INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF A • Learn to and see how a thing is related to

everything else.
HUMAN PERSON

LESSON 2: BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

UNIT 1:

LESSON 1: HOLISTIC AND PARTIAL POINT OF VIEW

“Like all activities, philosophizing is something which is

easier to do than to define. After you have begun to
engage in this activity, you might want to try to define it
yourself.” -Roque Ferriols, 2001

“To understand philosophy is to engage in it.” -Heidegger,

1958

1. METAPHYSICS

Partial Point of View - a perspective that looks at reality ➢ It is the branch of philosophy responsible for the
based on a single or partial component of a system study of existence.

Holistic Perspective - the idea that all the properties of a
given system cannot be determined or explained by its
component parts alone, but the system as a whole
determines in an important way how the parts behave
Holism - “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts”
Doing Philosophy entails a holistic rather than a partial
perspective
A philosopher’s way of thinking can be described as
“abstractive”. This means that it rises from the level of
everyday life to a higher level that gives a bird’s eye view
of the whole. We come closer to the truth about a thing or
someone when we look at that thing or person from
various perspective.
The first philosophers noted in history hail from the ancient
Greek civilization. What makes this civilization so special for
philosophy?
These great thinkers in the past used their minds “to see the
whole.” They had insight.
INSIGHT means “seeing with the mind” (Ferriols, 2001).
The ancient Greek philosophers asked question, “What
2. ETHICS
makes us all connected to each other? What makes us
one? What underlies everything that exists?”
➢ It is the foundation of a worldview.
➢ It answers the question "What is?"
➢ It encompasses everything that exists, as well as
the nature of existence itself.
➢ It says whether the world is real, or merely an
illusion.
➢ It is a fundamental view of the world around us.
➢ Metaphysics is the foundation of philosophy.
Without an explanation or an interpretation of the
world around us, we would be helpless to deal
with reality.
➢ We could not feed ourselves, or act to preserve
our lives. The degree to which our metaphysical
worldview is correct is the degree to which we are
able to comprehend the world, and act
accordingly.
➢ Without this firm foundation, all knowledge
becomes suspect. Any flaw in our view of reality
will make it more difficult to live.
➢ What is the best way for people to live?

The first noted philosopher in western history is Thales (624-
545 B.C). He said that everything is related to each other
because everything that exists contain water.
Having a philosophical insight means being able to see
with the mind. This means that to be able to think
philosophically, you must
➢ What actions are right or wrong in particular
circumstances?
➢ It is the branch of study dealing with what is the
proper course of action for man.
➢ It answers the question, "What do I do?"?

