission
again. The minimum HC emissions control
take place at around A = 1.1 ... 1.2. This
rise in HC emissions in the lean range
is caused by the thicker quench zone
due to the lower combustion-chamber
temperature. When operating with very
lean air-fuel mixtures, this effect is
aggravated by delayed combustion and
even misfires. This causes a drastic rise
in the HC emissions. The lean misfire
limit is reached under these air-fuel
conditions.
NOx emissions
The dependence of NOx emissions on
the excess-air factor A is exactly the
reverse: in the rich range, there is a rise
with increasing Lambda as a result of
the increasing concentration of oxygen.
In the lean range, NOx emissions fall as
the Lambda increases, because de¬
creasing density lowers combustion-
chamber temperatures. The maximum
NOx emissions with slight excess
air are situated in the range around
A = 1.05 ... 1.1.
313
Emission Fuel management
control
A homogeneous mixture is required to
provide the best combustion charac¬
teristics in the spark-ignition engine.
This requires good atomization of the
fuel with the smallest possible fuel
droplets. Poorly prepared air-fuel mix¬
tures show significantly higher emis¬
sions of unburned hydrocarbons (HC
components) since combustion of the
mixture is poorer.
Mixture distribution is associated with
fuel management. This is because, with
the poor mixture preparation which
occurs in the upper load range in
carburetors, the large fuel droplets
settle at bends in the intake manifold.
7) Influence of excess-air factor A and ignition point az on pollutant emissions and fuel
consumption.
314
This means that the fuel supply to the
individual cylinders includes a large
element of chance. However, poor dis¬
tribution has a negative influence on
pollutant emissions. HC and CO emis¬
sions are higher, power drops and
consumption increases.
Injection systems which spray the fuel
directly onto the intake valves provide
particularly even mixture distribution.
With such systems, the intake mani¬
fold is only used to transport the in¬
take air, and the air flow is very uni¬
form as a result. The fuel is evenly
distributed to all cylinders by the in¬
jection system.
Ignition
The ignition of the air-fuel mixture, i.e.
the phase from spark discharge to the
development of a stable flame front,
has a decisive influence on the com¬
bustion process. It is determined by the
point in time of spark discharge and by
the ignition energy.
High excess energy provides stable
ignition characteristics with positive
effects on the stability of the combus¬
tion process from cycle to cycle. The
low cyclic variation leads to smoother
running of the engine and to lower
emissions of unburned hydrocarbons.
We can derive certain requirements
made of the spark plug from what has
been said above:
- Large electrode gap, in order to
activate a large volume.
- Open spark gap, so that the air-fuel
mixture can reach the spark channel
easily.
- Thin electrodes and projecting spark
position, in order to minimize heat dis¬
sipation through the electrodes and
cylinder wall.
Under critical ignition conditions, e.g.
engine idle, smoother running and
considerably reduced HC emissions
are obtained by increasing the spark¬
plug electrode gap. The same applies
to ignition energy. Ignition systems
with low spark duration and thereby
higher energy transfer to the mixture
are more suitable for the ignition of
lean mixtures.
Next to the air-fuel ratio, the moment of
ignition has the greatest influence on
pollutant emissions:
HC emissions
The more the ignition is advanced, the
more the emissions of unburned
hydrocarbons increase, since post-re-
actions in the expansion phase and in
the exhaust phase proceed less favor¬
ably due to the lower exhaust tem¬
peratures involved. This tendency is
reversed only in the very lean range.
With lean mixtures, the combustion
speed is so low that, with retarded
ignition timing, combustion is not yet Emission
complete when the exhaust valve control
opens. The lean misfire limit (LML) of
the engine is therefore reached with
retarded ignition timing at a very low
excess-air factor A.
NOx emissions
With increasingly advanced ignition,
combustion-chamber temperatures in¬
crease and cause an increase of NOx
emissions throughout the whole range
of the air-fuel ratio. These higher tem¬
peratures move the chemical equilib¬
rium towards NOx formation, and above
all increase the reaction speed of NOx
formation.
CO emissions
CO emissions are almost completely
independent of ignition timing, and are
almost exclusively a function of the air-
fuel ratio.
Fuel consumption
The influence of the ignition timing on
fuel consumption is opposite to the
influence it exerts on pollutant emis¬
sions. As the excess-air factor A in¬
creases, in order to retain optimum
combustion the ignition must take place
ever earlier to compensate for the
lower speed of combustion. Ignition
advance therefore means lower fuel
consumption and higher torque. Com¬
plicated ignition control, permitting in¬
dependent optimization of the ignition
point in all engine operating ranges, is
necessary in order to establish a com¬
promise in this “scissors” situation
between the fuel consumption and the
pollutant emission.
315
Emission
control
Lambda
closed-loop control
Lambda closed-loop control in con¬
junction with the catalytic converter
is the most effective method of
cleaning spark-ignition engine ex¬
haust gases available today. At
present, there is no alternative
system that can attain anywhere
near the same low exhaust-gas
emission levels.
Very low exhaust-gas levels can be
reached with the ignition and fuel-injec¬
tion systems described previously. A
further reduction in the particularly
harmful exhaust components hydrocar¬
bons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO) and
oxides of nitrogen (NOx) can be
achieved if the catalytic converter is
used.
The so-called three-way or selective
catalytic converter is particularly effec¬
tive. This converter can reduce emis¬
sions of hydrocarbons, carbon monox¬
ide and oxides of nitrogen by more than
90 % if the engine is operated in a very
narrow range (less than 1 %) around
the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio of A =
11). This very small allowable deviation
applies for all engine operating con¬
ditions and cannot be maintained alone
even by modern gasoline injection sys¬
tems. For this reason, the so-called
lambda closed-loop control is used, i.e.
the composition of the mixture of fuel
and air supplied to the engine (the
“mixture”) is continuously maintained
within the optimum deviation range (the
“catalytic converter window”) by a
closed control loop. For this, the ex¬
haust must be measured and the
injected fuel quantity immediately
corrected based on this measurement.
The lambda sensor is used as the
measuring element. It generates a volt¬
age jump exactly at the stoichiometric
ratio (A = 1), thus supplying a signal
which shows whether the mixture is
richer or leaner than A = 1.
Lambda sensor
The lambda sensor in the exhaust pipe
measures the exhaust flow evenly from
all cylinders. The method of operation is
based on the principle of a galvanic
oxygen concentration cell with solid-
state electrolyte.
Construction
The solid-state electrolyte consists of a
gas-tight ceramic body closed at one
end. It is made of zirconium dioxide and
stabilized with yttrium oxide. The sur¬
faces have electrodes on both sides
made of a thin gas-permeable platinum
layer. The platinum electrode on the
outside acts as a small catalytic con¬
verter, i.e. the exhaust is subjected to
catalytic aftertreatment and brought into
stoichiometric equilibrium. On the side
exposed to the exhaust gas, there is a
porous ceramic layer (spinell layer)
which serves as a protection against

