Topic 1 Intermolecular Forces

11.
1 Climbing Geckos and Intermolecular Forces

482
11.2 Solids, Liquids, and Gases: A Molecular Lecture Presentation
Comparison 484
11.3 Intermolecular Forces: The Forces That Hold
Condensed States Together 487
11.4 Intermolecular Forces in Action: Surface
Tension, Viscosity,
and Capil lary Action 497 Chapter 11
11.5 Vaporization and Vapor Pressure 499
11.6 Sublimation and Fusion 509
11.7 Heating Curve for Water 511 Liquids, Solids,
11.8 Phase Diagrams 513
11.9 Water: An Extraordinary Substance 516
11.10 Crystalline Solids: Determining Their
and Intermolecular
Structure by X-Ray Crystallogra phy 518 Forces
11.11 Crystalline Solids: Unit Cells and Basic
Structures 520
11.12 Crystalline Solids: The Fundamental Types
526
11.13 Crystalline Solids: Band Theory 530 Sherril Soman
Key Learning Outcomes 534 Grand Valley State University
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
11.1 Climbing Geckos and Intermolecular
Forces
Climbing Geckos
11.1
Three Phases of Water
Notice that the densities

of ice and liquid water are
much larger than the
density of steam.
Notice that the densities

and molar volumes of ice
and liquid water are much
closer to each other than
to steam.
Notice that the density of

ice is larger than the
density of liquid water.
This is not the norm, but
is vital to the development
of life as we know it. 11.2
11.2 Solids, Liquids, and Gases: A
Molecular Comparison
Properties of the Three Phases of Matter
• Fixed = keeps shape when placed in a

container
• Indefinite = takes the shape of the
container
11.2
Solids
• Some solids have their particles arranged in an orderly

geometric pattern; we call these crystalline solids.
– Salt and diamonds
• Other solids have particles that do not show a regular

geometric pattern over a long range; we call these amorphous
solids.
– Plastic and glass
11.2
Liquids
• The particles in a liquid are

closely packed, but they have
some ability to move around.
• The close packing results in
liquids being incompressible.
• But the ability of the particles to
move allows liquids to take the
shape of their container and to
flow. However, they don’t have
enough freedom to escape or
expand to fill the container.
11.2
Gases
• In the gas state, the particles

have complete freedom of
motion and are not held
together.
• The particles are constantly
flying around, bumping into
each other and the container
• There is a large amount of
space between the particles,
compared to the size of the
particles.
– Therefore, the molar volume of the
gas state of a material is much
larger than the molar volume of the
solid or liquid states.
11.2
Phase Changes
11.2
11.3 Intermolecular Forces: The Forces
That Hold Condensed States Together
Kinds of Attractive Forces
• Temporary polarity in the molecules due to
unequal electron distribution leads to
attractions called dispersion forces.
• Permanent polarity in the molecules due to
their structure leads to attractive forces
called dipole–dipole attractions.
• An especially strong dipole–dipole
attraction results when H is attached to an
extremely electronegative atom. These
are called hydrogen bonds.
11.3
Dispersion Forces
• Fluctuations in the electron distribution in atoms

and molecules result in a temporary dipole.
– Region with excess electron density has
partial (–) charge
– Region with depleted electron density has
partial (+) charge
• The attractive forces caused by these temporary
dipoles are called dispersion forces.
– Aka London Forces
• All molecules and atoms will have them.
• As a temporary dipole is established in one
molecule, it induces a dipole in all the surrounding
molecules.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 11.3
Dispersion Force

Dispersion Forces Illustrated (1)
At a given instant, electron
density, even in a nonpolar
molecule like this one, is
not perfectly uniform.
11.3
… the other end
The region of of the molecule is
(momentary) higher slightly (+).
electron density attains
a small (–) charge …
When another
nonpolar molecule
approaches …
11.3
… this molecule
… in this
induces a tiny
molecule.
dipole moment …
Opposite charges ________.
11.3
Size of the Induced Dipole
• The magnitude of the induced dipole

depends on several factors.
• 1. Polarizability of the electrons
– Volume of the electron cloud
– Larger molar mass = more electrons =
larger electron cloud = increased
polarizability = stronger attractions
• 2. Shape of the molecule
– More surface-to-surface contact = larger
induced dipole = stronger attraction
Effect of Molecular Size on Size of
Dispersion Force
The Noble gases are
all nonpolar atomic
elements.
The stronger the

attractive forces
between the molecules,
the higher the boiling
point will be.

