G5.
CENGR 422: Environmental Science
PHYSICAL UNIT OPERATIONS
SCREENING
1) Coarse Screen
a) Hand Cleaned Coarse Screens
i) Screens used frequently ahead of pumps in small
wastewater pumping stations and sometimes used at the
head works of small to medium-sized wastewater treatment
plants.
b) Mechanically Cleaned Bar Screens
i) Chain-Driven Screens – used for the removal of solid sizing in
wide range
ii) Reciprocating Rake Screens – the rake moves to the base of
the screen, engages the bars, and pulls the screenings to the
top of the screen where they are removed.
iii) Catenary Screens – type of front cleaned, front return chain-
driven screen, but it has no submerged pocket.
iv) Continuous Belt Screen – a continuous, self-cleaning belt that
removes fine and coarse solids.
c) Design of Coarse Screen Installation
i) Coarse screens should be installed ahead of the grit
chambers to remove large objects that may damage or clog
downstream equipment.
2) Fine Screens
a) Screens for Preliminary and Primary Treatment
i) Static Wedgewire Screens – generally applicable to smaller
plants or for industrial installations.
ii) Drum Screens – the screening or straining mediumis
mounted on a cylinder that rotates on a flow channel.
iii) Step Screens - used for removal of solids from septage,
primary sludge, or digested biosolids.
b) Fine Screens for Combined Sewer Overflows
i) Screens that have been developed specifically for the
removal of floatable and other solids from combined sewer
overflows.
c) Design of Fine Screen Installation
i) Installation should have a minimum of two screens, each with
capability of handling peak flowrates.
3) Microscreens
The principle applications for microscreens are to remove suspended
solids from secondary effluent and stabilization-pond effluent.
4) Screenings Characteristics and Quantities
a) Screenings Retained on Coarse Screens
i) Consist of materials that are retained on screens of about 12
mm or greater spacing such as rocks, leaves and paper.
b) Screenings Retained on Fine Screens
i) Consist of materials that are retained on screens with
openings less than 6 mm such as small rags, razor blades, and
grit.
COARSE SOLID REDUCTION
5) Comminutors
Most commonly used in small wastewater-treatment plants.
Installed in a wastewater flow channel to screen and shred
materials to sizes from 6 to 20 mm without removing the
shredded solids from the flow stream.
6) Macarators
Used in pipeline installations to shred solids, particularly
ahead of wastewater and sludge pumps, or in channels at
smaller wastewater-treatment plants.
7) Grinders
Materials are pulverized by a high-speed rotating assembly
that cuts the amterials passing through the unit.
8) Design Consideration
Comminuting and macerating devices may be preceded by
grit chambers to prolong the life of the equipment and to
reduce the wear on the cutting surfaces.
FLOW EQUALIZATION
Flow equalizations simply is the damping of flowrate variations to achieve a
constant or nearly constant flowrate and can be applied in a number of
different situations, depending on the characteristics of the collection system.
9) Design Consideration
a) Location of Equalization Facilities
i) The best location for equalization facilities must be
determined for each system. Because the optimum location
will vary with the characteristics of the collection system and
the wastewater to be handled, land requirements and
availability, and the type of treatment required detailed
studies should be performed for several locations throughout
the system.
b) In-Line or Off-line Equalization
i) It is possible to achieve considerable damping of constituent
mass loadings to the downstream processes with in-line
equalization, but only slight damping is achieved with off-line
equalization.
c) Volume Requirements for the Equalization Basin
i) The volume required for flowrate equalization is determined
by using an inflow cumulative volume diagram in which the
cumulative inflow volume is plotted versus the time of day.
MIXING AND FLOCCULATION
10) Continuous Rapid Mixing in Wastewater Treatment
Used, most often, where one substance is to be mixed with
another substance.
11) Continuous Mixing in Wastewater Treatment
Used where the contents of a reactor must be kept in
suspension such as in equalization basins, flocculation basins,
etc.
12) Energy Dissipation in Mixing and Flocculation
To form aggregates from finely divided particles and from
chemically destabilized particles.
13) Timescale in Mixing
Timescale for mixing is an important consideration in the
design of mixing facilities and operations. For example, if the
reaction rate between the substance being mixed into a
liquid and the liquid is rapid, the time mixing is extremely
important. For slowly reacting substances, the time mixing is
not as critical.