1) The stoichiometric air-fuel ratio is the mass

ratio of 14.7 kg air to 1 kg gasoline theoretically
necessary for complete combustion. The ex¬
cess-air factor or air ratio A (lambda) indicates the
deviation of the actual air-fuel ratio from the
theoretically required ratio:
^ _ actual inducted air mass
316 theoretical air requirement
contamination. A metal tube with a
number of slits protects the ceramic
body against mechanical and thermal
shocks. The inside open space is in
contact with the exterior air as a ref¬
erence gas.
Method of operation
The ceramic material used for the sen¬
sor becomes conductive for oxygen
ions starting at approximately 300°C. If
the oxygen concentration differs on
the two sides of the sensor, there
results an electric voltage between the
two surfaces. This serves as a mea¬
sure of the difference in oxygen con¬
centration on the two sides of the
sensor. The oxygen content remaining
in the exhaust of an internal-combus¬
tion engine depends greatly on the air-
fuel ratio of the mixture supplied to the
engine. Even with excess fuel in the
mixture, there is still some oxygen in
the exhaust; for example, at A = 0.95,
there is still 0.2 ... 0.3% oxygen by
volume. This relation makes it possible
to use the oxygen concentration in the
exhaust as a measure of the air-fuel
ratio. The voltage supplied by the
lambda sensor as a result of the oxy¬
gen content in the exhaust reaches
800 ... 1000 mV with rich mixtures
(A < 1), but it is only about 100 mV
9) Control range of the lambda sensor and
reduction of pollutant concentrations in
exhaust.
-Without catalytic aftertreatment
- With catalytic aftertreatment
0,9 0,95 1,0 1,05 1,1
Excess-air factor A
with lean mixtures (A > 1). The transi¬ Emission
tion from the lean to the rich range lies control
at 450 ... 500 mV.
In addition to the oxygen concentration
in the exhaust, the temperature of the
ceramic body also plays a decisive role,
since it influences the conductivity for
oxygen ions. Thus, the curve of the
voltage supplied as a function of the
excess-air factor A (“static” sensor
curve) is strongly influenced by the
temperature. Hence, the figures given
apply to a sensor working temperature
of approximately 600°C. In addition, the
response time for a voltage change due
to a change in the mixture composition
is strongly dependent on the tempera¬
ture. Whereas these response times lie
in the seconds range at a ceramic tem¬
perature under 300°C, at the ideal
operating temperature of around
600°C, the sensor reacts after < 50 ms.
For these reasons, the lambda closed-
loop control is not activated until the
minimum operating temperature of ap¬
proximately 300°C has been reached.
Until this point, the engine is operated
using an open-loop control.
10) Location of the lambda sensor in the
exhaust manifold (schematic).
1 Sensor ceramic, 2 Electrodes, 3 Contact,
4 Electrical contacting to the housing,
5 Exhaust pipe, 6 Protective ceramic coating
(porous).
317
Emission Installation
control Excessive temperatures shorten ser¬
vice life. Therefore, the lambda sensor
must be installed so that a temperature
of 850°C is not exceeded during ex¬
tended full-load operation; 930°C is
allowable for short periods.
Heated lambda sensor
With this sensor, the ceramic temper¬
ature is determined by an electric
heating element under low engine¬
load conditions (i.e. low exhaust
temperature), and by the exhaust
temperature under higher loading. The
heated lambda sensor can be installed
at a greater distance from the engine
so that extended full-load operation is
unproblematic. This internal heating
means that the sensor heats up very
quickly, so that, within 20 ... 30 sec¬
onds after engine start, the operating
temperature has been reached and
lambda closed-loop control is acti¬
vated. Since the heated sensor is
always at the ideal operating tempera¬
ture, low exhaust emissions can be
reached and maintained. If properly
installed, the heated lambda sensors
in series production today have ser¬
vice lives of over 100 000 km. How¬
ever, in order to avoid damaging the
active outer platinum electrode the
engine must be operated with un¬
leaded fuel.
11) Heated lambda sensor.
1 Sensor housing, 2 Protective ceramic tube, 3 Connection cable, 4 Protective tube with slots,
5 Active sensor ceramic, 6 Contact element, 7 Protective sleeve, 8 Heater, 9 Clamp terminals for
heater.
318
Operation of
lambda closed-loop control
The lambda sensor transmits a voltage
signal to the electronic control unit,
which then signals to the fuel-manage¬
ment system (injection system or
electronically-controlled carburetor)
whether the mixture needs to be made
leaner or richer, depending on the
voltage output from the lambda sensor.
A control threshold is programmed into
the control unit for this purpose. This
threshold generally lies at 500 mV. If
the voltage from the lambda sensor lies
below this value (mixture too lean),
more fuel is supplied. If the value is
exceeded (mixture too rich), the quan¬
tity of fuel supplied to the engine is
reduced. However, alteration of the air-
fuel ratio must not be abrupt, as other¬
wise the vehicle will tend to buck.
Therefore, the electronic control unit
contains an integrator which slowly
changes mixture composition via a time
function.
A certain delay (dead time) passes
between the time of formation of fresh
mixture in the intake manifold or
passages and the measurement of the
combusted mixture (= exhaust) by the
lambda sensor. This is due to the time
taken for the mixture to reach the
engine, the time for the engine’s work¬
ing cycle, the time for the exhaust to

reach the lambda sensor and the re¬
sponse time of the sensor itself. Due to
this dead time, constant maintenance
of the exact stoichiometric ratio is im¬
possible, instead, the air-fuel ratio con¬
stantly varies by a few percent around
A = 1. However, if the integrator is
correctly matched, the average value of
the air-fuel ratio remains within the
“catalytic converter window”, i.e. within
a range where the catalytic converter
reaches its highest possible conversion
efficiency.
The dead time, i.e. essentially the time
between formation of the mixture and
13) View of the unheated (front) and heated lambda sensors.
measurement of the exhaust gas is, Emission
naturally, highly dependent upon the control
relevant load and engine speed. During
idling, the dead time may be up to 1
second or more, dependent upon the
distance of the lambda sensor from the
engine but it is reduced to a few
hundred milliseconds at high load and
engine speed. With constant regulation
of the mixture as a function of time (with
constant integrator slope), this would
result in the amplitude of the control
oscillations changing greatly with load
and engine speeds.
This would result in a serious increase
in exhaust emissions and, at the same
time, would worsen the driveability. For
this reason, the characteristic of the
integrator is adjusted, dependent upon
load and engine speed, in such a way
that a constant control amplitude,
selected for optimum exhaust-gas
emission and optimum driveability, is
achieved on average.
As early as 1976, Bosch started series
production of a system with lambda
closed-loop control for the “stringent”
exhaust-gas legislation in the USA, in
conjunction with a K-Jetronic system.
Since this time, research has been
continually underway to further develop
the lambda sensor and lambda closed-
loop control system.
319
Emission
control
Catalytic
exhaust treatment
Catalytic converter systems
There are three catalytic converter sys¬
tems for different exhaust designs and
applications.
Oxidation catalytic converter
The oxidation catalytic converter (or
single-bed oxidation catalytic conver¬
ter) works with excess air and trans¬
forms hydrocarbons and carbon
monoxide into water vapour and carbon
dioxide through oxidation, i.e. combus¬
tion. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) remain
practically unaffected by oxidation
catalytic converters. In the case of
fuel-injection engines, the oxygen
necessary for oxidation is usually ob¬
tained through a lean mixture setting
(A > 1). With carburetor engines, the
so-called secondary air is supplied up¬
stream of the converter by a centrifugal
pump driven by the engine or through
self-inducting air valves.
Oxidation catalytic converters were first
used in 1975 in vehicles for the then
current US exhaust regulations.
Dual-bed catalytic converter
The dual-bed catalytic converter con¬
sists of two catalysts connected in
series with each other (hence the
name dual bed). With this method, the
engine must be operated with a rich
mixture (A< 1), i.e. with air deficiency.
The exhaust gas first flows through a
reduction catalyst and then through an
oxidation catalyst. Air is blown in be¬
tween the two. In the first catalyst, the
oxides of nitrogen are converted, and,
in the second, the hydrocarbons and
carbon monoxide. Due to the rich en¬
gine operation, the dual-bed design is
the least favorable in terms of fuel
consumption; however, it can be com¬
bined with a simple fuel-management
320 system without electronic control. A
further disadvantage is the fact that
during the reduction of oxides of nitro¬
gen under air deficiency conditions,
ammonia (NH3) is produced, which is
then partly re-oxidized to oxides of
nitrogen during the subsequent addi¬
tion of air.
With this design, conversion of NOx is
significantly worse than with a single¬
bed three-way catalytic converter with
lambda closed-loop control.
The dual-bed catalytic converter is
practically unused by European auto¬
makers, even for those vehicles ex¬
ported to the USA or Japan. However,
in the US, it is freqently used by
American automakers. The dual-bed
design is also often used in the US in
conjunction with lambda closed-loop
control. In these vehicles, the cata¬
lytic converter is operated with a
stoichiometric mixture, whereby the
fuel-consumption problems arising
from rich operation are solved. How¬
ever, this design is very expensive and
has the disadvantages mentioned
above with regard to NOx emissions.
Three-way catalytic converter
(TWC)
The three-way catalytic converter (or
single-bed three-way catalytic conver¬
ter) simultaneously removes all three
pollutant components to a high degree
(three-way). A prerequisite is that the
air-fuel mixture supplied to the engine,
and thereby the exhaust, is at the
stoichiometric ratio, as described in the
Section “Lambda closed-loop control”
(Page 316). The three-way catalytic
converter combined with lambda
closed-loop control is the most effec¬
tive pollutant-reduction system pres¬
ently available, for which reason it is
being increasingly used to meet the
strictest exhaust-gas limits. The Euro¬
pean automakers have been using this
design for years, almost exclusively for
export vehicles to the USA and Japan
in combination with fuel-injection sys¬
tems. In view of the strict exhaust-gas
limits planned for the Federal Republic
of Germany and the EEC, the vehicles
for these countries will also be equip¬
ped with this technology.
The use of the three-way catalytic con¬
verter (TWC) without lambda closed-
loop control is often discussed (retrofit
solutions). Of course, this would not Emission
enable the high levels of conversion control
achievable when using systems with
lambda closed-loop control to be
attained. Flowever, it would enable a
reduction in pollutants by approxi¬
mately 50%.

14) Catalytic converter systems.

a) Single-bed oxidation catalyst. Secondary air

b) Dual-bed catalyst.

Reduction Oxidation
catalyst catalyst
NO, HO, CO

Mixture-formation
system

Secondary air

c) Single-bed three-way catalyst.