Effect of Molecular Shape on Size of
Dispersion Force
elongated molecules
small, compact, symmetrical molecules

Dipole–Dipole Attractions

Effect of Dipole–Dipole Attraction on Boiling
and Melting Points

Dipole Movement and Boiling Point

Attractive Forces and Solubility
• Solubility depends, in part, on the attractive forces
of the solute and solvent molecules.
– Like dissolves like
– Miscible liquids will always dissolve in each other
• Polar substances dissolve in polar solvents.
– Hydrophilic groups = OH, CHO, C═O, COOH, NH2, Cl
• Nonpolar molecules dissolve in nonpolar solvents.
– Hydrophobic groups = C—H, C—C
Pentane, C5H12 is a nonpolar

molecule.
Immiscible Liquids
Water is a polar molecule.

Please the following substances in order of decreasing boiling point.
N2 NO O2
O2 and N2 and both substances are nonpolar;

M.W.: O2 > N2 ; O2 has the higher boiling point
NO has the highest boiling point of the three because

of its additional permanent dipole.
Boiling point: NO > O2 > N2
Slide 23 of 61 General Chemistry: Chapter 12 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

11.3
Example 11.1 Dipole–Dipole Forces
Which of these molecules have dipole–dipole forces?
a. CO2 b. CH2CI2 c. CH4
Solution
A molecule has dipole–dipole forces if it is polar. To determine if a molecule is polar, (1) determine if the
molecule contains polar bonds and (2) determine if the polar bonds add together to form a net dipole moment
(Section 9.6).
(a) CO2
(1) Since the electronegativity of carbon
is 2.5 and that of oxygen is 3.5
(Figure 9.8), CO2 has polar bonds.
(2) The geometry of CO2 is linear.
Consequently, the dipoles of the polar
bonds cancel, so the molecule is not
polar and does
not have
dipole–dipole forces.
FIGURE 9.8 Electronegativities of the Elements Electronegativity

generally increases as we move across a row in the periodic table and
decreases as we move down a column.
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition

Nivaldo J. Tro 11.3
Example 11.1 Dipole–Dipole Forces
Continued
(b) CH2Cl2
(1) The electronegativity of C is 2.5, that of H is 2.1, and that of Cl is 3.0.
Consequently, CH2Cl2 has two polar bonds (C—Cl) and two bonds that are
nearly nonpolar (C—H).
(2) The geometry of CH2Cl2 is tetrahedral. Since the C—Cl bonds and the
C—H bonds are different, their dipoles do not cancel but sum to a net dipole
moment. The molecule is polar and has dipole–dipole forces.
(c) CH4
(1) Since the electronegativity of C is 2.5 and that of hydrogen is 2.1, the
C—H bonds are nearly nonpolar.
(2) In addition, since the geometry of the molecule is tetrahedral, any slight
polarities that the bonds might have will cancel. CH4 is therefore nonpolar
and does not have dipole–dipole forces.
For Practice 11.1
Which molecules have dipole–dipole forces?
a. CI4 b. CH3Cl c. HCI

Nivaldo J. Tro 11.3
Hydrogen Bonding
• When a very electronegative atom is bonded
to hydrogen, it strongly pulls the bonding
electrons toward it.
– O─H, N─H, or F─H

Boiling Points of Group 4A and 6A
Compounds

Hydrogen Bonding Forces Comparison
• Trend of bonding force in single H-bond:
H—F······H—F > H—O······H—O > H—N······H—N
F
H 2 H-bond/per molecule
H H
1 H-bond/per F atom
140o
F F
H H
H O O
H H
O 4 H-bond/per molecule
H
H H O 2 H-bond/per O atom
O
H
H
• Trend of boiling points:

Boiling point: H2O > HF > NH3
MW: 18 20 17 11.3
Example 11.2 Hydrogen Bonding
One of these compounds is a liquid at room temperature. Which one and why?
H-bond
Solution
The three compounds have similar molar masses:
Formaldehyde 30.03 g/mol