14) Types of Mixtures Used for Rapid Mixing in Wastewater Treatment
a) Static Mixers
i) Used commonly for mixing chemicals with wastewater
b) High-Speed Induction Mixer
i) An efficient mixing device for a variety of chemicals
c) Pressurized Water Jets
i) The important design feature of pressurized water jets
mixers is that the velocity of the jet is containing the chemical
to be mixed must be sufficient to achieve mixing in all parts
of the pipeline.
d) Turbine and Propeller Mixers
i) Used commonly in wastewater-treatment processes for
mixing and blending of chemicals, for keeping material in
suspension, and for aeration.
15) Types of Mixtures Used for Flocculation in Wastewater Treatment
a) Static Mixers
i) Used commonly for mixing chemicals with wastewater
b) Paddle Mixers
i) Used as flocculation devices when coagulants such as
aluminum or ferric sulfate, and coagulant aids are added to
wastewater or solids.
c) Turbine and Propeller-Type Flocculators
i) The rotating element of turbine and propeller type
flocculators consists of three or four blades attached to a
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vertical shaft. The flocculator is driven with an external gear – the solids are removed by a rotating raking
reduction system powered by a variable- speed drive. mechanism to a sump at the side of the tank
ii. Aerated Grit Chamber
16) Types of Mixtures Used for Continuous Mixing in Wastewater Treatment o The heavier grit particles that have higher
a) Pneumatic Mixing
settling velocities settle to the bottom of the
i) In pneumatic mixing, a gas is injected into the bottom of
mixing or activated-sludge tanks, and the turbulence caused tank. Lighter, principally organic particles
by the rising gas bubbles serves to mix the fluid contents of remain in suspension and pass through the
the tank. tank.
b) Mechanical Aerators and Mixers o It is normally designed to remove 0.21 mm
i) Used for continuous mixing. diameter or larger, with 2-5minute detention
periods at the peak hourly rate of flow.
17) New Developments in Mixing Technology
iii. Vortex-type Grit Chamber
a) Computational Fluid Mechanics (CFD)
i) Used to model the fluid flow patterns in mixing devices and o Vortex grit-removal units are sized to handle
for scale-up analysis peak flowrates up to 0.3 m3/s per unit
b) Digital Particle Image Velocimetry (DPIV) o Grit is removed from the unit by cleated belt
i) Used to understand fluid movement in mixing devices conveyor.
c) Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA) o It requires a deep basement or a lift station if it
i) Used to study turbulence and to obtain data on the mean is installed above grade.
velocity at a given location in the mixing chamber.
24) Solids (Sludge) Degritting
d) Laser-Induced Fluorescence (LIF)
i) Used to measure the mixedness of the solution. Where grit chambers are not used and the grit is allowed to settle in the
primary settling tanks, grit removal is accomplished by pumping dilute
GRAVITY SEPARATION THEORY quantities of primary sludge to a cyclone degritter.
18) Discrete Particle Settling a) Advantage of cyclone degritting
i) Refers to the settling of the particles is a suspension of low i. Elimination of the cost of building, operating and
solids concentration by gravity in a constant acceleration maintaining grit chambers
field. Particles settle as individual entitles, and there is no b) Disadvantage of cyclone degritting
significant interaction with neighboring particles.
i. Pumping of dilute quantities of solids usually
19) Flocculent Particle Settling requires solids thickeners
i) Refers to a rather dilute suspension of particles that coalesce, ii. Pumping of grit with the liquid primary solids
flocculate, during the settling operation increases the cost of operating and maintaining
solids collectors and the primary sludge pumps.
20) Inclined Plate and Tube Settling 25) Grit
i) Used to enhance the settling characteristics of sedimentation
It consists of sand, gravel, cinders, or other heavy materials that have
basins.
specific gravities or settling velocities considerably greater than those of
21) Hindered (Zone) Settling organic particles. Grit includes eggshells, bone chips, seeds, coffee
i) Refers to suspensions of intermediate concentration, in grounds and large organic particles.
which interparticle forces are sufficient to hinder the settling a) Characteristics of Grit
of neighboring particles. Grit is predominantly inert and relatively dry material.
i. moisture content ranging from 13-65%
22) Compression Settling ii. volatile content from 1-56%
i) Refers to settling in which the particles are of such iii. specific gravity from 2.7-1.3
concentration that a structure is formed, and further settling
iv. bulk density of 1600 kg/m3
can occur only by compression of the structure.
v. retained on 0.15mm sieve (100% retention or 60%
GRIT REMOVAL
Removal of grit from wastewater may be accomplished in grit chambers or by or less)
the centrifugal separation of solids. Unwashed grit may contain 50% or more organic material, has
23) Grit Chambers distinctly disagreeable odor.
