FUNDAMENTALS OF GAS

COMBUSTION
THIRD EDITION
Fundamentals of Gas Combustion
Combined Manual and Workbook
June 2001

ORIGINALLY PREPARED BY
American Gas Association Laboratories

FOR
American Gas Association
400 N. Capitol Street N.W.
Washington, DC 20001
Catalog No. XH0105
Third Edition
Copyright © 2001, Revised June 2001
Registered by American Gas Association
Printed in the United States of America

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 FOREWARD

This manual was originally prepared under the direction of the American Gas Association
and Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association Joint Committee for Customer Service. It was
written by James C. Griffiths, Senior Research Engineer, and J. Fred Parr, Manager of
Engineering Services, American Gas Association Laboratories (Cleveland, Ohio). The 1996
Edition was prepared by Vera Kam, Project Supervisor, and Doug DeWerth, Consultant,
A.G.A. Laboratories, Research and Development Division, and updates the 1973 edition. The
2000 Edition was edited and prepared by Mary Smith Carson and James W. Freeman,
Consultants, WE & Associates Ltd.

The manual initially was a project of the Customer Service and Utilization Committee of the
American Gas Association. Its purpose is to provide a text for self- study as well as a
textbook to be used in the formal classroom.

It is a useful tool to vocational-technical schools, appliance service and repairmen and utility
custome r service programs. The text has been prepared so that only a moderate knowledge of
mathematics and science is required for understanding. In an effort to assist in the
reinforcement of the material found in the text, this edition combines the text of the
Fundamentals of Gas Combustion XH9601 manual and the Fundamentals of Gas
Combustion Work Book XH9602. Answers to all chapter reviews can be found on pages
127-131 of this book.

Other texts in this series cover the following fundamental subject areas:

• Venting and Ventilation

• Electricity
• Controls
• Appliances
• Service to the Customer

A glossary is provided at the rear of the book. The text material will be more meaningful to
the students if they familiarize themselves with these terms.

WE & Associates, Ltd. wishes to thank all of the members of the American Gas Association
Customer Service and Utilization Committee for their review and editorial comments.

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 CONTENTS
I. HISTORY OF THE USE AND DEVELOPMENT OF FUEL GAS…………………. 1
CHAPTER REVIEW.………………………………………………………… 2

II. PROPERTIES AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GASES……………….. 3

Chemical Composition of Fuel Gases…………………………………………………. 3
Natural Gases………………………………………………………………………….. 4
Liquefied Petroleum Gases(LPG)………………………………………………….….. 4
Manufactured and Mixed Gases……………………………………………………….. 4
Odorants Added to Gas………………………………………………………………… 5
Specific Gravity…………………………………………………………………….….. 5
Heating Value………………………………………………………………………... 7
CHAPTER REVIEW.………………………………………………………… 9

III. COMBUSTION OF GAS……………………………………………………………. 13

The Meaning of Combustion.………………………………………………………... 13
Requirements for Combustion.………………………………………………………. 13
Basic Chemistry of Combustion.…………………………………………………….. 14
Controlled Combustion.……………………………………………………………… 15
Explosive Combustion.………………………………………………………………. 15
Limits of Flammability.……………………………………………………………… 15
Burning Speed.…….…………………………………………………………………. 17
Complete Combustion….……………………………………………………………. 18
Incomplete CombustionCauses and Effects….…………………………………… 19
Carbon Monoxide…………………………….……………………………………… 20
Testing for Carbon Monoxide…………….…….……………………………………. 21
Aldehydes…….……………………………………………………………………… 24
Oxides of Nitrogen, Hydrocarbons……….………………………………………….. 24
CHAPTER REVIEW…………………………………………………...……. 26

IV. DESIGN AND OPERATION OF GAS BURNERS ………………………………… 31

Yellow Flame Burners.……………………………………………………………….. 31
Blue Flame (Bunsen) Burner.………………………………………………………… 32
Radiant Burner.……………………………………………………………………….. 33
Primary Air, Secondary Air, Excess Air……………………………………..………. 33
Flame Appearance and Stability……………………………………………………… 34
Lifting Burner Flames………………………………………………………………… 35
Flashback.…………………………………………………………………………….. 37
Yellow Tipping of Flames……………………………………………………………..38
Effects of Combustion Air Flow Rates on Appliance Efficiency.……………………. 39
Control of Combustion AirFlow……………………………………………………… 39
Calculation of Excess Air Percentage………………………………………………… 41
Impingement of Burner Flames on Cool Surfaces……………………………………. 41
Typical Burner Components………………………………………………………………….. 42