Fluoromethane 34.03 g/mol
Hydrogen peroxide 34.02 g/mol
So the strengths of their dispersion forces are similar. All three compounds are also polar, so they have dipole–dipole
forces. Hydrogen peroxide, however, is the only one of these compounds that also contains H bonded directly to F, O,
or N. Therefore, it also has hydrogen bonding and is likely to have the highest boiling point of the three. Since the
example stated that only one of the compounds was a liquid, you can safely assume that hydrogen peroxide is the
liquid. Note that, although fluoromethane contains both H and F, H is not directly bonded to F, so fluoromethane does
not have hydrogen bonding as an intermolecular force. Similarly, formaldehyde contains both H and O, but H is not
directly bonded to O, so formaldehyde does not have hydrogen bonding either.
For Practice 11.2

Which has the higher boiling point, HF or HCl? Why?
11.3
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Nivaldo J. Tro
11.4 Intermolecular Forces in Action: Surface
Tension, Viscosity, and Capillary Action
Surface Tension
Spherical Water
Droplets

Viscosity
• Viscosity is the resistance of a liquid
to flow.
• Larger intermolecular attractions = larger viscosity
• T cP

Capillary Action
• Capillary action is the ability of a liquid to flow
up a thin tube against the influence of gravity.
– The narrower the tube, the higher the liquid rises.
• Capillary action is the result of two forces
working in conjunction, the cohesive and
adhesive forces.
– Cohesive forces hold the liquid molecules together.
– Adhesive forces attract the outer liquid molecules to
the tube’s surface.

co < ad co(like) > ad(unlike)
co < ad
Figure 12-12
Wetting of a surface
co < ad co > ad
Figure 12-14
 FIGURE 12-13 Capillary Action
Meniscus formation
11.4
11.5 Vaporization and Vapor Pressure
The Molecular Dance
vaporization (l) (g) condensation (g) (l)
sublimation (s) (g) deposition (g) (s)
melting (s) (l) freezing (l) (s)

Heat of Vaporization liquid
vaporization
gas(vapor)
condensation
• The amount of heat energy required to vaporize

one mole of the liquid is called the heat of
vaporization, DHvap.
– Sometimes called the enthalpy of vaporization
• It is always endothermic; therefore, DHvap is +.
• It is somewhat temperature dependent.
 DHcondensation = −DHvaporization

Example 11.3 Using the Heat of Vaporization in Calculations
Calculate the mass of water (in g) that can be vaporized at its boiling point with 155 kJ of heat.
Sort
You are given a certain amount of heat in kilojoules and asked to find the mass of water that can be vaporized.
Given: 155 kj
Find: gH2O
Strategize
The heat of vaporization gives the relationship between heat absorbed and moles of water vaporized. Begin with
the given amount of heat (in kJ) and convert to moles of water that can be vaporized. Then use the molar mass as
a conversion factor to convert from moles of water to mass of water.
Conceptual Plan

Nivaldo J. Tro 11.5
Example 11.3 Using the Heat of Vaporization in Calculations
Continued
Relationships Used
DHvap = 40.7 kJ/mol (at 100 °C)
18.02 g H2O = 1 mol H2O
Solve
Follow the conceptual plan to solve the problem.
Solution
For Practice 11.3

Calculate the amount of heat (in kJ) required to vaporize 2.58 kg of water at its boiling point.
For More Practice 11.3

Suppose that 0.48 g of water at 25 °C condenses on the surface of a 55 g block of aluminum that is initially at 25 °C.
If the heat released during condensation goes only toward heating the metal, what is the final temperature (in °C) of the
metal block? (The specific heat capacity of aluminum is 0.903 J/g °C.)