321
Emission Substrate systems
control
The catalytic converter (or more
correctly the catalytic exhaust con¬
verter) consists of metal housing, a
substrate and the actual active catalytic
layer.
In turn, there are three different sub¬
strate systems:
- pellets
- ceramic monoliths
- metallic monoliths
Pellets
The pellet type of substrate is primarily
used in the US and Japan, but is
steadily loosing ground. It is practically
unused by European automakers.
Ceramic monoliths
Ceramic monoliths are ceramic bodies
perforated by several thousand small
channels through which the exhaust
flows. The ceramic material comprises
a high-temperature-resistant mag¬
nesium-aluminum silicate.
The monolith, which is extremely sen¬
sitive to tensions, is mounted in a metal
housing. Between the housing walls
and the substrate is an elastic metal
mesh made of a high-alloy steel wire
with a diameter of approximately 0.25
mm. This mesh must be adequately
elastic to compensate for manufactur¬
ing tolerances, the differing expansion
15) Substrate systems.
a) Pellet-type catalytic converter
b) Catalytic converter with ceramic monoliths
322
coefficients of housing and substrate
material, mechanical stresses during
vehicle operation, and the gas forces
affecting the ceramic body.
Ceramic monoliths are currently the
most commonly-used catalytic con¬
verter substrates. They are used by all
European automakers and, in the USA
and Japan, are superseding the pellet
catalytic converters used previously.
Metallic monoliths
Metallic monoliths are at present only
infrequently used. They are primarily
installed near the engine as so-called
pre-catalysts, supplementing the main
catalytic converter, in order to provide
more rapid catalytic conversion after
cold starts. Their application as main
catalysts is primarily impeded by ex¬
cessive costs.
Coating
While pellets can be directly coated
with the catalytically active substances,
ceramic and metallic monoliths require
a substrate coating of aluminum oxide
(“wash-coat”), which increases the
effective surface area of the catalyst by
a factor of about 7000. The effective
catalytic coating applied on top of this
consists in oxidation catalysts of the
noble metals platinum and palladium,
and in three-way catalysts of platinum
and rhodium. Platinum accelerates the
N
C
0
CD
I
0
CO
Q
00CO
0
CO
0
Q
0
o
k-
D
o
CO
oxidation of the hydrocarbons and the
carbon monoxide, and rhodium
accelerates the reduction of the oxides
of nitrogen. The content of noble met¬
als in a catalytic converter is approxi¬
mately 2 to 3 grams.
Operating conditions
As is the case with the lambda sensor,
the operating temperature also plays a
very important role in the function of the
catalytic converter. Appreciable con¬
version of pollutants begins only at an
operating temperature of more than
about 250°C. The ideal operating con¬
ditions for high conversion rates and
long service life prevail in the tempera¬
ture range from approximately 400°C to
800°C. In the range from 800°C to
1000°C, thermal aging is significantly
aggravated by sintering of the noble
metals and the Al203 substrate coating,
which leads to a reduction in the active
surface area. Hence, in this tempera¬
ture range, the duration of operation
exerts a very great influence. Above
1000°C, thermal aging is severely ag¬
gravated, up to the almost total ineffec¬
tiveness of the catalytic converter.
These characteristics limit the possibil¬
ities for installation. Hence, it is impera¬
tive that a compromise is found for
the installation position of the catalytic
converter in the exhaust system. In the
future, this will be made easier by Emission
improved thermal stabilization of the control
coating (critical limit at approximately
950°C). Under ideal operating condi¬
tions, a catalytic converter can have a
service life of up to 100000 km (60000
miles). On the other hand, engine mal¬
functions, for example misfires, can
cause the temperature of the catalytic
converter to increase to more than
1400°C. Such high temperatures lead
to the complete destruction of the
catalytic converter as a result of the
melting of the substrate material. In
order to prevent this, in particular the
ignition system on vehicles operating
with catalytic converters must be very
reliable and maintainance-free, and this
demand is greatly facilitated by the
application of electronic systems. A
further prerequisite for reliable long¬
term operation is that the engine is
operated with unleaded fuel. Other¬
wise, lead compounds are deposited in
the pores of the active surfaces or
directly on the surfaces, thus reducing
them. Engine-oil residues can also
poison the catalyst.
323
Emission
Exhaust-gas
control
recirculation
(EGR)
Exhaust-gas recirculation is a method
of reducing emissions of oxides of
nitrogen that has been known and
applied for years. In its essential com¬
ponents, engine exhaust is an inert
gas, i.e. a non-combustible gas.
The exhaust gas recirculated back to
the combustion chamber thus serves to
reduce the peak combustion tempera¬
ture. Since formation of oxides of nitro¬
gen increases superproportionally with
the combustion temperature, EGR as a
temperature-reducing measure is a
very effective method of reducing ox¬
ides of nitrogen. Exhaust-gas recircu¬
lation can be achieved by
- internal EGR with corresponding
valve overlap or
- external exhaust-gas recirculation
with correspondingly controlled EGR
valves.
17) Schematic diagram of exhaust-gas recirculation.
324
Internal
exhaust-gas recirculation
Internal EGR is the result of valve
overlap, i.e. the intake valve has already
opened while the exhaust valve has not
yet closed. The result is residual gas,
the guantity of which depends on the
valve overlap. This gas is re-inducted
into the cylinder along with the fresh
air-fuel mixture. Due to their better
charging, engines with high specific
power have large valve overlaps and
therefore feature relatively low NOx
emissions.
However, valve overlap cannot be in¬
creased indefinitely, since excess over¬
lap precludes stable, misfire-free en¬
gine operation and increases HC emis¬
sions.
External
exhaust-gas recirculation
If the internal EGR is not sufficient to
meet the set NOx limit values, external
EGR is used. In this process, a set
portion of the engine exhaust is re¬
turned to the fresh mixture.
Depending on the amount of exhaust
gas recirculated, NOx emissions are
reduced by up to 60%, although this
involves an increase in the HC emis¬
sions. If the exhaust-gas recirculation
rate is limited to 10 ... 15 %, there is no
increase in the fuel consumption. To be
sure, a prerequisite for this is the simul¬
taneous optimization of the ignition
timing, which is basically true for all the
measures which intervene in the com¬
bustion process. The maximum EGR
limit is determined by the increase in
the HC emissions and the fuel con¬
sumption and by increasing engine
roughness. Consequently, EGR is
switched off during idling, when there
are practically no NOx emissions in any
case. Likewise, during full-load opera¬
tion when the rich mixture precludes
emissions of more than slight concen¬
trations of NOx, no exhaust is recircu¬
lated for reasons of power output.
Today, exhaust-gas recirculation is
controlled primarily by pneumatic or
18) Influence of the rate of exhaust-gas recirculation (EGR) on exhaust and fuel
consumption.
Excess-air factor A
mechanical systems, which meter the Emission
amount of exhaust to be recirculated control
depending on throttle-valve position,
intake-manifold pressure, or exhaust
backpressure. However, the systems
have the drawback of providing very
inexact metering, which generally re¬
sults in poor driveability and increased
HC emissions when large percentages
of exhaust gas are recirculated. Conse¬
quently, in the future here as well
electronically controlled systems will be
used which are able to set the ideal
EGR quantity under all operating condi¬
tions.
All such EGR systems have the draw¬
back that deposits of solids from the
exhaust can, in the course of time,
restrict the valves and lines, thereby
reducing the amount of exhaust gas
which is recirculated over the service
life of the engine.
325
Emission
control
Other measures
Lean-burn concepts
Pollutant reduction with the catalytic
converter is an “external process”,
which does not directly influence the
combustion process in the engine. In
contrast, with “internal processes”,
which utilize appropriate combustion-
chamber design, valve timing, com¬
pression ratio, exhaust-gas recircula¬
tion, ignition timing and air-fuel ratio,
the combustion process itself can be
influenced and as a result considerable
control exerted on pollutant emissions,
although not to the degree possible
with catalytic exhaust aftertreatment.
Such internal methods are used in
lean-burn concepts.
The concentration of the pollutants hy¬
drocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide
(CO), and oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
expelled by the engine, together with
fuel consumption, are dependent to a
great extent on the excess-air factor
lambda (A), i.e. the air-fuel ratio at which
the engine is being operated. In the rich
range, the HC and CO emissions in¬
crease, while they are at a minimum in
the lean range. The same is true of
specific fuel consumption. Oxides of
nitrogen, on the other hand, are at a
maximum with a slightly lean mixture
(A « 1.05).
Prior to 1970, engines were operated
with rich mixtures. This assured high
power with problem-free driveability.
However, increasingly severe emis¬
sion-control legislation forced air-fuel
ratios to be increased, and this meant
that engines had to be run with excess
air. This in the main reduces the emis¬
sions of hydrocarbons and carbon
monoxide, and at the same time leads
to a considerable reduction in fuel con¬
sumption.
On the other hand, this lean adjustment
causes NOx to rise. It also has a
derogatory effect on vehicle driveability
which had to be counteracted by con¬
326 stant improvements on both the en¬
gines and the fuel-management sys¬
tems. It was also necessary to adjust
the ignition timing even more precisely.
For all these reasons, more and more
electronic ignition systems are fitted
today to set the optimum spark ad¬
vance for fuel consumption and ex¬
haust emissions.
Lean mixture adjustment
With the exception of those vehicles
equipped with catalytic converters and
lambda closed-loop control, all series-
production engines today are run with a
lean mixture setting of around A ~ 1.1
in the part-load range. For power-out¬
put reasons, the mixture is enriched
only in the full-load range. The exhaust-
gas limits applicable today in most of
Europe can thus be complied with;
additional measures are required only
in exceptional instances. For the stricter
legislation in force in Sweden and Swit¬
zerland, exhaust-gas recirculation is
necessary in most engines in order to
maintain the limit values for NOx. For
further reduction in hydrocarbons, it is
often necessary to set a later spark
advance. If the engines designed for
the EEC area at present represent the
optimum with regard to fuel consump¬
tion, the further exhaust reduction for
Sweden and Switzerland has already
significantly increased consumption as
a consequence.
With the engines in series production
today, it is not possible to make the air-
fuel mixture leaner than A = 1.1 ... 1.2
while still maintaining reliable ignition
and good combustion. This can be
seen from the increase in HC emis¬
sions caused by combustion misses
and by the increase in fuel consump¬
tion. Driveability is also drastically
worsened. As a consequence, the goal
of new engine development is to ex¬
tend lean-running capability into the
excess-air factor ranges around A = 1.4
through further engine improvements,
thus reducing consumption and NOx
emissions.

