CURRENT ISSUES IN THE MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
capable)
PROFESSION
 EUTHANASIA
 From Greek word means “good health”
 A theory that states that all of us have the right to die in a
painless and peaceful manner when we are suffering from a
dreadful disease
 Refers to the practice of intentionally ending life In order to
relieve pain and suffering
 TYPES OF EUTHANASIA
 Voluntary - When the patient brings about his or her own
death with the assistance of a physician, the term assisted
suicide is often used instead.
 Non-voluntary – where the consent of the patient is
unavailable
 Involuntary - conducted against the will of the patient
 Euthanasia by Omission or Passive - entails the withholding
of common treatments, such as antibiotics, necessary for the
continuance of life.
 Euthanasia by Commission or Active - entails the use of lethal
substances or forces to kill, such as administering a lethal
injection
 ACTIVE VS PASSIVE EUTHANASIA
 Active Euthanasia is when is brought about by an act , for
example when a person is killed by being given an overdose
of pain killers
 Passive Euthanasia is when death is brought about by an
omission, i.e., when someone let the person die. This can be
by withdrawing or withholding treatment:
o Withdrawing treatment – for example, switching
off a machine that is keeping a person alive, so
that they die of their disease
o Withholding treatment – for example, not
carrying out surgery that will extend life for a
short time
 INDIRECT EUTHANASIA
 This means providing treatment (usually to reduce pain) that
has the side effect of speeding the patient’s death
 Since the primary intention is not to kill , this is seen by some
people (but not all) as morally acceptable
 A justification along these lines is formally called the doctrine
of double effect
 ASSISTED SUICIDE
 This usually refers to cases where the person who is going to
die needs help to kill themselves and asks for it. It may be
something as simple as getting drugs for the person and
putting those drugs within their reach.
 HIERARCHY OF SUBSTITUTE DECISION MAKERS
 Guardian of the person
 Lawyer of the person
 Representative appointed by the Consent and Capacity
Board
 Spouse or Partner
 Child or Parent or Children’s Aid Society
 Parent having a right of access
 Brother or Sister
 Any other relative (related by blood, marriage or adoption)
 Public guardian and Trustee (last resort if no other person is
 STEM CELL
 What is a stem cell?
o Stem cell therapy is a set of techniques that aim
to replace cells damaged or destroyed by
disease with healthy functioning ones. The
techniques themselves are still relatively new but
their applications and benefits are broad. Some
of the diseases they can help include:
 Cancer
 Parkinson's disease
 Diabetes
 Various injuries (e.g. spinal cord)
 Eye diseases
 TYPES OF STEM CELL
 Embryonic stem cells (pluripotent)
 Tissue stem cells (multipotent)
 TISSUE STEM CELLS
 Known as “adult stem cell”
 Includes stem cells isolated from fetal and cord blood
 Reside in the most tissues of the body where they are
involved in repair and replacement
 Generally very difficult to isolate
 Under right conditions, they can be grown in the laboratory
 It is widely used in research for treatments of blood
cancers(leukemia and autoimmune diseases)
 CLONING
 TYPES OF CLONING
 DNA Cloning or Recombinant DNA Cloning - a process in
which the biological matter that is cloned is only a small
fragment of DNA
 Reproductive DNA Cloning or Organism Cloning – involves
creation of an identical copy of an entire organism
 Therapeutic Cloning (SCNT) – involves cloning of human
embryos for the production of stem cells. The embryos are
destroyed in this process.
 DNA CLONING OR RECOMBINANT DNA CLONING
 Procedures by which DNA from different species can be
isolated, cut and spliced together -- new "recombinant”
molecules are then multiplied in quantity in populations of
rapidly dividing cells (e.g. bacteria, yeast)
 REPRODUCTIVE CLONING
 Reproductive cloning is the production of a genetic duplicate
of an existing organism. A human clone would be a genetic
copy of an existing person.
 METHODS OF CLONING
 Artificial Embryo Twinning – is a technology that mimics the
natural process of identical twin creation. This is done by
manual separation of very early embryo into individual cells
then allowing the cell to divide on its own. The resulting
e4mbryos are then placed into the surrogate mother, where
they are carried to term and delivered
 SCNT (Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer – created Dolly, the
famous sheep. Done by isolating a somatic cell from a donor
and transfer the nucleus of that cell to an enucleated egg cell.
After few weeks, it will behave as fertilized egg and develop
into an embryo which is implanted into a surrogate mother
and carried to term