Grit chambers are designed to remove grit, consisting of sand, gravel, b) Quantities of Grit
cinders or other heavy solid materials The quantities of grit will vary from one location to another,
a) Grit chambers are provided to: depending on:
i. protect moving mechanical equipment from abrasion i. The type of sewer system
and accompanying abnormal wear ii. The characteristics of drainage area
ii. reduce formation of heavy deposits in pipelines, iii. The condition of the sewers
channels, and conduits iv. The frequency of street sanding to counteract icing
iii. reduce the frequency of digester cleaning caused by condition
excessive accumulations of grit v. The types of industrial wastes
b) Three General types of Grit Chamber vi. The number of household garbage grinders served
i. Horizontal-flow Grit Chamber c) Grit separation and Washing
o Rectangular Horizontal-flow Grit Chamber It may accomplish removal of a major part of the organic
– oldest type of grit chamber material contained in grit. Grit washers are commonly used to
– under the most adverse conditions, the provide a second stage of volatile solids separation.
lightest particle of grit will reach the bed of the Two principal types of grit washers
i. One type relies on an inclined submerged rake that
channel prior to its outlet end.
o Square Horizontal-flow Grit Chamber provides the necessary agitation for separation of
– have in use over 60 years the grit from the organic materials and, at the same
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time, rises the washed grit to a point of discharge i. Center-feed design

above water level o The wastewater is transported to the center
ii. Another type of grit washer uses an inclined screw of the tank in a pipe suspended from the
and moves the grit up the ramp. bridge, or encased in concrete beneath the
d) Disposal of Grit tank floor.
The most common method of grit disposal is transport to a o At the center of the tank, the wastewater
landfill. enters a circular well designed to distribute
Some states require grit to be lime stabilized before disposal the flow equally in all directions
in a landfill. ii. Peripheral-feed design
i. Pneumatic conveyors o A suspended circular baffle forms an annular
Are sometimes used to convey grit short distances. space into which the inlet wastewater is
Advantages of Pneumatic Conveyor discharged in a tangential direction.
o No elevated storage hoppers are required
o The wastewater flows spirally around the
o Attendant odor problems associated with
tank and underneath the baffle, and the
storage are eliminated
clarified liquid is skimmed off over weirs on
Disadvantage of Pneumatic Conveyor
both sides of a centrally located weir trough.
o The considerable wear on piping, especially
Multiple tanks are customarily arranged in groups
at bends.
of two or four, The flow is divided among the tanks
by a flow-split structure, commonly located
PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION between the tanks.
The objective of treatment by sedimentation is to remove readily settleable
solids and floating material and thus reduce the suspended solids content. 27) Clarifiers
Primary sedimentation is used as a preliminary step in the further processing of
a) Combination Flocculator-Clarifiers
the wastewater.
Are often used in water treatment and d for wastewater
26) Sedimentation Tank
treatment, especially in cases where enhanced settling, such
The selection of the type of sedimentation unit for a given
as for industrial wastewater treatment or for biosolids
application is governed by the size of the installation, by rules and
concentration, is required.
regulations of local control authorities, by local site conditions, and
b) Stacked (Multilevel) Clarifiers
by the experience and judgement of the engineer.
Originated in Japan (1960s) where limited area is available for
a) Rectangular Tanks
the construction of wastewater-treatment facilities. Design of
May use either chain-and-flight solids collectors or travelling-
this type of clarifier recognizes the importance of settling area
bridge-type collectors.
to settling efficiency.