Nivaldo J. Tro 11.5
Dynamic Equilibrium liquid
vaporization
gas(vapor)
condensation

Vapor Pressure
• the weaker the attractive forces, the higher the
vapor pressure.
Mercury Vapor Pvap Pvap Pvap

manometer pressure independent independent dependent on
of liquid of Vliq of Vgas T
• FIGURE 12-17
Vapor pressure illustrated 11.5

Vapor Pressure Curves

Boiling Point
• The normal boiling point is the temperature at

which the vapor pressure of the liquid = 1 atm.
• The lower the external pressure, the lower the
boiling point of the liquid. P T

An Equation for Expressing Vapor
Pressure Data
1
ln P = -A ( )+B
T
linear
ΔHvap
A =
R
 FIGURE 12-20
 Vapor pressure data plotted as lnP versus 1/T Fig11-28,
nonlinear
P2 ΔHvap 1
ln =- ( - 1 )
P1 R T1 T2
11.5
Clausius–Clapeyron Equation
• The slope of the line × 8.314 J/mol ∙ K = DHvap.
 In J/mol
1
ln P = -A ( )+B
T
ΔHvap
A =
R

Example 11.4 Using the Clausius–Clapeyron Equation to Determine
Heat of Vaporization from Experimental
Measurements of Vapor Pressure
The vapor pressure of dichloromethane was measured
as a function of temperature, and the following results
were obtained:
ΔHvap
A =
R
Determine the heat of vaporization of dichloromethane.

Nivaldo J. Tro 11.5
Example 11.4 Using the Clausius–Clapeyron Equation to Determine
Heat of Vaporization from Experimental
Measurements of Vapor Pressure
Continued
Solution
To find the heat of vaporization, use an Excel spreadsheet or a
graphing calculator to make a plot of the natural log of vapor
pressure (ln P) as a function of the inverse of the temperature in
kelvins (1/T). Then fit the points to a line and determine the slope of
the line. The slope of the best-fitting line is –3773 K. Since the
slope equals –ΔHvap/R, we find the heat of vaporization as follows:
ΔHvap
A =
R

Nivaldo J. Tro 11.5
Example 11.5 Using the Two-Point Form of the Clausius–Clapeyron
Equation to Predict the Vapor Pressure at a Given
Temperature
Methanol has a normal boiling point of 64.6 °C and a heat of vaporization (Δ Hvap) of 35.2 kJ/mol. What is
the vapor pressure of methanol at 12.0 °C?
Sort
You are given the normal boiling point of methanol (the temperature at which the vapor pressure is 760 mmHg)
and the heat of vaporization. You are asked to find the vapor pressure at a specified temperature that is also given.
Given:
P2 ΔHvap 1
ln =- ( - 1 )
P1 R T1 T2
Find:

Nivaldo J. Tro 11.5
Temperature
Continued
Strategize
The conceptual plan is essentially the Clausius–Clapeyron equation, which relates the given and find quantities.
Conceptual Plan
(Clausius–Clapeyron equation, two-point form)
Solve
First, convert T1 and T2 from C to K.
Then, substitute the required values into the Clausius–Clapeyron equation and solve for P2 .

Nivaldo J. Tro 11.5
Temperature
P2 ΔHvap 1
- 1 )
Continued
ln =- (
Solution P1 R T1 T2

Nivaldo J. Tro 11.5
Temperature
Continued
Check
The units of the answer are correct. The magnitude of the answer makes sense because vapor pressure should be
significantly lower at the lower temperature.
For Practice 11.5

Propane has a normal boiling point of –42.0 °C and a heat of vaporization (Δ Hvap) of 19.04 kJ/mol. What is the
vapor pressure of propane at 25.0 °C?

Nivaldo J. Tro 11.5
Supercritical Fluid
• As a liquid is heated in a sealed container, more vapor

collects, causing the pressure inside the container to rise,
the density of the vapor to increase, and the density of the
liquid to decrease.
• At some temperature, the meniscus between the liquid and
vapor disappears, and the states commingle to form a
supercritical fluid.
• Supercritical fluids have properties of both gas and liquid
states.

The Critical Point
• The temperature required to produce a

supercritical fluid is called the critical
temperature.
• The pressure at the critical temperature is called
the critical pressure.
• At the critical temperature or higher temperatures,
the gas cannot be condensed to a liquid, no matter
how high the pressure gets.