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 Gas Orifice……………………………………………………………………………. 42
Air Shutter…………………………………………………………………….………. 42
Venturi Throat………………………………………………………………………… 43
Mixing Tube………………………………………………………………………….. 44
Burner Head…………………………………………………………………………... 44
Burner Ports…………………………………………………………………………... 44
Operation of Burners…………………………………………………………………………. 44
Atmospheric Burners…………………………………………………………………. 44
Power Burners………………………………………………………………………… 46
Forced and Induced Draft Burners……………………………………………………. 46
Premixing and Pressure Power Burners………………………………………………. 47
Appliance Burner Designs……………………………………………………………………..48
Drilled Port Burners………………………………………………………………….. 49
Slotted Port Burners………………………………………………………………….. 50
Ribbon Port Burners………………………………………………………….………. 50
Single Port Burners.……...…………………………………………………………… 51
Infrared Radiant Burners.…………………………………………………………….. 51
Jet Burners.…………………………………………………………………………… 52
Impingement Target Burners.………………………………………………………… 53
Gas Hearth Appliance Burners………………………………………………………….……. 53
Main Burners.………………………………………………………………………… 54
Tube or Box Burners.…………………………………………………………………. 54
Ceramic Tile Burners…………………………………………………………………………. 54
Pilot Burners………………………………………………………………………………….. 55
Primary Aerated Pilot Burners……………………………………………………….. 55
Non-Primary Aerated Pilot Burners………………………………………………….. 55
Oxygen Depletion Sensing (ODS) Pilots…………………………………………….. 56
CHAPTER REVIEW…………………………………………………………. 57

V. BURNER ORIFICES.………………………………………………………………… 67
Types of Orifices.……………………………………………………………………... 67
Fixed Orifices.………………………………………………………………… 67
Adjustable Orifices.…………………………………………………………… 68
Universal Orifices.……………………………………………………………..68
Orifice Discharge Coefficient (Orifice Constant)…………………………………….. 69
Measuring Gas Input Rates.………………………………………………………….. 70
Measuring Gas Flow.…………………………………………………………………. 71
Measuring Gas Pressure ……………………………………………………………… 72
Sizing Orifices for Desired Gas Flow Rates.…………………………………………. 74
Sizing Inputs by Flame Spread Method………………………………………………. 75
Compensation for Altitude on Setting Inputs………………………………………… 76
CHAPTER REVIEW…………………………………………………………. 78

VI. VENTING.…………………………………………………………………………….. 83
Unusually Tight Construction……………...………………………………….……… 86
CHAPTER REVIEW.………………………………………………………….. 87

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VII. BURNER PROBLEMS.………………………………………………………………. 89
Lifting Flames (Blowing Flames).……………………………………………………. 89
How to Recognize Lifting Flames.……………………………………………. 89
Results of Lifting Flames.………………………………….…………………. 89
Corrections for Lifting Flame...……………………………………………….. 89
Flashback.…………………………………………………………………...………… 89
How to Recognize Flashback…………………………………………………. 89
Results of Flashback…………………………………………….………….…. 90
Corrections for Flashback…………………………………………………….. 90
Extinction Pop (Flashback on Extinction)……………………………….……………. 90
How to Recognize Extinction Pop……………………………………………. 90
Results of Extinction Pop………………………………………….………….. 90
Corrections for Extinction Pop…………………………………….………….. 90
Yellow Tipping (Yellow Flames)………………………………………….………….. 90
How to Recognize Yellow Tipping…………………………………………… 90
Results of Yellow Tipping……………………………………………………. 91
Corrections for Yellow Tipping………………………………………………. 91
Fluctuating Flames.…………………………………………………………………… 91
How to Recognize Fluctuating Flames.………………………………………. 91
Results of Fluctuating Flames.…………………………………….………….. 91
Corrections for Fluctuating Flames.…………………………………….…….. 91
Unstable or Wavering Flames.……………………………………………….……….. 92
How to Recognize Wavering Flames.……………………………….………... 92
Results of Wavering Flames.………………………………………….………. 92
Corrections for Wavering Flames.……………………………………………. 92
Floating Flames.………………………………………………………………………. 92
How to Recognize Floating Flames…………………………………………... 92
Results of Floating Flames……………………………………………………. 92
Corrections for Floating Flames.……………………………………….……... 93
Flame Rollout………………………………………………………………….……… 93
How to Recognize Flame Rollout…………………………………………….. 93
Results of Flame Rollout.………………………………………….………….. 94
Corrections for Flame Rollout.…………………………………….………….. 94
Gas Odor at Primary Air Openings.……………………………………….………….. 94
Corrosion of Appliances.…………………………………………………..………….. 94
CHAPTER REVIEW…………………………………………………………. 95