Flow distribution in rectangular tanks is critical.
i. Advantage
i. Inlet designs
o Better control of odors and volatile organic
o Full-width inlet cannels with inlet weirs
compound emissions is possible
o Inlet channels with submerged ports or
ii. Disadvantage
orifices
o Include higher construction cost than
o Inlet channels with wide gates and slotted
conventional clarifiers
baffles
o More complex structural design.
ii. Methods of removing scum
28) Sedimentation Tank Performance
o Scum is usually collected at the effluent end
a) Factors that affect performance
of rectangular tanks with the flights
i. BOD and TSS Removal
returning at the liquid surface.
ii. Short Circuiting and Hydraulic Stability
o The scum is moved by the flights to a point
iii. Temperature Effects
where it is trapped by baffles before
iv. Wind Effects
removal. Water spray can also move the
v. Design Considerations
scum
vi. Detention time
iii. Another Methods of removing scum
vii. Surface Loading Rates
o By transverse rotating helical wiper attached
viii. Weir Loading Rates
to a shaft.
ix. Scour Velocity
o Scum is removed from the water surface and
29) Characteristics and Quantities of Solids (Sludge) and Scum
moved over a short inclined apron for
a) Typical values of Specific gravity and solid concentration of
discharge to a cross-collecting scum trough.
solids (sludge) and scum removed from primary sedimentation
o Scum is also collected by special scum rakes
tanks
in rectangular tanks that are equipped with
i. Specific gravity from 0.95-1.05
the carriage or bridge type of sedimentation
ii. Solid Concentration from 3-6.5%
tank equipment.
b) Volume of solids depends on:
Multiple rectangular tanks require less land area
i. The characteristics of the untreated wastewater,
than multiple circular tanks. They are also used
including strength and freshness
generally where tank roofs or cover are required.
b) Circular Tanks ii. The period of sedimentation and the degree of
In circular tanks the flow pattern is radial. purification to be effected in the tanks
To achieve a radial flow pattern, the wastewater to be settled iii. The condition of the deposited solids, including
can be introduced in the center or around the periphery of the specific gravity, water content, and changes in
tank.
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volume under the influence of tank depth or For a given volume of water being aerated, aeration devices are evaluated
mechanical solids-removal devices on the basis of the quantity of oxygen transferred per unit of air
iv. The period between solids-removal operations. introduced to the water for equivalent conditions (temperature and
chemical composition of the water, depth at which the air is introduced,
HIGH-RATE CLARIFICATION etc.)
High-rate clarification employs physical/chemical treatment and utilizes special a) Oxygen Transfer in Clean Water
flocculation and sedimentation systems to achieve rapid settling. b) Oxygen transfer in Wastewater
30) Advantages of High-Rate clarification 35) Methods of Introducing Oxygen to the Contents of the Aeration Tank
a) Units are compact and thus reduce space requirements a) Mechanical aeration
b) Start-up times are rapid b) Injection of diffused air
c) A highly clarified effluent is produced c) Injection of high-purity oxygen
31) Three Basic types of process
a) Ballasted flocculation with Lamella Plate clarification AERATION SYSTEMS
Ballasted flocculation employs a proprietary process, in which 36) Types of Aeration Systems
a flocculation aid and a ballasting agent are used to form dense Submerged:
a) Diffused Air
microfloc particles. The resulting floc particles are thus
i) Fine-bubble (fine-pore) System
“ballasted” and settle rapidly. The treatment system consists
i) Description: Bubbles generated with ceramic, plastic, or
of three compartment or zone: flexible membranes (domes, tubes, disks, plates, or panel
i. Mixing zone configurations).
ii. Maturation zone ii) Use or Application: All types of activated-sludge processes
iii. Settling zone ii) Coarse-bubble (nonporous) System
Lamella Plate clarifier uses chemical addition followed by i) Description: Bubbles generated with orifices, injectors and
three-stage flocculation and a lamella plate clarifier. nozzles, or shear plates.
b) Three-stage flocculation with Lamella Plate clarification ii) Use or Application: All types of activated-sludge processes,
channel and grit chamber aeration, and aerobic digestion.
c) Dense-solids flocculation/clarification with Lamella Plate
b) Sparger Turbine
clarification i) Description: Low-speed turbine and compressed-air injection.
It’s a proprietary process and differs from ballasted ii) Use or Application: All types of activated-sludge processes and
flocculation in that recycled chemically conditioned solids are aerobic digestion.
used to form microfloc particles with the incoming wastewater c) Static Tube Mixer
instead of microsand . i) Description: Short tubes with internal baffles designed to
retain air injected at bottom of tube in contact with liquid.
FLOTATION ii) Use or Application: Aerated lagoons and activated-sludge
Flotation is a unit operation used to separate solid or liquid particles from liquid processes.
phase. Separation is brought about by introducing fine gas (usually air) bubbles d) Jet
into the liquid phase. The bubbles attach to the particulate matter, and the i) Description: Compressed air injected into mixed liquor as it is
buoyant force of the combined particle and gas bubbles is great enough to pumped under pressure through jet device.
cause the particle to rise to the surface. ii) Use or Application: All types of activated-sludge processes,
In wastewater treatment, floatation is used principally to remove suspended equalization tank mixing and aeration, and deep tank aeration.
matter to concentrate biosolids.