11.6 Sublimation and Fusion
Sublimation and Deposition
sublimation
solid gas
deposition 11.6
Melting and Freezing
Melting = Fusion

Heat of Fusion
• The amount of heat energy required to melt one mole of

the solid is called the heat of fusion, DHfus.
– Sometimes called the enthalpy of fusion
• It is always endothermic; therefore, DHfus is +.
• It is somewhat temperature dependent.
 DHfreezing = −DHfusion
 Generally much less than DHvap
 DHsublimation = DHfusion + DHvaporization

Heats of Fusion and Vaporization

11.7 Heating Curve of Water

Segment 1
solid (Temp)
• Heating 1.00 mole of ice at −25.0 °C up to the

melting point, 0.0 °C
• q = mass × Cs × DT
– Mass of 1.00 mole of ice = 18.0 g
– Cs = 2.09 J/mol ∙ °C

Segment 2
phase change
(s+l)
• Melting 1.00 mole of ice at the melting point,
0.0 °C
• q = n ∙ DHfus
– n = 1.00 mole of ice
– DHfus = 6.02 kJ/mol

Segment 3
liquid(Temp)
• Heating 1.00 mole of water at 0.0 °C up to

the boiling point, 100.0 °C
– Mass of 1.00 mole of water = 18.0 g
– Cs = 2.09 J/mol ∙ °C

Segment 4
phase change
l+g
• Boiling 1.00 mole of water at the boiling
point, 100.0 °C
• q = n ∙ DHvap
– n = 1.00 mole of ice
– DHfus = 40.7 kJ/mol

Segment 5
gas(Temp)
• Heating 1.00 mole of steam at 100.0 °C up

to 125.0 °C
– Mass of 1.00 mole of water = 18.0 g
– Cs = 2.01 J/mol ∙ °C

11.8 Phase Diagrams
A—C, liquid-vapor
A—D, solid-liquid equilibrium.
equilibrium.
deposition
Triple point
A—B, solid-vapor
quilibrium.

Phase Diagrams for Other Substances

11.9 Water – An Extraordinary Substance
• The hydrogen bonds present in water

result in a relatively high boiling point.

Hydrogen Bonding Forces Comparison
• Trend of bonding force in single H-bond:
H—F······H—F > H—O······H—O > H—N······H—N
F
H 2 H-bond/per molecule
H H
1 H-bond/per F atom
140o
F F
H H
H O O
H H
O 4 H-bond/per molecule
H
H H O 2 H-bond/per O atom
O
H
H
• Trend of boiling points:

Boiling point: H2O > HF > NH3
MW: 18 20 17 11.3
11.10 Crystalline Solids: Determining
Their Structure by X-Ray Crystallography
Diffraction from a Crystal

X-Ray Diffraction Analysis

Example 11.6 Using Bragg’s Law
When an X-ray beam of λ = 154 pm was incident on the surface of an iron crystal, it produced a maximum
reflection at an angle of θ = 32.6°. Assuming n = 1, calculate the separation between layers of iron atoms in the
crystal.
Solution
To solve this problem, use Bragg’s law in the form given by Equation 11.8. The distance, d, is the separation
between layers in the crystal.
For Practice 11.6

The spacing between layers of molybdenum atoms is 157 pm. Calculate the angle at which 154 pm X-rays
produces a maximum reflection for n = 1.

Nivaldo J. Tro
11.11 Crystalline Solids: Unit Cells
and Basic Structures
Unit Cells
• Unit cells are three-dimensional.

– Usually containing two or three layers of particles
• Unit cells are repeated over and over to give the
macroscopic crystal structure of the solid.
• Starting anywhere within the crystal results in the same
unit cell.
• Each particle in the unit cell is called a lattice point.
• Lattice planes are planes connecting equivalent points
in unit cells throughout the lattice.

Seven Unit Cells
Cubic Tetragonal Orthorhombic Monoclinic

a=b=c a=c<b a≠b≠c a≠b≠c
all 90° all 90° all 90° 2 faces 90°
Hexagonal Rhombohedral Triclinic

a=c<b a=b=c a≠b≠c
2 faces 90° no 90° no 90°
1 face 120°
The Cubic Crystalline Lattices

Simple Cubic

Body-Centered Cubic

Face-Centered Cubic

Example 11.7 Relating Density to Crystal Structure
Aluminum crystallizes with a face-centered cubic unit cell. The radius of an aluminum atom is 143 pm. Calculate
the density of solid crystalline aluminum in g/cm3.
Sort
You are given the radius of an aluminum atom and its crystal structure. You are asked to find the density of solid
aluminum.
Given: r = 143 pm, face-centered cubic

Find: d
Strategize
The conceptual plan is based on the definition of density.
Since the unit cell has the physical properties of the entire crystal, you can find the mass and volume of the unit
cell and use these to calculate its density.
Solve
Begin by finding the mass of the unit cell. Determine the mass of an aluminum atom from its molar mass. Since
the face-centered cubic unit cell contains four atoms per unit cell, multiply the mass of aluminum by 4 to get the
mass of a unit cell.