Thermal afterburning
The measures previously described
often lead only to a reduction of NOx
emissions. In most cases, hydrocar¬
bons remain at the same level or they
even increase. One means of reducing
hydrocarbon and carbon-monoxide
pollutants is to employ thermal after¬
burning. At temperatures of above
600°C, HC and CO are oxidized to H20
and C02. In its simplest form, this
process is used at higher loads in every
lean-burn design, when the pollutants
oxidize with the oxygen remaining in
the exhaust at high exhaust tem¬
peratures.
In the early 70s, this effect was utilized
to comply with the then-current US
emission limits through special config¬
uration of exhaust systems, e.g. insu¬
lated exhaust pipes (man-air-ox sys¬
tems, i.e. manifold-air-oxidation). Sec¬
ondary air was added in the vicinity of
the exhaust valves to increase effec¬
tiveness. However, these systems had
the drawback of short dwell time (of the
process in the exhaust pipe) and fre¬
quently insufficient temperature of the
exhaust-air mixture. This necessitated
mixture enrichment and ignition retard¬
ing in order to increase the efficiency.
This technique culminated in the de¬
velopment of the thermal reactor.
Thermal reactors
Thermal reactors are designed so that
the exhaust-air mixture, enriched with
high percentages of HC and CO during
rich operation, is ignited at high tem¬
peratures and thus burns the pollutants.
The reactors are optimized for the
longest possible duration of the pro¬
cess in order to provide maximum
combustion. HC emissions can be re¬
duced by about 50% with the help of
thermal reactors; however, this in¬
creases fuel consumption by up to
15%. For this reason, such systems
using thermal reactors were only used
for a short period, to be replaced by
catalytic converter technology.
Emission
Overrun fuel cutoff control
Overrun fuel cutoff is another means of
reducing emissions of HC and CO.
When the engine is operated on over¬
run, a high vacuum is produced in the
induction system and thereby in the
combustion chamber as well. Under
these conditions, the mixture is difficult
to ignite as a result of its low oxygen
content, so that combustion is incom¬
plete. This leads to emissions of un¬
burned hydrocarbons and carbon
monoxide. The complete cutoff of the
fuel supply in overrun operation pre¬
vents the emission of unburned pol¬
lutants.
Overrun fuel cutoff which operates
smoothly for example on the KE-
Jetronic owing to continual injection
from the injection valves, responds as a
function of the coolant temperature
(Figure 18). In order to avoid continual
activation and deactivation at a single
specific engine speed, there are differ¬
ing switching points dependent upon
the direction of the engine speed
change. In the case of a hot engine, the
switching thresholds are as low as
possible in order to provide maximum
fuel economy.
With the multiplicity of possibilities of
reducing the pollutant emissions from
spark-ignition engines, the technical
solution arrived at depends on the
boundary conditions, of which by no
means the least significant is emission-
control legislation.
327
Emission
control
Emission
regulations
Emission testing methods
Test program
The effective limiting of pollutant ex¬
hausts from passenger vehicles was
made mandatory for the first time in 1968
in the US in the State of California. Today,
exhaust testing is required for the type
approval of new vehicles in all indus¬
trialized countries. This testing is in¬
tended to ensure that the pollutant
emissions do not exceed certain limits. In
order to be able to determine the
pollutants produced by a vehicle exactly
and reproducibly, the vehicle in question
must be operated in an emissions test
cell under conditions which reproduce
actual driving as closely as possible.
Operation in the test cell supplies re¬
liable quantitative information without
19) Test setups
a) for US Federal Test (here with Venturi system),
b) for ECE, Japan, Sweden, Switzerland, Australia, Mexico (here with rotary-piston compressor).
1 Brake, 2 Flywheel, 3 Exhaust, 4 Air filter, 5 Dilution air, 6 Cooler, 7 Sample Venturi tube,
8 Gas temperature, 9 Pressure, 10 Venturi tube, 11 Fan, 12 Sample bag, 13 Rotary-piston blower,
14 To outlet.
328
requiring actual road driving with mea¬
surement systems connected. The
powered wheels of the vehicle to be
tested are placed on the rollers of a
chassis dynamometer, which can
simulate friction, road inclination and
air resistance by means of appropriate
brake resistance, as well as vehicle
weight through an appropriate inertial
mass. This provides good corres¬
pondence to actual road conditions for
steady-state and dynamic operation.
The required cooling during test driv¬
ing on the rollers is provided by a
fan installed in the test cell which
blows on the vehicle from the front.
A precisely defined program is com¬
pleted on the test stand in order to
determine representative pollutant
masses. During the entire testing
period, exhaust is continuously col¬
lected, which is then analyzed after
the test has been completed in or¬
der to determine the masses of
pollutants produced.
There is no single uniform test pro¬
gram. It is legally prescribed by the
legislation authority of the individual
country in question. With regard to the
test procedure for determining pollutant
masses, a certain worldwide agree¬
ment has been reached: since 1982
the only method in general use is the
CVS1) dilution method, although this
differs in certain details from country to
country.
In addition to the exhaust emissions, in
some countries limits are placed on
evaporation lossesfrom thefuel system.
Roller-type test stand
(Chassis dynamometer)
For simulation on the test stand it is
assumed that the pollutant emissions
are comparable with those on the road,
if the speeds and forces acting on the
vehicle are the same with respect to
time on the test stand as they are on
the road.
20) Analytical and measuring equipment for emission testing.
In order to reproduce the inertial forces Emission
of the vehicle, as well as rolling resist¬ control
ance and air resistance, roller-type test
stands with fluid friction dynamometers,
eddy-current brakes and direct current
generators are used to generate the
appropriate speed-dependent braking
load.
The vehicle mass can be likewise simu¬
lated by various means. By using fluid
friction dynamometers and eddy-cur¬
rent brakes, centrifugal masses of diffe¬
rent sizes are used which can be
connected to the rollers via fast-action
couplings. On those test stands which
incorporate direct-current generators,
the vehicle mass can be simulated
electrically as well.
Regardless of which type of test stand
is used in an individual case, it is
necessary in all cases to ensure that
the centrifugal masses and the curve of
b CVS Constant Volume Sampling
329
Emission braking resistance over speed are
control accurately complied with. Incorrect set¬
ting of the roller test stand leads to
incorrect exhaust-gas measurement.
In addition to the setting of the roller-
type test stand itself, ambient con¬
ditions such as the humidity and the air
pressure can also have a measurable
influence.
Driving curves
Once the inertial forces of the vehicle
and the rolling and air resistance have
been correctly recreated on the test
stand, the speed on the roller must
then be matched to that on the road in
order to maintain representative ex¬
haust measurements. For this purpose,
a driving cycle is set, which corres¬
ponds as far as possible in speed and
acceleration characteristics to driving
behavior in normal traffic. In countries
which impose legal limits on exhaust-
gas emissions from motor vehicles, the
test regulations pertaining to pollutant
emissions include such driving curves.
These can be divided into two types:
- driving curves which are generated
from records of actual operation on the
road;
- driving curves consisting of sections
of constant acceleration and constant
speed.
The first step in putting together a
driving curve must in every case be the
definition of the traffic conditions which
are to be simulated, since the choice of
conditions and the commensurate test
routes have a very decisive influence
on the pollutant emissions measured
during an exhaust-gas test. Vehicles of
differing power classes with drivers
having differing driving habits are
driven on the designated test routes
under the specified conditions. With the
first type of driving curve, a single
driving curve is chosen as being most
representative of the many curves re¬
corded.
With the second type of curve, the
recorded speed curves are dissected
330 into a number of driving conditions,
whose frequency and sequence are
inspected. This inspection results in
a “synthetic” driving curve, which
corresponds as closely as possible to
the measured speed and acceleration
profile.
Sampling and analysis
Since the conversion in Europe in 1982
to the dilution method (CVS = Constant
Volume Sampling) of exhaust collec¬
tion, there is now a basically uniform
process which is valid for the USA,
Japan and Europe.
The dilution process works in the follow¬
ing fashion: the exhaust gas given
off by the test vehicle during the test
cycle is diluted with filtered ambient air
and suctioned off by a special pump
arrangement in such a way that the total
volume flow of exhaust gas and dilution
air is constant, i.e. more or less air is
added depending on the exhaust emit¬
ted at any given moment. The mixing
ratio of air to exhaust gas is between
8:1 and 10:1. A constant percentage is
continuously drawn from the diluted
exhaust stream over the entire duration
of the test, and collected in one (or
three) collector bag(s). In this way, at
the conclusion of the driving program,
the pollutant concentration in the col¬
lector bag or bags corresponds exactly
to the average of the concentration in
the entire exhaust-air mixture suc¬
tioned off. Since the exhaust-air flow is
monitored during the entire test, the
total volume is exactly known. The
mass of pollutants emitted during the
test can be calculated from the total
volume and concentration in the col¬
lector bag or bags.
In order to ensure that the result arrived
at is not falsified by pollutants already
contained in the air drawn in for dilution,
a sample is continuously taken from the
ambient air which is collected in a
fashion similar to the exhaust sample in
a bag (or three bags) and analyzed after
the conclusion of the test. In this
fashion, the test result can be corrected
to account for any pollution in the
surrounding air.
Evaluation
As compared to a sampling method
whereby the entire exhaust emitted by
the engine is collected in a single large
bag, the dilution method has the advan¬
tage of preventing the condensation of
water vapor, which significantly re¬
duces losses of oxides of nitrogen in
the collector bag(s). In addition, the
dilution hampers reactions among the
exhaust-gas components, which is sig¬
nificant particularly with regard to hy¬
drocarbons. One drawback of the dilu¬
tion method which must be accepted is
the fact that the concentrations of the
individual exhaust-gas components to
be measured are lower by the factor of
dilution, which means that the analyzing
instrument must be more sensitive by
this factor as well.
Test equipment
The test equipment which is used to
analyze the pollutants in the collector
bag(s) has been likewise standardized.
Two different methods are used to
pump a constant volume flow during
the test. With the first, the exhaust
mixture is suctioned by a normal fan via
a Venturi tube (critical flow Venturi),
while with the second a special rotary-
piston compressor (Roots blower) is
used. With both these methods, the
volume flow can be monitored suffi¬
ciently exactly under consideration of
the boundary conditions (e.g. pressure,
temperature).
Detection of evaporation losses
from the fuel system
Independent of the pollutants arising as
a consequence of the combustion in
the engine, under certain conditions a
vehicle also emits considerable quan¬
tities of hydrocarbons. These hydrocar¬
bon emissions can arise from poorly
sealed points in the vehicle fuel system
(for example, loosely fitting gas caps),
as well as from inadequately dimen¬
sioned tank ventilation systems and the
like. In order to make sure that no
serious emission sources are present
in a vehicle the causes of which are
based on the design of the fuel system, Emission
in some countries there are legal re¬ control
quirements for the limitation of evap¬
oration losses from the fuel system.
SHED method
The most common means of determin¬
ing evaporation losses is the so-called
SHED method.
In this procedure, after having been
conditioned, the vehicle is placed in a
gas-tight chamber. The vehicle tank is
filled to about 40 % with a test fuel, the
temperature of which must lie between
10°C and 16°C. The fuel is then heated.
At 16°C, the actual measurement of the
HC concentration in the chamber be¬
gins. During measurement, the fuel
temperature is linearly raised by 14°C
during the course of an hour.
After the final temperature has been
reached, the HC concentration is
measured again. This value is taken as
the final value tor the determination of
the evaporation losses. The vehicle
windows and the trunk lid must remain
open during the entire measurement
process.
To determine the evaporation losses
in the shutoff phase, the vehicle,
which has been previously driven to
operating temperature, is put in the
chamber, and the increase in the HC
concentration over the course of an
hour is measured.
Emission US test cycle
control
FTP 72 test cycle1)
Thedriving curve ofthetest cycle FTP72
is composed of speed changes which
have actually been measured on the
streets of Los Angeles during morning
rush-hour traffic.
This curve is today a part of the legally
prescribed exhaust-gas test procedure
applicable in the following countries:
Australia, Mexico, Sweden and Swit¬
zerland.
In these countries, an exhaust-gas test
proceeds in the manner as described in
the following:
After having been conditioned (12
hours at 20 ... 30°C), the vehicle is
started and run through the test cycle
once without pause (that is, without
switching off the engine). During this
time, the diluted exhaust gas is col¬
lected in a bag by the CVS method
described on pages 330 and 331, and
analyzed after the end of the driving
program. The pollutant mass thus ar¬
rived at is applied to the road distance
driven during the test, so that the test
result can then be given in pollutant
emissions per kilometer.
The maximum allowable pollutant
quantities are different in different
countries (see Table 2, page 330), and
332
in some cases (Switzerland) also de¬
pend on the extended operation per¬
formance which is used as a basis.
Australia and Mexico additionally apply
limitations to the evaporation iosses
from the fuel system. These emission
values are determined by the SHED
method.
FTP 75 test cycle
The driving curve for the FTP 75 test
cycle is made up of the driving curve for
the FTP 72 test cycle and an additional
hot test. The driving curve taken from
the FTP 72 is divided into two sections,
the “transient phase” (0 ... 505 s) and
the “stabilized phase” (506 ... 1372 s).
The exhaust test then proceeds as
follows:
Aftersuitable conditioning is completed,
the vehicle is started and the driving
curve is driven. In the transient phase,
the diluted exhaust gas is collected in
bag No. 1. At the beginning of the
stabilized phase (after 505 s), sample¬
taking switches to bag No. 2, without
interrupting the driving program. Im¬
mediately after the stabilized phase
(after 1372 s) the engine is switched off.
Following a pause of 10 minutes, the
engine is started again and the hot test
lasting 505s is now driven. The speed
curve of the hot test is identical with that
of the transient phase. During this States and Canada. Evaporation Emission
period the exhaust gas is collected in a losses are determined by the SHED control
third bag. method.
After conclusion of the entire test, the In the US, exceptions can be approved
exhaust samples in the three bags are for the various model years under cer¬
analyzed, multiplied by a number of tain conditions. In addition, California
differing evaluation factors, and added allows higher pollutant emissions if the
up to produce a total result. The evalua¬ vehicle manufacturer can prove that the
tion factors are shown in the following limits will be maintained over 100,000
table: miles.