Surface:
Advantage of flotation over sedimentation: Very small or light particles that
e) Low-speed Turbine Aerator
settle slowly can be removed more completely and in a shorter time. i) Description: Large diameter turbine used to expose liquid
32) Dissolve-Air Flotation droplets to the atmosphere.
In Dissolve-air flotation systems, air is dissolved in the wastewater under ii) Use or Application: Conventional activated-sludge processes,
a pressure of several atmospheres, followed by release of the pressure to aerated lagoons, and aerobic digestion.
the atmospheric level. f) High-speed Turbine Aerator
33) Dispersed-Air Flotation i) Description: Small-diameter propeller used to expose liquid
It is seldom used in municipal wastewater treatment, but it is used in droplets to the atmosphere.
industrial applications for the removal of emulsified oil and suspended ii) Use or Application: Aerated lagoons and aerobic digestion.
solids from high-volume waste or process waters. g) Aspirating
i) Description: Inclined propeller assembly.
a) Advantages
ii) Use or Application: Aerated lagoons.
i. Compact size h) Rotor-brush or Rotating Disk assembly
ii. Lower capital cost i) Description: Blades or disks mounted on a horizontal central
iii. Capacity to remove relatively free oil and shaft are rotated through the liquid. Oxygen is induced into
suspended solids the liquid by the splashing action of the rotor and by exposure
b) Disadvantages of liquid droplets to the atmosphere.
i. Higher connected power requirements ii) Use or Application: Oxidation ditch, channel aeration, and
aerated lagoons.
ii. Performance is dependent on strict hydraulic
i) Cascade
control i) Description: Wastewater flows over a series of steps in sheet
iii. Less flocculation flexibility flow.
ii) Use or Application: Postaeration
OXYGEN TRANSFER
The process, by which oxygen is transferred from the gaseous to the liquid 37) Diffused-Air Aeration
phase, is a vital part of a number of water treatment processes. The two basic methods of aerating wastewater are (1) to introduce air or
The most common application of oxygen transfer is in the biological treatment pure oxygen into the wastewater with submerged diffusers or other
of wastewater. aeration devices or (2) to agitate the wastewater mechanically so as to
34) Evaluation of Oxygen Transfer Coefficient promote solution of air from the atmosphere. A diffused-air system

consists of diffusers that are submerged in the wastewater, header pipes,
air mains, and the blowers and appurtenances through which the air
passes. The following discussion covers the selection of diffusers, the
design of blowers, and air piping design.
a) Diffusers
In the past, the various diffusion devices have been classified as either
fine bubble or coarse bubble, with the connotation that fine bubbles
were more efficient in transferring oxygen. The definition of terms
and the demarcation between fine and course bubbles, however,
have not been clear, but they continue to be used. The current
preference is to categorize the diffused aeration systems by the
physical characteristics of the equipment. Three categories are
defined: (1) porous or fine-pore diffusers, (2) nonporous diffusers,
and (3) other diffusion devices such as jet aerators, aspirating
aerators, and U-tube aerators. The various type of diffused-air
devices are described.
i) Porous Diffusers
Porous diffusers are made in many shapes, the most common
being domes, disks, and membranes. Tubes are also used.
Plates were once the most popular but are costly to install and
difficult to maintain. Porous domes, disks, and membranes
have largely supplanted plates in newer installations. Domes,
disks, or tube diffusers are mounted on or screwed into air
manifolds, which may run the length of the tank close to the
bottom and along one or two sides, or short manifold headers
may be mounted on movable drop pipes on one side of the
tank. Dome and disk diffusers may also be installed in a grid
pattern on the bottom of the aeration tank to provide uniform
aeration throughout the tank.
ii) Nonporous Diffusers
Several types of nonporous diffusers are available. Nonporous
diffusers produce larger bubbles than porous diffusers and
consequently have lower aeration efficiency; but the
advantages of lower cost, less maintenance, and the absence
of stringent air-purity requirements may offset the lower
oxygen transfer efficiency and energy cost. Typical system
layouts for orifice diffusers closely parallel the layouts for
porous dome and disk diffusers; however, single- and dual-roll
spiral patterns using narrow- or wide-band diffuser placement
are the most common. Applications for orifice and tube
diffusers include aerated grit chambers, channel aeration,
flocculation basin mixing, aerobic digestion, and industrial
waste treatment (WEF, 1998b).