Nivaldo J. Tro
Continued
Conceptual Plan
d = m/V
m = mass of unit cell
= number of atoms in unit cell × mass of each atom
V = volume of unit cell
= (edge length)3
Solution

Nivaldo J. Tro
Continued
Next, calculate the edge length (l) of the unit cell (in m) from the atomic radius of aluminum. For the face-centered
cubic structure, l = 2 2r.
Calculate the volume of the unit cell (in cm) by converting the edge length to cm and cubing the edge length. (Use
centimeters because you will want to report the density in units of g/cm3.)
Finally, calculate the density by dividing the mass of the unit cell by the volume of the unit cell.

Nivaldo J. Tro
Continued
Check
The units of the answer are correct. The magnitude of the answer is reasonable because the density is greater than
1 g/cm3 (as you would expect for metals), but still not too high (because aluminum is a low-density metal).
For Practice 11.7

Chromium crystallizes with a body-centered cubic unit cell. The radius of a chromium atom is 125 pm. Calculate
the density of solid crystalline chromium in g/cm3.

Nivaldo J. Tro
Closest-Packed Structures First Layer
• With spheres, it is more efficient to offset
each row in the gaps of the previous row
than to line up rows and columns.

Closest-Packed Structures Second Layer
• The second layer atoms can sit directly

over the atoms in the first layer—called
an AA pattern.
• Or the second layer can sit over the holes
in the first layer—called an AB pattern.

Hexagonal Closest-Packed Structures

Cubic Closest-Packed Structures

11.12 Crystalline Solids: The Fundamental
Types
Classifying Crystalline
Solids
• Crystalline solids are classified by the
kinds of particles found.
• Some of the categories are subclassified
by the kinds of attractive forces holding
the particles together.

Types of Crystalline Solids

11.13 Classifying Crystalline Solids
Band Theory
• The structures of metals and covalent network
solids result in every atom’s orbitals being
shared by the entire structure.
• For large numbers of atoms, this results in a
large number of molecular orbitals that have
approximately the same energy; we call this
an energy band.

Molecular Orbitals of Polylithium

Topic 1 Intermolecular Forces

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11.

1 Climbing Geckos and Intermolecular Forces

Notice that the densities

Notice that the densities

Notice that the density of

• Fixed = keeps shape when placed in a

• Some solids have their particles arranged in an orderly

• Other solids have particles that do not show a regular

• The particles in a liquid are

• In the gas state, the particles

• Fluctuations in the electron distribution in atoms

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 11.3

Opposite charges ________.

• The magnitude of the induced dipole

The stronger the

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 11.3

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 11.3

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 11.3

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 11.3

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 11.3

Pentane, C5H12 is a nonpolar

Water is a polar molecule.

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 11.3

O2 and N2 and both substances are nonpolar;

NO has the highest boiling point of the three because

Boiling point: NO > O2 > N2

Slide 23 of 61 General Chemistry: Chapter 12 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

FIGURE 9.8 Electronegativities of the Elements Electronegativity

Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition

Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 11.3

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 11.3

• Trend of boiling points:

Formaldehyde 30.03 g/mol

For Practice 11.2

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 11.4

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 11.4

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 11.4

vaporization (l) (g) condensation (g) (l)

sublimation (s) (g) deposition (g) (s)

melting (s) (l) freezing (l) (s)

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 11.5

• The amount of heat energy required to vaporize

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 11.5

Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition

For Practice 11.3

For More Practice 11.3

Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 11.5

Mercury Vapor Pvap Pvap Pvap

Vapor pressure illustrated 11.5

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 11.5

• The normal boiling point is the temperature at

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 11.5

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 11.5

Determine the heat of vaporization of dichloromethane.

Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition

Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition

Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition

(Clausius–Clapeyron equation, two-point form)

Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition

Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition

For Practice 11.5

Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 3rd Edition