 THERAPEUTIC CLONING
 Refers to the removal of a nucleus, which contains the
genetic material, from virtually any cell of the body (a somatic
cell) and its transfer by injection into an unfertilized egg from
which the nucleus has also been removed.
 Cloning designed as therapy for a disease. In therapeutic
cloning, the nucleus of a cell, typically a skin cell, is inserted
into a fertilized egg whose nucleus has been removed.
 POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS
 Potential benefits for medicine field and agricultural
field
 Some cloned sheep have been genetically altered to
produce milk containing human protein important for
blood clotting which could someday be helpful once the
protein can be purified from the milk
 Testing of new drugs and treatment strategies
 Build populations of endangered or extinct species of
animals
 DRAWBACKS OF CLONING
 Expensive
 Highly inefficient
 Most cloned embryos cannot develop into healthy beings
 Serious health effects: premature aging, short life span,
increase in birth size, defects with immune system, defects in
essential organs (liver, brain and heart)
 SPERM BANKING
 “Cryopreservation”
 Freezing and preserving sperms at -196C or -320F
 Standard average storage time: 10 years
 Means providing a semen sample for freezing
 Collecting and storing human sperm from sperm donors for
use by women who, for whatever reason, need donor-
provided sperm to achieve pregnancy
 Sperm donated by the sperm donor is known as donor sperm,
and the process for introducing the sperm into the woman is
called artificial insemination, which is a form of third party
reproduction.
 REASONS FOR SPERM BANKING
 Preserve the “seeds” of endangered species in lower
animals
 Fertility insurance for men who underwent vasectomy
 Genetic disease research
 PROCEDURE FOR SPERM BANKING
 Exposure of sperm to special media to protect against very
low temperature
 Frozen sperms are stored in specialized vials in tanks
containing liquid Nitrogen
 Who should consider Sperm Banking?
o Men facing sterility either about to undergo
vasectomy or orchiectomy (removal of testicles)
o Those who need to undergo chemotherapy or
radiotherapy
 DISADVANTAGES OF SPERM BANKING
 For the donor. He cannot choose whom he wants to help or
keep in touch with the woman if he chooses to.
 For the recipient. You cannot determine the IQ of the donor
 ZYGOTE BANKING
 Embryo cryopreservation or embryo freezing is a method
used to preserve embryos by cooling and storing them at low
temperatures. They can then be thawed at a future date and
transferred to the uterus, providing additional opportunity for
achieving conception.
 IVF (In Vitro Fertilization)
 is the process of fertilization by manually combining an egg
and sperm in a laboratory dish, and then transferring the
embryo to the uterus.
 ALTERNATIVES TO IVF
 GIFT. Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer
o Is an assisted reproductive procedure which
involves removing a woman’s eggs, mixing them
with sperm, and immediately placing them into a
fallopian tube.
 ZIFT. Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer
o Is an assisted reproductive procedure similar to
in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer, the
difference being that the fertilized embryo is
transferred into the fallopian tube instead of the
uterus.
 Embryo Cryopreservation (frozen fertilized egg and sperm)
 LIMS / LIS / LMS
 A laboratory information management system (LIMS),
sometimes referred to as a laboratory information system
(LIS) or laboratory management system (LMS), is a software-
based laboratory and information management system with
features that support a modern laboratory's operations.
 Database applications that are used to store and manage
information associated with the laboratory. They contain
information such as:
o Customers
 o Collection Sites  ADDITIONAL FUNCTIONS
o Preservatives  Personnel and Workload Management
o Analysis Methods o Organize work schedules, workload