Test section Evaluation factor

Cold transient ct 0.43
Stabilized phase s 1.00
Hot transient ht 0.57
This test procedure is currently used in
the United States and Canada. The
limits, in grams of pollutant mass per
mile driven, differ in the US (49 states),
California and Canada. They are appli¬
cable to all newly registered passenger
cars, regardless of swept volume and
vehicle weight. They must be main¬
tained on average after 50,000 miles.
As of 1984, these limits also apply in
the high-altitude regions of the United
States (49 states). 1620 m has been
defined as test altitude (altitude of
Denver).
Evaporation emission from the vehicle
fuel system is limited in the United
ECE/EEC test cycle* 2)
The ECE/EEC test cycle uses a driving
curve which has been generated syn¬
thetically. It very nearly describes the
driving behavior which occurs in inner-
city traffic. The ECE/EEC test cycle is
currently stipulated by law for the
following countries: Federal Republic of
Germany, Holland, Belgium, Luxem¬
bourg, France, Denmark, Great Britain,
Italy, Ireland, Austria and Norway.
The exhaust test proceeds as follows:
After the vehicle has been suitably
conditioned, the actual driving test be¬
gins after a cold start and 40 s prelimi¬
nary running. The test cycle is driven
through four times without pause. Dur-
0 FTP Federal Test Procedure
2) ECE Economic Commission of Europe
EEC European Economic Community

22) FTP 75 test cycle (USA, Canada).

Cycle length: 11.1 miles =17.86 km
Average speed: 21.1 mph =34.10 km/h
Maximum speed: 56.7 mph =91.20 km/h
Percentage idle: 17.9%

km/h

•u
a>
q120
(/)

« 80
o
cc
40

333
Emission ing this time, the exhaust gas is col¬
control lected in a single bag by means of the
CVS method.
In this European test, the pollutant
masses arrived at by the analysis of the
bag contents are not applied to the test
distance driven, but are given in g/test.
In addition, the emissions of hydrocar¬
bons and NOx are combined to form
a sum limit (HC + NOx). The allow¬
able pollutant-emission quantities are
graduated according to the vehicle
weight.
At present, the evaporation emission is
not controlled; however, the monitoring
and limiting of these evaporation
losses, similar to that carried out in the
US, is under consideration. For the
complete fulfillment of the approval
conditions, the carbon monoxide con¬
centration at idle must be checked and
the effectiveness of the crankcase ven¬
tilation proven.
Japanese test cycle
Synthetically generated driving curves
are also employed for the Japanese
test cycle. The total test is composed of
two test cycles each of which com¬
prises different driving curves. The first
test, the so-called 11-mode cycle, is
23) ECE/EEC test cycle.
Cycle length: 1.013 km
Cycles per test: 4 speed and the maximum acceleration
Average speed: 18.7 km/h
Maximum speed: 50 km/h
Percentage idle: 31%
334
run through four times after cold start¬
ing. The second test, called the 10-
mode cycle, is then run through six
times in the form of a hot test, whereby
only the last five cycles are measured.
The pre-conditioning for the hot start
contains the required idle-exhaust test,
and proceeds as follows:
The vehicle is run for approximately 15
minutes at 40 km/h until normal operat¬
ing temperature is reached. The con¬
centrations of HC, CO and C02 in the
exhaust pipe are measured. Following
a further warm-up period of 5 minutes
at 40 km/h, the 10-mode hot test
begins.
In both the 11-mode and the 10-mode
cycle, the exhaust gas is analyzed by
means of a CVS system. The diluted
exhaust gas is collected in a single bag.
In the cold test, the pollutants are given
in g/test, while they are applied to the
distance driven for the hot test, i.e.
converted into g/km. The Japanese
emission regulations also include a
limitation of the evaporation losses
which may escape from the fuel sys¬
tem. The losses are determined using
the SHED method.
Comparison of test
procedures and limits
The average speed, the maximum
differ substantially in the various test
cycles. Thus, the ECE/EEC and the
Japanese tests place more stress on
the simulation of inner-city traffic, while
the FTP 72 and FTP 75 tests also
include higher speeds. Commensurate
with these differences in the driving
curves, the loading applied to the en¬
gine in the different test cycles varies,
with the result that the objective evalua¬
tion and useful comparison of the re¬
spective limits are difficult. However,
under the present legislations, the
United States has the most stringent
requirements, fulfillment of which re¬
quires the use of the catalytic conver¬
ter. Catalytic converters predominate in
Japan as well, whilst in Europe, cur-
rently valid emission limits can still be A series of measures resulting in a Emission
observed without catalytic converters reduction in tax were decided upon for control
having to be installed. the Federal Republic of Germany in
With the EEC decision of June 28, order to promote the introduction of
1985, a reduction of pollutants was low-emission vehicles on a voluntary
decided upon for the European coun¬ basis.
tries as well. In Austria, the US standards of 1983
This reduction in pollutant emissions are applicable as from 1987 for all
provides for a step-by-step but varying vehicles with a swept volume greater
increase in stringency according to than 1.5 I and, as from 1988, for all
3 different displacement classes passenger vehicles. Sweden and Swit¬
specified as follows: above 2.0 I, above zerland have likewise decided upon the
1.4 I and up to 2.0 I, and 1.4 I or less. introduction of the US standards for
The limits imposed in the displacement 1988/1989.
class above 2 I necessitate the intro¬
duction of the closed-loop-controlled
three-way catalytic converter at the pre¬
sent level of technology. In the other
displacement classes, the specified
limits make possible the use of various
exhaust concepts. Here as well, the
closed-loop-controlled three-way cata¬
lytic converter will be used in some
cases, together with the uncontrolled
three-way catalytic converter as well as
the so-called lean-burn concepts em¬
ploying oxidation catalysts. Engine de¬
signs without catalytic converter are
possible only in the class below 1.4 I,
for which exhaust-gas recirculation
(EGR) and secondary-air injection will
be used.