iii) Other Air-Diffusion Devices
Jet aeration combines liquid pumping with air diffusion. The
pumping system recirculates liquid in the aeration basin,
ejecting it with compressed air through a nozzle assembly. This
system is particularly suited for deep (>8 m) tanks. Aspirating
aeration consists of a motor-driven aspirator pump. The pump
draws air in through a hollow tube and injects it underwater
where both high velocity and propeller action create
turbulence and diffuse the air bubbles. The aspirating device
can be mounted on a fixed structure or on pontoons. U-tube
aeration consists of a deep shaft that is divided into two zones.
Air is added to the influent wastewater in the down comer
under high pressure; the mixture travels to the bottom of the
tube and then back to the surface. The great depth to which
the air-water mixture is subjected results in high oxygen
transfer efficiencies because the high pressure forces all the
oxygen into solution. U-tube aeration has particular
application for high-strength wastes.
b) Diffusers Performance
The efficiency of oxygen transfer depends on many factors, including
the type, size, and shape of the diffuser; the air flowrate; the depth of
submersion; tank geometry including the header and diffuser location;
and wastewater characteristics. Aeration devices are conventionally
evaluated in clean water and the results adjusted to process operating
conditions through widely used conversion factors.
c) Blowers
There are three types of blowers commonly used for aeration:
centrifugal, rotary lobe positive displacement, and inlet guide vane-
variable diffuser. Centrifugal blowers are almost universally used
where the unit capacity is greater than 425 m^3/min (15,000 ft^3/min)
G5.5
of free air. Rated discharge pressures range normally from 48 to 62
Kn/m^2 (7 to 9 lbf/in^2). Centrifugal blowers have operating
characteristics similar to a low-specific-speed centrifugal pump. The
discharge pressure rises from shutoff to a maximum at about 50
percent of capacity and then drops off. The operating point of the
blower is determined, similar to a centrifugal pump, by the intersection
of the head-capacity curve and the system curve.
d) Air Piping
Air piping consists of mains, valves, meters, and other fittings that
transport compressed air from the blowers to the air diffusers.
Because the pressures are low [less than 70 Kn/m^2 (10 lbf/in^2)],
lightweight piping can be used.
REMOVAL OF VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOCs) BY AERATION
38) Emission of VOCs
The principal mechanisms governing the release of VOCs in
wastewater collection and treatment facilities are (1) volatilization and (2)
gas stripping. These mechanisms and the principal locations where VOCs are
released are considered in the following discussion.
a) Volatilization
The release of VOCs from wastewater surfaces to the atmosphere is
termed volatilization. Volatile organic compounds are released
because they partition between the gas and water phase until
equilibrium concentrations are reached (Roberts et al., 1984). The
mass transfer (movement) of a constituent between these two
phases is a function of the constituent concentration in each phase
relative to the equilibrium concentration. Thus, the transfer of a
constituent between phases is greatest when the concentration in
one of the phases is far from equilibrium. Because the concentration
of VOCs in the atmosphere is extremely low, the transfer of VOCs
usually occurs from wastewater to the atmosphere.
b) Gas Stripping
Gas stripping of VOCs occurs when a gas (usually air) is temporarily
entrained in wastewater or is introduced purposefully to achieve a
treatment objective. When gas is introduced into a wastewater, VOCs
are transferred from the wastewater to the gas. The forces governing
the transfer between phases are the same as described above. For
this reason, gas (air) stripping is most effective when contaminated
wastewater is exposed to contaminant-free air. In wastewater
treatment, air stripping occurs most commonly in aerated grit
chambers, aerated biological treatment processes, and aerated
transfer channels.
c) Locations Where VOCs Are Emitted
The principal locations where VOCs are emitted from wastewater
collection and treatment facilities. The degree of VOC removal at a
given location will depend on local conditions. Mass transfer is
considered in the following section.