o Employees assignments, employee demographic
o Passwords information, training, and financial information
o Test and Test Results  Quality Assurance and Control
o Bottle Types o Gauge and control sample quality, data entry
o Sample Matrix standards, and workflow
o Parameters  Reports
o Control Limits o Create and schedule reports in a specific format;
schedule and distribute reports to designated
 LIMS KEY FEATURES parties
 Workflow and Data tracking  Time Tracking
 Flexible architecture o Calculate and maintain processing and handling
 Data exchange interference times on chemical reactions, workflows, and
more
 BENEFITS OF LIMS  Traceability
 Very fast report access and queries o Show audit trail and/or chain of custody of a
 Reduction in paperwork sample
 Improved data quality  Workflows
 Improved operational efficiency o track a sample, a batch of samples, or a "lot" of
 Increased productivity batches through its lifecycle
 Reduces transcription errors
 Avoids duplication  DISTINCTION BETWEEN A LIMS AND A LIS
 Increases throughput LIMS LIS
LMS handle complex batches of LIS for individual patients in
 QC BENEFITS data in biology labs, water clinical setting
 Track training records and employee certifications treatment facilities, drug trials
 Track instrument maintenance and calibration Needs to satisfy GMP Must satisfy the reporting and
 Full audit/trend and QC charts auditing needs of hospital
 Automatic limit checking accreditation agencies
 Automatic sample scheduling Most competitive in group centric Most competitive in patient-
 Auto reporting settings centric settings and clinical labs
Often deal with mostly
anonymous research specific
 SAMPLE MANAGEMET
laboratory data
 Some LIMS will allow the customer to place an "order" for a
sample directly to the LIMS at which point the sample is
generated in an "unreceived" state.  HAZARDOUS HEALTHCARE WASTES
 The processing could then include a step where the sample  Any residues or combination of residues other than
container is registered and sent to the customer for the radioactive waste which by reason of its chemical reactivity
sample to be taken and then returned to the lab. or toxic, explosive, corrosive or other characteristics causes
 The registration process may involve accessioning the potential hazard to human or environment, either alone or
sample and producing barcodes to affix to the sample when in contact with other wastes and which therefore cannot
container. be handled, store, transported, treated or disposed of without
 Various other parameters such as clinical or phenotypic special precautions.
information corresponding with the sample are also often
recorded.  CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS HEALTHCARE WASTE
 The LIMS then tracks chain of custody as well as sample  Infectious waste
location. Location tracking usually involves assigning the o waste is suspected to contain pathogens and
sample to a particular freezer location, often down to the that poses a risk of disease transmission
granular level of shelf, rack, box, row, and column.  Pathological waste
 LIMS users may also have regulatory concerns to comply o Human tissues, organs or fluids; body parts;
with such as CLIA, HIPAA, GLP, and FDA specifications, fetuses; unused blood products
affecting certain aspects of sample management in a LIMS  Sharps
solution. o Considered highly hazardous items that can cut,
unused or used sharps
 ELECTRONIC DATA EXCHANGE  Pharmaceutical waste
 The successful transfer of data files in spreadsheet and other o Expired products, split or rejected by the patient
formats, as well as the import and export of data to MySQL, for medication (e.g. drugs, vaccine)
PostgreSQL, and other databases is a pivotal aspect of the  Cytotoxic or Genotoxic waste
modern LIMS o Highly hazardous waste which includes vomit,
feces and urine from the patient treated with
cytostatic drugs (often used in CA therapy)
 Chemical waste
o Waste containing chemical substances