24) Japanese test cycle.

a) 11 -mode cycle (cold test). b) 10-mode cycle (hot test).
Cycle length: 1.021 km Cycle length: 0.664 km
Cycles per test: 4 Cycles per test: 6
Average speed: 30.6 km/h Average speed: 17.7 km/h
Maximum speed: 60 km/h Maximum speed: 40 km/h
Percentage idle: 21.7% Percentage idle: 26.7%

335
Emission
control
Emission-testing gas measurement, works according to
the infrared principle. This principle is
technology based on the fact that exhaust-gas
components absorb infrared radiation,
at a wavelength which is characteristic
Emissions monitoring for each exhaust component.
Through differing design of the
The composition of the exhaust permits measurement chamber, the tester can
the specialist in a vehicle workshop to be designed for the particular exhaust
draw conclusions concerning the oper¬ components to be measured and for
ation of the engine, the ignition system the desired measuring range. Hence,
and the fuel-management system. For there are single-component testers
this purpose, emission-testing equip¬ (e.g. for CO) as well as multi-compo¬
ment incorporating a wide variety of nent units (for CO/HC, C0/C02, CO/
technologies was available to the work¬ HC/C02 etc.). However, the measure¬
shops at a very early point. This was ment chambers all operate on the same
intended essentially for measuring CO principle.
or for determining the unburned com¬
ponents in the exhaust. Measuring chamber (Figure 25)
In the attempt to reduce the toxic A lamp heated to approximately 700°C
components in the exhaust gas, legis¬ (5) emits infrared radiation, which
lation requires the testing of exhaust- passes through a test cell (3) and then
gas emissions not only for type ap¬ into a receiving chamber (1). Cali¬
proval, but also for the vehicles already bration gas with a defined CO percent¬
in use. age is sealed into this measuring
Accordingly, for vehicles equipped with
spark-ignition engines, the mainte¬
nance of a certain CO limit at idle is
monitored in the Federal Republic of
Germany in regular testing per § 29
StVZO (StVZO = FMVSS/CUR) and
annually in the newly introduced Spe¬
cial Exhaust Inspection (ASU). This
emission monitoring is one further, very
important application of emission-test¬
ing equipment. As a result of its impor¬
tance for air pollution control, the CO
test equipment used in the Federal
Republic of Germany is required by law
to be calibrated.

Measurement procedure
The requirement for the selective mea¬
surement of individual exhaust-gas
components with great accuracy has
resulted in only the infrared method
gaining universal acceptance in the
vehicle workshop out of the several
known methods for testing the exhaust
gas.
The Bosch CO tester, which will be
used in the following to demonstrate
336 the principle and procedure of exhaust-
chamber and absorbs a pari of the CO-
specific infrared radiation. This absorp¬
tion causes a temperature rise in the
gas in the chamber, which results in a
flow of gas past a flow sensor from
volume V-i into compensating volume
V2. The infrared radiation from the lamp
is rhythmically interrupted by a rotating
chopper disk (4). The pulsating radia¬
tion causes a periodic absorption in the
receiving chamber, and this results in
an alternating basic flow between the
two volumes V1 to V2.
The flow sensor consists of extremely
fine, heated nickel resistors in a
bridge circuit; it converts the alternat¬
ing flow into an alternating electrical
signal.
If, instead of pure air, exhaust gas
with a varying CO percentage is
caused to flow through the test cell
(3), depending on the level of the CO
percentage more or less radiation
energy will be absorbed in the test
cell and this will thus be lost to the
26) Gas path in CO tester.
1 Probe, 2 Coarse filter, 3 Water trap, 4 Fine filter, 5 Solenoid-operated valve, 6 Diaphragm pump,
7 Pressure switch, 8 Safety reservoir, 9 Measuring chamber, 10 Tank.
receiving chamber. This results in a Emission
reduction of the basic flow in the re¬ control
ceiving chamber. Hence, the deviation
from the basic alternating signal is a
measure of the actual CO content in
the exhaust gas.
Gas path (Figure 26)
The exhaust gas to be tested is drawn
off at the vehicle’s exhaust with the
help of a probe (1). It is then pumped
through a coarse filter (2) into the water
trap (3) by a diaphragm pump built into
the test device. Condensation water
and coarse particles are separated out
at this point before the test gas is again
cleaned in a subsequent fine filter (4).
The inlet of the measuring chamber (9)
is switched from exhaust gas to air
with the solenoid-operated valve (5)'
which is located before the diaphragm
pump (6), at which time automatic
zero-point calibration occurs, control¬
led by the microprocessor of the tes¬
ter. Safety filters are installed in the
337
Emission two inlets for exhaust gas and air to
control protect the measuring chamber from
the entry of solid particles. The
measuring chamber is also protected
against the ingress of water, for exam¬
ple if the external water trap has not
been emptied at the proper time. The
restriction in the tank (10) causes a
pressure rise in the safety reservoir (8)
and thereby flow through the bypass
into the measuring chamber. Any
water that might have been taken in
falls by reason of its weight through
the connecting pipe and into the tank
(10) from where it leaves the tester
through the outlet.
The pressure switch (7) ensures that a
sufficient quantity of gas is pumped in
at all times. The restriction in the safety
reservoir causes a pressure rise at the
pump outlet, which activates the
pressure switch. If the gas path is
interrupted for any reason, the pressure
switch opens and a defect indicator
informs the operator of the defect.
27) Testing the carbon monoxide content in the exhaust gas of a vehicle with the CO tester.
338
Tester operation
The CO tester is controlled by a micro¬
processor, just as are the other exhaust
testers in the Bosch CompacTest Sys¬
tem, and works essentially automati¬
cally. This largely precludes environ¬
mental or operator influences on the
test results.
After switching on the tester, there
follows a self-test and a “warm-up
period” wait cycle. After the warm-up
period of approximately 3 minutes, air is
automatically taken in for approximately
10 seconds as “zero gas” and the gas
path is flushed. The unit is then ready
for operation.
Measuring is started by activation of the
pump switch. Here again, pure air is
sucked in for about 10 seconds, and an
automatic zero adjustment is carried
out. The measurement values are re¬
tained in the microprocessor memory
as the zero point. Only after this does a
solenoid-operated valve switch to the
gas to be tested. The temperature
dependence of the measuring process
is taken into account in the micro¬
processor’s computing program, which
ascertains the temperature of the re¬
ceiving chamber for this purpose.
Barometric pressure and the power-
supply frequency are likewise taken
into account.
The processor monitors all essential
functions of the unit for fixed limit
values. Inadmissible deviations are in¬
dicated and lead to the immediate in¬
terruption of the testing process.
Exhaust-gas test
Certain requirements must be fulfilled to
ensure accurate exhaust-gas measure¬
ment:
- the engine must be at operating
temperature
- starting devices, whether manual or
automatic, must no longer be in opera¬
tion
- the engine must have the ignition
timing (dwell angle, ignition point) pre¬
scribed by the manufacturer, as well as
the correct idle speed
- multi-carburetor systems must be
synchronized
- the exhaust system must not leak
- the sampler probe of the tester must
be inserted at least 30 cm into the end
of the exhaust pipe.
Emission limits (as of 1.7.87)
Table 1. ECE/EEC limits for vehicle reference mass (ECE R15-04).
ECE/EEC test cycle.
Vehicle reference mass (kg)
minimum maximum
1020
1020 1250
1250 1470
1470 1700
1700 1930
1930 2150
2150
In evaluation of test results, the CO Emission
content provides information on: control
- too-rich or too-lean setting of the
fuel-induction system (carburetor or in¬
jection)
- contaminated or clogged air filter
- clogged crankcase ventilation
- defective warm-up enrichment
- defective acceleration enrichment.
Other engine defects can be detected
in connection with an additional HC
measurement:
- ignition misfires, e.g. due to defec¬
tive contact breaker points, ignition
leads, spark plugs, incorrect ignition
timing
- incomplete combustion, for example
due to excessively lean mixture, leak¬
age in air-induction passages
- mechanical defects, such as poor
compression, leaking valves.
The C02 content gives information on
the sealing of the exhaust system.
However, such measurement is re¬
quired only in France.
Thus, it can be seen that exhaust¬
measuring equipment is not only re¬
quired to monitor the legally prescribed
exhaust limits for workshops (not to be
confused with exhaust limits for type
approval of new vehicles, pages 339
and 340); together with motor testers,
such equipment is an indispensable aid
in trouble-shooting and diagnosis in the
automotive workshop.
CO HC + NOx
g/Test g/Test
58 19.0
67 20.5
76 22.0
84 23.5
93 25.0
101 26.5
110 28.0 339
Emission Table 2. Future emission limits in the EEC (at press date not yet accepted by Denmark)
control ECE/EEC test cycle
Vehicle swept Possible date of introduction Regulation CO HC + NOx NOx
volume (litres)
min. max. New models First registration g/Test g/Test g/Test