• Learn to look beyond what is immediately before ➢ For Socrates, to be happy, a person has to live a
you virtuous life. Virtue is an awakening of the seeds of
good deeds that lay dormant in the mind and
 heart of a person. For him, true knowledge means
wisdom, which in turn, means virtue.
➢ Ethics is a requirement for human life. It is our
means of deciding a course of action. Without it,
our actions would be random and aimless.
3. EPISTEMOLOGY
➢ Epistemology is the study of our method of
acquiring knowledge. It answers the question,
"How do we know?"
➢ It encompasses the nature of concepts, the
constructing of concepts, the validity of the
senses, logical reasoning, as well as thoughts,
ideas, memories, emotions, and all things mental.
➢ It is concerned with how our minds are related to
reality, and whether these relationships are valid
or invalid.
➢ Epistemology is the explanation of how we think.
➢ It is required in order to be able to determine the
true from the false, by determining a proper
method of evaluation.
➢ It is needed in order to use and obtain knowledge
of the world around us.
➢ Without epistemology, we could not think.
➢ Flaws in epistemology will make it harder to
accomplish anything.
➢ Pragmatists, such as William James and John
Dewey, believe that value in use is the real test of
truth and meaning. In other words, the meaning
and truth of an idea are tested by its practical
consequences.
4. LOGIC
➢ Logic is the attempt to codify the rules of rational
thought. Logicians explore the structure of
arguments that preserve truth or allow the optimal
extraction of knowledge from evidence.
➢ Logic is one of the primary tools philosophers use
in their inquiries; the precision of logic helps them
to cope with the subtlety of philosophical
problems and the often misleading nature of
conversational language.
➢ Logical reasoning makes philosophers certain that
conclusions are true and this provides them with
accepted scientific proofs of universally valid
propositions or statements.
5. AESTHETICS
➢ Aesthetics is the study of art. It includes what art
consists of, as well as the purpose behind it.
➢ Does art consist of music, literature, and painting?
Or does it include a good engineering solution, or
a beautiful sunset?
➢ These are the questions that aimed at in
aesthetics.
➢ It also studies methods of evaluating art, and
allows judgments of the art.
➢ Is art in the eye of the beholder?
➢ Esthetics is important because it delves into the
reason why art has always existed, the burning
need of mankind through the ages to see the
world in a different, clear way.
LESSON 3
A genuine desire to know begins with humble admission of
one’s own ignorance. -SOCRATES
“This is patiently absurd, but whoever wishes to become a
philosopher must learn not to be frightened by
absurdities.” -Bertrand Russel
UNIT II: METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING
(1) DOMAINS OF TRUTH
“The truth is a beautiful and terrible thing, and should
therefore be treated with great caution.” Dumbledore
(Harry Potter)
What is truth? What do we mean when we say that
something is true? Many of us assume that truth is a
simple term with a singular meaning. Life in this world
would be a lot simpler if truth only meant one thing.
Truth can be defined as what has passed ‘procedures of
justification’ (Rorty, 1989).
Justification means the process of proving the truth or
validity of a statement.
The Three Domains of Truth
1. The Scientific or Objective Domain - pertains to the
natural world that is independent from our perspective
and attitude of it. These truths are tested against
empirical evidence.
2. The Social Domain - pertains to the general agreement
or consensus on what is right as opposed to what is
wrong. These truths are tested against their acceptability
to a particular group in a particular time in history.
3. The Personal Domain - the truth that we claim in this
domain need corresponding actions that will establish
trust. Truths are tested against the consistency and
authenticity of the person who claims it.
Despite the many ways by which we can understand
truth, there is a common definition among them of what
truth is – that it has surpassed its test of justification. To
answer the question, “What is the truth? We must first
determine which domain of truth the assertion belongs
to, then apply the corresponding criteria of justifying the
truth of such assertion.
(2) OPINION AND FALLACIES
If we are clear about what makes a statement true, we
can easily distinguish it from a mere opinion.
Opinion - a statement of judgment of a person about
something in the world that are in need of further
justification in the most reasonable way.
Example: “There is no hope in the Philippine
government.”
How Do You Examine an Opinion
A. Clarify what the argument is.
Claim - conclusion of an argument.
Premise - reasons used to support the conclusion or claim.
“There is no hope in the Philippine government because
many officials are corrupt, and Filipino voters continue to
elect them.”
B. Determine if there are fallacies.
Fallacies – group of statements that appear to be
arguments, but fail to support the conclusion.
“There is no hope in the Philippine government, because
the Philippines is a tropical country.”
Most Common Fallacies
1. Argumentum ad Hominem - Argument against the
person. Used when people convince others that
someone’s arguments must be rejected because of his
personal background.
Example: “After Sally presents an eloquent and
compelling case for a more equitable taxation system,
Sam asks the audience whether we should believe
anything from a woman who isn't married, was once
arrested, and smells a bit weird.”
2. Argumentum ad Baculum - Appeal to force. Used
when people who want to win an argument issues threats
to their opponents.
Example: “Teacher to class: ‘If you don’t stop pointing out
that what I said was wrong, the next person who will
contradict me will get a failing grade in this subject’.”
3. Argumentum ad Misericordiam - Appeal to pity or
emotion. Used by people who want to win people over
by manipulating their emotions.
Example: “Ubusin mo yang pagkain mo! Hindi mo alam
kung gaano karaming tao ang nagugutom ngayon.”
4. Argumentum ad Populum - The Bandwagon Fallacy.
Used by appealing to the popular sentiment of the
public.
Example: “The most famous stars our going wild over our
beauty products. Why not you as well?”
5. Argumentum Ad Traditionem - Asserts that a premise
must be true because people have always believed it or
done it. It may conclude that the premise has always
worked in the past and will always work in the future.
Example: “Kahit noon pa man, lagi na tayong
nagpapasintabi sa mga nuno sa punso kaya dapat
gawin mo rin yun kung ayaw mong malasin.”
6. Argumentum Ad Verecundium - An appeal to an
improper authority such as a famous person or a source
that may not be reliable.
Example: ”My Math teacher diagnosed me of having
Borderline Personality Disorder. She is well respected in our
school, so what she said might be true.”
The Principle of Occam’s Razor
• Comes from a misspelling of the name William of
Ockham. Ockham was a brilliant theologian,
philosopher, and logician in the medieval period.
• Occam's Razor is the principle that, if two
competing hypotheses deal with a single
phenomenon, and they both generally reach the
same conclusion, and they are both equally
persuasive and convincing, and they both
explain the problem or situation satisfactorily, the
philosopher should always pick the LESS complex
one.
(3) METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING
In reality, no one has complete access to the bigger
truth. Being human essentially means that our views will
always be partial. In the end, our approaches to
understanding truths will always be related to our unique
position in this vast richness of reality. Gabriel Marcel
clarifies that philosophy is not like the sciences that have
a clear method in arriving at truth. (Marcel, 1960)
Rene Descartes (1596-1650), a French philosopher says
that only the mind not the body can arrive at a clear and
distinct ideas which cannot be doubted. Descartes
comes to the conclusion that there is one thing that
cannot be doubted, and that is, doubt itself. He realizes
that doubting is thinking. The more he doubts that he is
thinking, the clearer it appears that he is actually thinking.
When one thinks, one intuitively or immediately realizes • The Appetite - There also exists the desire – sensual
that he exists. Thinking implies the thinker’s existence. This appetite – of the body, which more often
method has shown that the search for truth leads to overcomes the goal that has been suggested by
detachment from the material world outside of one’s the reason and pulls power of the spirit to achieve
minds and a focus on the inner world of consciousness it in a different direction.
and thinking.
“Allegory of the Chariot”

• It is the primary duty of the rational part of the soul

Oriental method to understanding truth is by striving to
to seek the true goal of human life and evaluate
achieve balance in everything – a balance between
their true nature.
thinking and moving, resting and working, taking in and
• Appetites might lead us into the world of fantasy
letting go. (Yin and Yang of Taoism)
and deceive us into believing that pleasures bring
us happiness.
This makes the journey of philosophizing a very personal
• This conflict usually takes place when reason
journey. Hence, it is important that we constantly engage
becomes slave of the passion or when we let our
others to help us examine these truths we hold.
appetites dictate our reason.