 Radioactive waste
o Waste containing radioactive substances
 INFECTIOUS WASTE
 Infectious waste is suspected to contain pathogens (bacteria,
viruses ,parasites, or fungi) in sufficient concentration or
quantity to cause disease
In susceptible hosts. This category includes:
o Waste contaminated with blood or other body
fluids
o Cultures and stocks of infectious agents from
laboratory work
o Wastes from infected patients in isolation wards.
o Corrosive (e.g. Acids of pH <2 and bases of pH
<12)
o Flammable
o Reactive (explosive, water reactive, shock
sensitive)
 RADIOACTIVE WASTE
 Radioactive waste are materials contaminated with
radionuclides. They are produced as a result of procedures
such as in vitro analysis of body tissue and fluid, in vivo organ
imaging and tumor localization and various investigative and
therapeutic practices
 Radionuclides used in health care are

 PATHOLOGICAL WASTE  MAJOR SOURCES OF HEALTH CARE WASTE

 Pathological waste could be considered as a subcategory of  Hospitals
infectious waste, but is often classified separately, especially  Emergency Healthcare Facilities
when special methods of handling, treatment and disposal  Maternity clinics
are used  Dialysis Centers
 Pathological waste consists of tissues, organs, body parts,  Outpatient Clinics
blood, body fluids and other waste from surgery and  Transfusion Centers and Blood Banks
autopsies on patients with infectious diseases. It also  Military Medical Services
includes human fetuses and infected animal carcasses  Prison Hospitals or Clinics
 Recognizable human or animal body are sometimes called  Medical and Biomedical Laboratories
anatomical waste  Research Centers
 Pathological waste may include healthy body parts that have  Mortuary and Autospsy Centers
been removed during a medical procedure or produced  Animal Research and Testings
during medical research  Nursing Homes