TABLES
Table 1 – Carboxyhemoglobin Levels and Related Health Effects.………………… 100
Table 2 - Sample Air Quality Standards and Guidelines (CO2 , CO, and NO2 ).……… 101
Table 3 - Gas Input to Burner in Cubic Feet Per Hour.…………………………….… 102
Table 4 - Utility Gases (Cubic Feet Per Hour at Sea Level).……………………….… 104
Table 5 - LP-Gases (Btu Per Hour at Sea Level).…………………………………….. 107
Table 6 - Factors for Utility Gases of Another Specific Gravity.……………………. 109
Table 7 - Equivalent Orifice Sizes at High Altitudes.………………………………… 110
(Includes 4 Percent Input Reduction for Each 1,000 Feet)
Table 8 - Table of Conversion Factors.……………………………………………….. 112

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REFERENCE SOURCES.……….…………………………………………………………… 115

GLOSSARY..…………………………………………………………………………………. 117

ANSWERS TO CHAPTER REVIEW……………………………………………………….. 127

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1
1
 I
HISTORY OF THE USE AND
DEVELOPMENT OF FUEL GAS
Legends about the discovery and use of
gas date back as far as 2000 BC. We are
told that centuries ago the Chinese piped
gas from shallow wells through bamboo
poles, and burned the gas to boil sea water
to obtain salt. Many early explorers of
America reported seeing “burning springs”
that were probably jets of gas escaping
from holes in the earth. Settlers often
struck gas when drilling water wells.
The birthplace of the natural gas *
industry in the United States is widely
accepted to be Fredonia, New York.
Settlers there reported gas bubbling from a
creek that sometimes ignited to form a
“burning spring.” In 1821, a young
gunsmith, William A. Hart, intrigued by
this “creek that burned,” dug a well on the
creek bank and tapped the gas under the
surface. In 1827, the local paper reported
that gas from this well served to light two
stores, a gristmill and two shops near the
creek. Later, deeper wells were drilled and
in 1858 and the first natural gas company
in the United States was formed, the
Fredonia Gas Light Co.
At first, this gas was mostly used for
lighting purposes. Simple gaslights using a
crimped “fishtail” burner provided light at
half the cost of candles. Hart expanded his
efforts by drilling a gas well and installing
a gas lighthouse on Lake Erie at what is
now called Barcelona Harbor. This beacon
*
Words that appear in the text in bold-face type are
defined in the glossary.
1
used 13 gas lamps in two tiers. It was in
operation from 1829 to 1858.
In the 1890s, the use of glowing mantles in
gaslights greatly increased light output,
but perfection of the electric light bulb
soon led the gas industry to seek uses
other than lighting for its products.
From this humble start, natural gas
pipeline and utilities have grown to
become one of our country’s largest
industries. In 1998, the gas industry
supplied nearly 22 trillion cubic feet of gas
to its customers. Gas is used in over 60
million homes, offices, plants and factories
throughout the United States.
Today, gas has a thousand-and-one uses.
Iron and steel mills, oil refineries and the
food service industry are large users of
gas. Still others are the glass, cement,
automobile and pottery industries.
Commercial gas customers include hotels,
restaurants, schools, garages and hospitals.
Natural gas serves as the raw material to
produce many useful chemicals. Currently,
gas is used in about 55 million homes
every day for heating, cooking, cooling,
clothes drying, water heating, gaslights,
grill, patio heaters and in hearth products.
Producing electricity from gas heat uses a
large percentage of the total annual gas
supply. In 1998, gas use exceeded three
trillion cubic feet for electric generation.
CHAPTER REVIEW
HISTORY OF THE USE AND DEVELOPMENT OF FUEL GAS

This review is designed to be a reinforcement of the information supplied in each

chapter. Instructions: Read one chapter of the manual and read the questions in the
Chapter Review. Read question and provide an answer in your mind before
completing the blank spaces provided. The answers to each question are provided in
the column to the far right, however, they are not in order. It is your job to select the
correct word or words and fill-in the blanks. The correct answers are listed by the
numbers at the end of the manual. If you are not correct, review the section of the
manual that pertains to that question.

For example:

QUESTIONS ANSWERS
1. Legends about the discovery and use of gas date back as far as 2000 Burning Springs
BC. The Chinese used gas to boil sea water to obtain
________________. (Pg. 1)

2. Many early explorers of America reported seeing ________________ Fredonia, New

________________, that were probably jets of gas escaping from York
holes in the earth. (Pg. 1)

3. The birth place of the natural gas industry in the United States is Lighting
widely accepted to be ________________, ________________
_______________. (Pg. 1)
Salt
4. At first gas was used mostly for ________________ purposes.
(Pg. 1)
60 Million

5. Today, gas has a thousand and one uses, and by 1998 was used in over
________________ ________________ homes every day. (Pg. 1)