Purpose of life
(4) THE HUMAN PERSON AS EMBODIED SPIRIT
• Human existence is embodied existence. The continuous ascent towards the world of ideas, the
• Our limitations are due to our being embodied freedom of the soul from the body. To live a life striving for
beings. ideals – a virtuous life.
• The body is both a source of limitation and
possibility.
• Just as much our bodies limit us, our bodies also ANCIENT AND CONTEMPORARY THOUGHT
enable us to create meaning in the world.
• It is through our limitations that possibilities St. Augustine
become real.
• human person as restless being
• Even if we complain about our age, height, race,
• ”The Restless Flame”
or sex, we must not fail to understand that these
• “Confession”
are limits that enable us to create our own
• man consists of soul and body
identity.
• “a soul in possession of a body” which does not
• We may not be everything, but we have to start
constitute two persons but one man”
of with something in order to make our existence
count in the world.

MODERN PERIOD AND THE PRIMACY OF THE MIND OVER

THE BODY
PLATO (428-348 BC)
Descartes
Theory of the soul
• divide of the boy and soul
• Man has an immortal SOUL and a mortal
• res cogitans (thinking thing) SOUL
perishable body.
• res extenza (extended thing) BODY
• The soul is the giver of life to the body. The soul uses • living our lives in a detached way from our
the body. experiences
• This makes the human being “a soul using the • PERCEPTION OVER MANUAL LABOR VIEW
body.” AGAINST WOMEN
• Soul has 3 parts: The reason (rational part), The
spirited (the courageous), and The appetite or
PHENOMENOLOGY - “BACK TO THE THINGS THEMSELVES”
appetitive part
• These 3 represent conflict and confusion that Gabriel Marcel- living in a broken world (forgetting how
takes place in every person to feel)
• The Reason - The act of reason makes a person
aware of a certain value and he has a goal. Body as an Object
• The Spirit - There is a drive – spirit – that prompts the • I have a body
person to pursue and achieve that goal or value • You are just one body among other bodies
which was provided by his reason • I am my body
 Pythagoras (570-495 BC) - first man to call himself a
philosopher, or lover of wisdom; believed that the primary
The body as Subject constituent of reality would be numbers, hence, anything
• the tragedy of having could be explained through numbers
• It is our being. I am my body Socrates (470/46); Plato (424 –348 BC); Aristotle
• Constant Reflections

EASTERN PHILOSOPHY
Maurice Merleau-Ponty: The Intelligent Body, the
Embodied Mind • For them, philosophy and religion are one.
• When they are doing philosophy, they are also
• There is no experience that is not an embodied practicing their religion.
experience
• Bodies open our existence to the world Confucius (551 BC–479 BC) - emphasized personal and
• Body learn to harmonize in the world governmental morality, correctness of social relationships,
• The body has knowledge justice and sincerity
• The body learns things long before we become
conscious of what it learns “GOLDEN RULE”
• We learn with our bodies Confucius (551 BC–479 BC)
• Enflesh our thoughts and our wordS
Mencius (372-289 BC)

INTEGRATED UNITY OF BODY AND SPIRIT IN THE ASIAN

CULTURE FILIPINO THOUGHTS

Shenti and Tao 3 Dimensions: Loob, Filipino Philosophy of Time, Bahala Na

Shenti- implies a person or self with all LOOB - Kagandahang-loob, Kabutihang-loob, Kalooban
connotations of the physical, social and the
mindful - Filipino believes in the innate goodness of the
human being.
- harmony with oneself and nature
FILIPINO PHILOSOPHY OF TIME
YingYang
Gulong ng Palad (Wheel of Fortune) - “If one has reached
Qi – body and mind the lowest ebb, there is no way but to go up.” Time is
cyclic
Tao- way of doing anything, or pathway to some
destination Pakikisama

- the way to achieving a true understanding of Filipino time/Siesta time

the nature of mind and reality
BAHALA NA - “Bathala na”; Leaving everything to God;
- goal, the path and the journey all in one Filipinos accept whatever the outcome of his problem
might be

WESTERN PHILOSOPHERS

• The basic task for philosophers was to satisfy their

curiosity
• They make heavy use of logic, reason, and
categorization. HOW?
• An idea is presented, reasons are given for
believing in the idea, and then conclusions are
made based on the idea.
• They veered away from mythological tradition
and recognized rationality of thought.

Thales (624-546 BC) - recognized for breaking from the

use of mythology to explain the world and the universe,
and instead explaining natural objects and phenomena
by theories and hypotheses