 SHARPS  WASTE MANAGEMENT PLANNING

 Sharps are items that could cause cuts or puncture wounds,
including needles, hypodermic needles, scalpel and other
blades, knives, infusion sets, saws, broken glass, and
pipettes. Whether or not they are infected, such items are
usually considered as highly hazardous health-care waste
and should be treated as if they were potentially infected
 PHARMACEUTICAL WASTE
 Pharmaceutical waste includes expired, unused, spilt, and
contaminated pharmaceutical products, drugs, vaccines, and
sera that are no longer required and due to their chemical or
biological nature, need to be disposed of carefully
 CYTOTOXIC / GENOTOXIC WASTE
 Genotoxic waste is highly hazardous and may have
mutagenic (capable of inducing a genetic mutation),
teratogenic (capable of causing defects in an embryo or
fetus) or carcinogenic (cancer-causing) properties
 Technically, genotoxic means toxic to the deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA); cytotoxic means toxic to the cell; antineoplastic
means inhibiting the development of abnormal tissue growth
and chemotherapeutic means the use of chemicals for
treatment, including cancer therapy
 Genotoxic waste may include certain drugs, vomit, urine or
feces from patients treated cytostatic drugs, chemicals and
radioactive material
 CHEMICAL WASTE
 Chemical waste consists of discarded solid, liquid, and
gaseous chemicals, for example from diagnostic and
experimental work and from clean- ing, housekeeping, and
disinfecting procedures. Chemical waste from healthcare is
considered to be hazardous if it has at least one of the
following properties
o Toxic (harmful)
 Planning should cover the six objectives listed below (WHO,
Basel Convention & UNEP, 2005):
o develop the legal and regulatory framework for
health care waste management
o rationalize the waste management practices
within health care facilities
o develop specific financial investment and
operational resources dedicated to waste
management
o launch capacity building and training measures
o set up a monitoring plan
o reduce the pollution associated with waste
management
 WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR A HEALTHCARE
 Assignment or responsibilities
 Management structure lialison arrangements and duties
 Assessment of waste generation
 Development of a waste management plan
 Implementation of the waste management plan
 EXAMPLES OF PRACTICES THAT ENCOURAGE WASTE
MINIMIZATION
 Source Reduction
 Management and control measures
 Stock management of chemical and pharmaceutical products
*example of a vehicle used for transporting healthcare waste
 WASTE MANAGEMENT AND DISPOSAL
 Burn Technologies
o Incineration
 Non Burn Technologies
o Microwave treatment, autoclaving, irradiation
and sewer systems
 o Chemical degradation in accordance with
manufacturer’s instructions
 PROPER DISPOSAL OF LABORATORY WASTE  Pharmaceutical Waste. Several options exist for small
 Sink Disposal quantities of pharmaceutical waste:
 Trash Disposal o Return of expired pharmaceuticals to the donor
or manufacturer
 RECYCLING o Encapsulation and burial in a sanitary landfill
 Some of the hazardous infectious portion of the waste will o Chemical decomposition in accordance with the
contain recyclable materials (e.g. paper, cardboard, manufacturer’s recommendations if chemical
packaging, tubing). These materials can also be recycled, expertise and materials are available
provided they are disinfected to eliminate possible pathogens o Dilution in large amounts of water and discharge
and safe handling guidelines are followed into a sewer for moderate quantities of relatively
mild liquid or semi-liquid pharmaceuticals, such
 SAFE REFUSE AND RECYCLING as solutions containing vitamins, cough syrups,
 Reuse may involve a combination or all of the following steps: intravenous solutions and eye drops
cleaning, decontamination, reconditioning, disinfection and
sterilization Type of waste Colour of container Type of container
 Plastic syringes and catheters should not be reused. and markings markings
However, they may be recycled after sterilization
 There are also certain devices (e.g. patient self-administered Highly
intermittent urinary catheters, face masks for oxygen infectious
waste
administration) that are intended for limited reuse by the
individual and only require washing with mild detergents
Other Yellow with Strong, leak-proof
 Long term radionuclides conditioned as pins, needles or infectious biohazard symbol plastic bag, or
seeds and used for radiotherapy may be reused after waste, container container capable
sterilization pathological of being
 The use of non-disposable items for medical procedures and autoclaved
should be encouraged where their reuse after cleaning can anatomical
be demonstrated to minimize infection transmission to waste
acceptably low probabilities Sharps Yellow, marked Leak-proof plastic
 When considering reuse, it is important to make a distinction “SHARPS” with bag or
between different types of products: biohazard symbol container
o Non-medical supplies, disposable items (which Chemical and Brown labelled Puncture-proof