2.0 1.10.88 1.10.89 EU-Standard 25 6.5 3.5

1.4 2.0 1.10.91 1.10.93 EU-Standard 30 8 —

1.4 1990 1991 EU-Standard 45 15 6

1992 1993 more stringent, to be defined by 1987

Table 3. Limits for Sweden, Switzerland, Austria, Norway, Australia, Mexico, Brazil and
South Korea. FTP 72/75 test cycle.
Country Date of CO HC NOx Evaporation Test cycle
introduction g/km g/km g/km g/Test

Sweden 1975 24.2 2.1 1.9 — FTP 72

Modelyear89 2.1 0.25 0.62 2.0 FTP 75

Australia 1.81 18.6 1.75 1.9 6.0 FTP 72

1.86 9.3 0.9 1.9 2.0 FTP 75

Switzerland 10.82 24.2 2.1 1.9 —

FTP 72
10.86 9.3 0.9 1.2 — FTP 72
10.87 2.1 0.25 0.62 2.0 FTP 75

Austria 87/88 2.1 0.25 0.62 2.0 FTP 75

Norway 1989 2.1 0.25 0.62 2.0 FTP 75

Mexico 1982 31.0 2.9 — 2.0 FTP 72

Brazil 1.90 24.0 2.1 2.0 —

FTP 75
1.92 12.0 1.2 1.4 — FTP 75
1.97 2.0 0.3 0.6 — FTP 75

South Korea Model year 3.4 0.41 1.0 2.0 FTP 75

88 (g/mile) (g/mile) (g/mile)

Table 4. Limits for US-FED (49 states) and California. FTP 75 test cycle.
Model Region CO HC NOx Evaporation
year g/mile g/mile g/mile g/test

Since 1982 FED 3.41 0 0.41 1.01) 2.0

CAL 7.0 0.41 0.41) 2.0

1) Exceptions may be approved under certain conditions.

Table 5. Limits for Canada. FTP 75 test cycle.

Date of introduction CO HC NOx Evaporation
g/mile g/mile g/mile g/test

Until 31.12.85 25.0 2.0 3.1 2.0

1.1.86 7.0 0.41 1.0 2.0

9.87 3.4 0.41 1.0 2.0

Table 6. Limits for Japan. Japanese test cycles.

Test procedure CO HC NOx Evaporation

10-mode (g/km) 2.1 0.25 0.25 —

11 -mode (g/Test) 60.0 7.0 4.4 —

SHED (g/Test) — 2.0

340 — —
Symbols and
circuit diagrams
Symbols
The following standardized symbols are
suitable for use with motor-vehicle elec¬
trical systems. With few exceptions the
symbols shown are the same as those
standardized by the International Elec¬
trotechnical Commission (IEC).
Requirements
Symbols are the smallest components
of a circuit diagram, and are the sim¬
plest way to represent an electrical
device or part of a device. They illus¬
trate how a device operates, and are
used together with circuit diagrams to
illustrate how a seguence of events
occurs. Symbols do not indicate the
shapes and dimensions of the devices
they represent, nor do they show the
locations of the connections to the de¬
vices. Only by using this method of
representation, however, is it possible
to illustrate how the devices are con¬
nected in the circuit diagram.
A symbol should be easy to identify,
easy to understand, easy to draw and
should clearly indicate the type of de¬
vice which it represents. Symbols
comprise symbol elements and desig¬
nations. Designations can take the
form of letters, symbols, numbers,
mathematical symbols, formula sym¬
bols, abbreviations of units or charac¬
teristics etc. If a circuit diagram show¬
ing the internal circuitry of a device be¬
comes too complex, or if the function
of the device can be illustrated without
showing all of the details, the circuit
diagram for this specific device can be
replaced by a single symbol (without
internal circuitry).
Symbols and
circuit
diagrams
Representation
Symbols do not show the effect of
physical parameters, i.e. the applica¬
tion of current, voltage and mechanical
force is not illustrated. If an operating
state other than the basic state of the
device is shown in the symbol, this
deviation is identified by a double
arrow placed nexttothe symbol.
Symbols and connecting lines (electri¬
cal lines and mechanical linkages),
have the same width (at least 0.25
mm). In order to keep the connecting
lines as straight as possible and to
avoid crossed lines, symbols can be
turned in increments of 90° or shown
as mirror images as long as their
meaning remains the same. Connec¬
tions can be made at any point on the
symbols, with the exception of the
symbols for resistors (connections
only at the ends) and connections for
electromechanical actuators (connec-
tionsonlyatthe sides).
A dot is used to represent a junction
whereas crossed lines have no dots,
i.e. an electrical connection is not pre¬
sent. No special method is used to
show connections to devices. Con¬
necting points, plugs, sockets or
bolted connections are identified by
symbols only at points required for
installation and removal. All other junc¬
tions are represented by dots.
Switching components which have a
common actuator are drawn together
such that the common actuating force
is applied in one direction which is
shown by the dashed line (-)
which represents the mechanical link¬
age.
341
Symbols and Selection of symbols Changeover contact,
circuit (extract from DIN 40700 ... 40719) break-before make or
diagrams make-before-break

Two-way make contact,

Connections with three switch positions
(e.g. turn-signal switch)

Conductor; conductor Normally open switch - J 4 IJ

crossover, without or with
connection
— —t 1— normally closed switch,
double-make contact
\—J
1 [
\
)
0 1 2
Shielded conductor Multi-position switch

Mechanical linkage;
crossover, without or with
connection

Junction point, general;

Cam-actuated switch, e.g.
ignition contact breaker
a-
i
Thermostatic switch,
separable (if this has to be • o
release devices
represented)

Plug connection, plug,

socket, 3-contact plug
-<
Relays
connection

Ground (equipment
Actuation with one winding
v~
/ 71
ground, vehicle ground) _L

i H
Actuation with two windings
Mechanical functions acting in the same direction or / :
two opposed windings
0 12 0 12
Switch positions (basic \ • ' 1 1 1 Electrothermal actuator,
position: solid line)
V hi thermal relay —

Actuation by hand, by Electromagnetic actuator, E

means of follower (cam), |_ reciprocating solenoid,
thermal (bimetal) --o- >- solenoid valve closed

Detent, automatic return in Relay (actuator and switch) e.g.: . L I

direction shown by arrow n.c. contact operates without delay,r7~l—
-[>-
(pushbutton) n.o. contact operates with delay

Actuation (mechanical,
pneumatic, hydraulic),
general, piston actuation,
d - m- Resistors

actuation by speed n, 0-0-H}- Resistor, potentiometer

pressurep, quantity Q,
time t, temperature t°
Variability and adjustability
not automatic (external),
general
Z_b
[0-0- (with three connections)
7
Heating resistor, flame
glow plug, glow plug,
heated rear window

Variability/adjustability, auto¬
matic, caused by applied physi¬ Inductors, windings
cal variable, linear, non-linear

Switches Inductor, winding, general

Momentary switch,
Variable inductor,
normally open switch,
normally-closed switch

Selector switch,
m transformer

Transformer, transformer

342
normally open switch,
normally closed switch A ^ with core _rv*w^_
 Symbols and
Capacitors, condensers Devices with internal circuitry circuit
diagrams
Capacitor, condenser, Dotted/dashed line for de¬ l-1
• »
Hb^Mb lineating or bordering related
general, variable, polarized
sections of the circuitry
1_1

Feedthrough capacitor - Shielded device, border is i-1

i i
coaxial, non-coaxial nr x connected to ground u_x_^

Electrolytic capacitor,
polarized, non-polarized tOI ww -
Devices without internal circuitry

Device or circuit element.