should be avoided) pharmaceutical with appropriate container
o Medical devices that pose no cross infection risk waste biohazard symbol
(e.g. blood pressure meters) Radioactive Labelled with Plastic bag or rigid
waste radiation symbol container
o Medical devices specially designed for reuse
general health Black Plastic bag
(e.g. surgical instruments)
care waste
 TRANSPORT OF WASTE
 A selection of onsite transportation trolleys  THREE BIN SYSTEM
 The segregation of general, non-hazardous waste, potentially
 APPLICATION OF TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL METHODS TO infectious waste and used sharps into separate containers is
SPECIFIC WASTE CATEGORIES often referred to as the “three bin system”
 Sharps. The methods generally entail the following steps:
o Using onsite mechanical needle cutters or  SEGREGATION SYSTEM
electric needle destroyers  The correct segregation of health care waste is the
o Shredding the treated plastic parts responsibility if the person who produces each waste item,
o Burying the metal pieces in sharps pits whatever their position in the organization
o Remelting the plastics for recycling  The health care facility management is responsible for
o Alternatively, the sharps waste can be making sure there is suitable segregation, transport and
autoclaved, shredded and then encapsulated in storage system and that all staff adhere to the correct
cement blocks that later become useful items procedures
such as hospital benches  Segregation should be carried out by the producer of the
 Anatomical / Pathological Waste waste as close as possible to its place of generation, which
o Interment (burial) in cemeteries or special burial means segregation should take place in a medical area, at a
sites beside, in an operating theatre or laboratory by nurses,
o Burning in crematoria or specially designed physicians and technicians
incinerators  If classification of a waste item is uncertain as precaution it
 Cytotoxic Drugs. Antibiotics or cytotoxic drugs should not be should be placed into a container used for hazardous
discharged into municipal sewers or watercourses. Cytotoxic healthcare waste
waste is highly hazardous and should never be landfilled or
discharged into the sewerage system.  GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF WASTE SEGREGATION
 Disposal options include:  Healthcare waste is generated in a medical area and should
o Return to original supplier be segregated into different fractions, based on their potential
o Incineration at high temperatures
 hazard and disposal route, by the person who produces each Septicaemia Stophylococcus Blood
waste item: spp.
o Separate containers should be available in each
medical area for each segregated waste fraction
o Waste containers when filled should be labelled
 HAZARDS FROM CHEMICAL WASTE AND PHARMACEUTICAL
to help managers control waste production
WASTE
o Closed local storage inside or near to a medical
 Chemical waste may cause intoxication, either by acute or by
area may be needed if wastes are not collected
chronic exposure or physical injuries, the most common
frequently
being chemical burns
o Hazardous and non-hazardous wastes should
 Intoxication can result from
not be mixed during collection, transport or
 Absorption of a chemical or pharmaceutical through the skin
storage
or the mucous membranes, or from inhalation or ingestion.
o Collected waste is often taken to central storage
 Injuries to the skin,
sites before onsite or offsite treatment and
 The eyes, or the mucous membranes of the airways can be
disposal
caused by contact with flammable, corrosive, or reactive
o Staff should understand the risks and safety
chemicals (e.g. formaldehyde and other volatile substances)
procedures for the wastes they are handling.
 CHEMICAL HAZARDOUS PROPERTIES
 HAZARDS OF HEALTHCARE WASTE
 Toxic
 Health-care waste includes a large component of general
 Corrosive
waste and a smaller proportion of hazardous waste.
 Explosive
 Flammable
 POTENTIAL LABORATORY HAZARDS
 Chemically Reactive
 Fire Hazards
 Chemical Hazards
 COMMON CHEMICAL WASTE TYPES
 Radiation Hazards
 Mercury
 Electrical Hazards
o Mercury is a silvery-white liquid that readily
 Physical Hazards
vaporizes and may stay in the atmosphere for up
to a year. When released to the air, mercury is
 RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH HEALTHCARE WASTE
transported by air currents, ultimately
 Presence of infectious agents
accumulating in marine and lake bottom
 A genotoxic or cytotoxic chemicals or biologicals
sediments
 Presence of radioactivity
o In these environments, bacteria can transform
 Presence of used sharps
inorganic mercury compounds into an organic
form methyl mercury which is known to
 PERSONS AT RISK
accumulate in fish tissue and subsequently
 Medical doctors, nurses, health care auxiliaries and
affect humans through the food chain
maintenance personnel
o Mercury is highly toxic, especially in elemental
 Patients in healthcare facilities or receiving home care
form or as methyl mercury. It may be fatal
 Visitors to health care facilities
inhaled and harmful if absorbed through the skin.
 Workers in support services such as people who work in
Around 80% of the inhaled mercury vapor is
laundries and porters
absorbed into the blood through the lungs
 Workers transporting waste to a treatment or disposal facility
 Silver
 Workers in waste management facilities
o Another toxic heavy metal, is being used in ever
 Informal recyclers (scavengers)
more applications, including as a bactericide and
in nanotechnology
 HAZARDS FROM INFECTIOUS WASTE
o In large doses, it can turn a person’s skin
 Potentially contain a variety of pathogenic microorganisms
permanently grey. There is increasing concern
 Pathogens may enter the body through a puncture or cut,
with both regulators and others about the
through the mucous membrane by inhalation or by ingestion
potential effects of silver, including the possibility
Skin Infections Streptococcus Pus that bacteria develop resistance to the metal and
spp. subsequently also develop a resistance to
antibiotics
Anthrax Bocillus anthrocis Skin  Disinfectants
secretions o Such as chlorine and quaternary ammonium, are
used in large quantities in healthcare facilities
Meningitis Neisseria Cerebrospinal
meningitidis fluid and are corrosive. It should also be noted that
reactive chemicals such as these may form
Acquired Human Blood, sexual highly toxic secondary compounds
Immunodeficiency immunodeficiency secretions, o Where chlorine is used in an unventilated place,
syndrome (AIDS) virus (HIV) body fluids chlorine gas is generated as by product of its
reaction with organic compounds
Haemorrhagic Junin, Lassa, All bloody
fevers Ebola and products and
Marburg viruses secretions
 HAZARDS FROM GENOTOXIC WASTE
 Exposure to genotoxic substances in health care may also
occur during the preparation of or treatment with particular
drugs or chemicals
 The main pathways of exposure are inhalation of dust or
aerosols, absorption through the skin, ingestion of food
accidentally contaminated with cytotoxic drugs, chemicals, or
waste, and ingestion as a result of bad practice, such as
mouth pipetting or from waste items
 Exposure may also occur through contact with the bodily
fluids and secretions of patients undergoing chemotherapy.
 Many cytotoxic drugs are extremely irritant and have harmful
local effects after direct contact with skin or eyes
 Anti-neoplastic drugs are carcinogenic and mutagenic
 Cytotoxic drugs may also dizziness, nausea, headache or
dermatitis
 RADIATION HAZARDS
 Radiation is energy traveling through space and also an
energy sent out as electromagnetic waves. The flow of
energy in the form of rays or waves, which does not need a
material medium to transfer heat. Radiation can occur as rays
and particles
 LAWS
 RA 6969 “Toxic Substances and Hazardous and Nuclear
Wastes Control Act of 1990” State policy to regulate, restrict
or prohibit the importation, manufacture, processing, sale,
distribution, use and disposal of chemical substances and
mixtures that present unreasonable risk and/or injury to
health or the environment; to prohibit the entry, even in
transit, of hazardous and nuclear wastes and their disposal
into the Philippine territorial limits for whatever purpose; and
to provide advancement and facilitate research and studies
on toxic chemicals.
 RA 9003. “Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000."
State to adopt a systematic, comprehensive and ecological
solid waste. A set of guidelines and targets for solid waste
avoidance and volume reduction through source reduction
and waste minimization measures
 RA 8749 “Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999.” Promote and
protect the global environment to attain sustainable
development while recognizing the primary responsibility of
local government units to deal with environmental problems.
Focuses on pollution prevention.

 TYPES OF RADIATION HAZARDS

 External
o A type of radiation which has sufficient energy
from the outside of the body, which is capable of
penetrating through the protective layer of the
skin and deposits its energy deep inside the
body
 Internal
o Arises from radioactive material being taken into
the body either by inhalation, ingestion and
absorption through the skin. Then metabolized
and stored in body compartments which utilize
the particular chemical or elemental form

 EFFECTS OF RADIATION EXPOSURE

o Injury to eye: damage of the conjunctiva, iris,
sclera and blood vessels of the retina

 PERSONAL RADIATION MONITORS (RADIATION BADGE)

 It is not a protective device
 Do not wear radiation badge while having personal medical
or dental
 Do not store radiation badges near sources of radiation when
not worn

 FIRE HAZARDS
 Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic
process of combustion releasing heat, light and various
reaction products

 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
 Includes autoclaves, vacuum and pressure vessels, gas
cylinders, freezers, liquid nitrogen containers and all electrical
equipment in the laboratory

 EFFECTS OF ELECTRICAL HAZARDS

 Shocks
 Burns
 Involuntary muscle reaction
 Burning of tissue and organs
 Death