Semiconductor components Explanations can be entered
in the squares/rectangles,
e.g. symbols, formulae,
Transistor, PNP and NPN, e\ /c e\ /c
characteristic curves, device
E emitter, Bbase, C collector
B B designations

Converter, transducer,
Rectifier diode, Zener diode
-£H- -■fch memory, general

Thyristor, reverse¬ Controller/regulator, state controlled

blocking, anode-side or variable within triangle, \
cathode-side control e.g TJ = voltage regulator /

Indicating instruments Examples of device symbols

Indicating instrument,
general, voltmeter, clock ®q© Hall generator

Rotational-speed indicator,
temperature indicator,
speed indicator
©0© Amplifier
>

Various components Frequency converter

Fuse 11-1 1 Frequency multiplier

f/f

Permanent magnet _1 Frequency divider f/f

/ n

Spark gap, spark plug Pulse inverter (inversion)

Piezo-electric components Pulse shaper

Transducer (temperature/
Resistance thermometer current)

Batteries Gear unit, speed converter

f7\
/n2

Batteries, general, with _12V-| Analog-to-digital converter n/

several cells H — zrl /tt
343
Symbols and
circuit Electrical machines Thermo-time switch

diagrams
Armature, rotor with
winding, brush
(only if necessary) o^O Throttle-valve switch
A'
Windingless rotor (sensor)
rotor with permanent
magnet
o© Rotary idle actuator (M)
XI

Direct current, alternating Auxiliary-air valve with

current, 3-phase current
r\j 3rw electrothermal drive

Star winding, delta

winding, windings T Spark plug
1

DC generator, DC motor, ® ©
Ignition coil
3C
AC generator, Alternator
© © Ignition distributor, general
0
Voltage regulator, alter¬
Shunt-wound, series- nator with regulator
wound, compound-wound
machine Starter motor with starter-
motor solenoid

Electric fuel pump, motor

drive for hydraulic pump
Inductive pickup

Trigger box, control unit

Voltage stabilizer, stabilizer U

Star-connected 3-phase const.
alternator, slip-ring rotor
with excitation winding
Inductive pickup

Devices in motor vehicles Pulse generator, inter¬ G

(see schematic diagram, pages 346, 347) mittent control relay JUT

Battery 4 Piezo-electric pickup

Socket -c Lambda sensor

Switch, general, with and \'

Air-flow sensor
without indicator lamp '

Pressure switch 0) Air-mass meter

Flow-quantity indicator,
Relay, general
fuel sender

Solenoid valve, injection Temperature switch,

-9-
valve, cold-start valve -XT temperature sensor
344
Circuit diagrams
The circuit diagram is a drawn represen¬
tation of electrical devices by means of
symbols, and includes illustrations or
simplified design drawings as needed.
The circuit diagram illustrates the rela¬
tionship between various devices, and
shows how they are connected to one
another. It may be supplemented by
tables, graphs and descriptions.
In the field of automotive electrics, block
diagrams are used to quickly illustrate
the operation of a system or device
(Example: Motronicblockdiagram, Page
302). Such block diagrams are usually in
the form of a single-line representation.
The schematic diagram, using various
methods of representation (arrange¬
ment of the symbols), is the detailed
diagram of a circuit. It serves to explain
system operation and is used for repairs.
The wiring diagram (showing the equip¬
ment connection points) is used by the
customer-service departments for the
replacement or subsequent installation
of automotive equipment.
Schematic diagram
The schematic diagram shows the ele¬
ments of a circuit in detail. Individual
current paths are clearly depicted, and
indicate how an electrical circuit oper¬
ates. In a schematic diagram, presenta¬
tion of individual circuit components and
their spatial relationship to each other
must not interfere with the clear rep¬
resentation of the operation of the circuit
which makes the diagram easy to read.
The schematic diagram must contain the
following: Wiring, device designations
(DIN 40719, Part 2) and terminal desig¬
nations (DIN 72552, DIN 42400).
Wiring representation
The schematic diagram usually makes
use of multi-line presentation. In accord¬
ance with DIN 40719, Part 1, symbols
can be represented in the following
ways, all of which may be combined
within the same circuit diagram:
Assembled representation
All parts of a device are shown directly
Symbols and
circuit
next to one another, and mechanical diagrams
linkage of one part to another is indicated
by a double line or broken connecting
lines.
Semi-assembled representation
Separate symbols are used for the
various parts of a device. Mechanical
parts of a device which belong together
are connected via a broken line and are
given the same designation.
Detached representation
Symbols for parts of electrical devices
are shown separated and orientated
such that each current path is as easy to
follow as possible. No attempt is made to
place the symbols for individual devices
or their component parts in the same
positions with respect to one another
which they may occupy in the actual
equipment.
Topographical representation
With this type of representation, the
position of the symbol either completely
or partly corresponds to the position of
the component within the device or part
concerned.
Current paths and conductors
The current paths and conductors are to
be illustrated in such a manner that they
are clear and easy to follow. The individ¬
ual current paths, which indicate signal
flow from left to right and/or from top to
bottom wherever possible, should be
straight and free of crossovers and
changes in direction, and should gener¬
ally run parallel to the border of the circuit
diagram. When a number of conductors
run parallel to each other, they must be
represented in groups.
Lines of demarcation, borders
Dot/dash demarcation or border lines
are used to separate parts within a circuit
in order to display the fact that such parts
or devices belong together functionally
or constructionally.
345
Symbols and Ground representation
circuit All ground symbols (1) or continuous
diagrams ground connections (31) in a circuit are
electrically connected to one another via
the device ground orthe vehicle chassis.
Identification, destination
For clarity, connecting lines (conductors
and lines denoting mechanical linkage)
can be broken if they would otherwise
cover a long distance in the schematic
diagram. Only beginning and end of the
connecting line must be clearly evident.
Forthis purpose, lines are identified and/
or locations within the diagram where the
lines terminate are indicated.
Identification can be as follows:
- terminal designations (DIN 72552,
DIN 42400),
1) Schematic diagram of the vehicle electrical and electronic system of a passenger car
spark-ignition engine.
1 Power 2 Starting 3 Ignition
supply system (TCI-H)
- information concerning function,
- information in the form of alphanu¬
meric symbols.
The line destination is given in parenth¬
eses so that it is not confused with the line
identification: it consists of the section
number of the destination.
Section identification
The section identification given at the top
border ofthediagram is used for locating
circuit sections. This identification can
take 3 forms:
- consecutive numbers at equal inter¬
vals from left to right,
- indication of the content of the circuit,
sections,
- or a combination of the two.
4 Gasoline injection
(LE-Jetronic)

■30
-15

B3
n[]
15 30 15 S3 %
B4

R1
z / cp o4 &'
Y1
15a K2 Y4

[XI
w

X
K1

■— 15 1 X

V
uuu

T1 A A1 X

S5° 8 A2
w

/l
B1 B2
i i i i
-31
346
Marking
Devices, parts or symbols must be
labelled in circuitdiagramsby meansofa
letter and a cardinal number in accord¬
ance with DIN40719, Part2.This identifi¬
cation is located to the left of or under¬
neath the symbol. The prefix used to de¬
signate thetype of device can be omitted
if the device is clearly recognizable.
In nested devices, one device is a
component part of another, e.g. starter
Ml with built-in solenoid switch K6. The
designation forthe entire device is then- Symbols and
M1 —K6. Identification of related symbols circuit
in detached representation: each indi¬ diagrams
vidual symbol is shown separately and all
symbols which pertain to a particular
device aregiven an identifierwhich isthe
same as that used for the device itself.
Terminal designations (e.g. in accord¬
ance with DIN 72552) must be placed
outside the symbol and, in the case of
border lines, outside these lines if poss¬
ible.

Terminal designations in accordance with Device designations in accordance with

DIN 72552
A number of the terminal designations listed be¬
low appear in the schematic diagram, Figure 1,
and merely represent an extract from DIN 72552.
The table below does not take other sections of
the electrical system into account such as indi¬
cating instruments, ventilation, heating, wiper
system, signal system or lighting system etc.
DIN 40719, Part 2.
The designations listed below appear in the
schematic diagram, Figure 1, showing the appli¬
cation of the standard method of designation.
They are located in the direct vicinity of the
relevant symbol and comprise a series of letters
and numbers.

Termi¬ Definition Desig¬ Device Section

nal nation
Ignition coil, ignition distributor A1 Control unit 3
1 Low voltage A2 Trigger box 4
4 Fligh tension
B1 Sensor (coolant, engine 4
7 Control contact
temperature)
(pulse generator/trigger box)
B2 Lambda sensor 4
15 Switched plus downstream of battery B3 Air-temperature sensor 4
(output of ignition and starting switch) B4 Air-flow sensor 4
15a Output at ballast resistorto ignition coil El Ignition distributor 3
and starter E2 Spark plugs 3
16 Output at the trigger box to the ignition FI Fuse 4
coil and to the control unit
G Power supply, general —

30 Input from positive battery terminal (direct) G1 Generator (with regulator) 1

31 Return line to negative battery terminal or G2 Battery 1
ground (direct) HI Generator indicator lamp 1
31 d Control contact (pulse generator)
K1 Thermo-time switch 4
50 Starter, starter control (direct) K2 Control relay 4
Switching relay Ml Starter motor 2
85 Output, actuator
(negative winding and/or ground) R1 Ballast resistor for T1 3
Input actuator SI Battery switch (mechanical) 1
86 Start of winding S2 Ignition and starting switch 2
Relay contact for make contact S3 Throttle-valve switch 4
88 Input T1 Ignitition coil, ignition trans¬ 3
Relay contact for make contact and former
changeover contact (make side)
W Transmission paths, con¬ —

88 a First output
ductors
Generator and generator regulator
X Terminals, plugs, plug con¬ —

B+ Battery positive
nectors
B— Battery negative
D+ Dynamo positive Y1 Cold-start valve 4
D- Dynamo minus Y2 Electric fuel pump 4
Y3 Auxiliary-air device 4
u, 3-phase alternator
V, w 3-phase terminals Y4 Injection valve 4 347
 1111111111

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Heat • Automotive Engineering • Motor Vehicle Specifications
• In pocket-book format • Larger-size print • More than 700 pages • Many subjects
extended, such as engine and exhaust-gas techniques, fuel metering, drive train and
brakes • Authors from the automotive industry • A multitude of data and tables from
everyday practice, including the latest motor-vehicle specifications.
Published by the SAE, Warrendale PA.
Obtainable from all bookshops. ISBN 0-89-883-518-6