CHEMICAL UNIT OPERATIONS
ROLE OF CHEMICAL UNIT PROCESSES IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT
39) Applications of chemical unit processes in wastewater treatment
a) Advance Oxidation Processes
i) Application: Removal of refractory organic compounds.
b) Chemical Coagulation
i) Application: The chemical destabilization of particles in
wastewater to bring about their aggregation during perikinetic
and orthokinetic flocculation.
c) Chemical Disinfection
i) Application: Disinfection with chlorine, chlorine compounds,
bromine, and ozone.
ii) Control of slime growths in sewers
iii) Control of odors
d) Chemical Neutralization
i) Application: Control of pH
e) Chemical Oxidation
i) Application: Removal of BOD, grease, etc.
ii) Removal of ammonia (NH+4)
iii) Destruction of microorganisms
iv) Control of odors in sewers, pump stations, and treatment
plants
v) Removal of resistant organic compounds
f) Chemical Precipitation

i) Application: Enhancement removal of total suspended solids
and BOD in primary sedimentation facilities
ii) Removal of phosphorus
iii) Removal of heavy metals
iv) Physical-chemical treatment
v) Corrosion control in sewers due to H2S
g) Chemical Scale Control
i) Application: Control of scaling due to calcium carbonate and
related compounds
h) Chemical Stabilization
i) Application: Stabilization of treated effluents
i) Ion Exchange
i) Application: Removal of ammonia (NH+4), heavy metals, total
dissolved solids
ii) Removal of organic compounds
40) Application of Chemical Unit Processes
Applications of chemical unit processes for the management and
treatment of wastewater are reported. Chemical processes, in
conjunction with various physical operations, have been developed for
the complete secondary treatment of untreated (raw) wastewater,
including the removal of either nitrogen or phosphorus or both. Chemical
processes have also been developed to remove phosphorus by chemical
precipitation, and are designed to be used in conjunction with biological
treatment. Other chemical processes have been developed for the
removal of heavy metals and for specific organic compounds and for the
advanced treatment of wastewater. Currently the most important
applications of chemical unit processes in wastewater treatment are for
(1) the disinfection of wastewater, (2) the precipitation of phosphorus,
and (3) the coagulation of particulate matter found in wastewater at
various stages in the treatment process.
41) Considerations in the Use of chemical Unit Processes
In considering the application of the chemical unit processes to be
discussed in this chapter, it is important to remember that one of the
inherent disadvantages associated with most chemical unit processes, as
compared with the physical unit operations, is that they are additive
processes (i.e., something is added to the wastewater to achieve the
removal of something else). As a result, there is usually a net increase in
the dissolved constituents in the wastewater.
FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMICAL COAGULATION
42) Basic Definitions
The term “chemical coagulation” as used in this text includes all of
the reactions and mechanisms involved in the chemical destabilization of
particles and in the formation of larger particles through perikinetic
flocculation (aggregation of particles in the size range from 0.01 to 1 µm.
Coagulant and flocculent are terms that will also be encountered in the
literature on coagulation. In general, a coagulant is the chemical that is
added to destabilize the colloidal particles in wastewater so that floc
formation can result. A flocculent is a chemical typically organic, added to
enhance the flocculation process. Typical coagulants and flocculants
include natural and synthetic organic polymers, metal salts such as alum
or ferric sulfate, and prehydrolized metal salts such as plyaluminum
chloride (PACl) and polyiron chloride (PICl). Flocculants, especially organic
polymers, are also used to enhance the performance of granular medium
filters and in the dewatering of digested biosolids. In these applications,
the flocculant chemicals are often identified as filter aids.
The term “flocculation” is used to describe the process whereby the
size of particles increases as a result of particle collisions. As noted in Cha.
5, there are two types of flocculation: (1) microflocculation (also known
as perikinetic flocculation), in which particle aggregation is brought about
by the random thermal motion of fluid molecules known as Brownian
motion or movement and (2) macroflocculation (also known as
orthokinetic flocculation), in which particle aggregation is brought about
by inducing velocity gradients and mixing in the fluid containing the
particles to be flocculated. Another form of macroflocculation is brought
about by differential settling in which large particles overtake small
particles to form larger particles. The purpose of flocculation is to produce
particles, by means of aggregation, that can be removed by inexpensive
particle-separation procedures such as gravity sedimentation and
filtration. Again as noted in Chap. 5, macroflocculation is ineffectual until
the colloidal particles reach a size of 1 to 10 µm. through contacts
produced by Brownian motion and gentle mixing.
43) Nature of Particles in Wastewater
G5.6
The particles in wastewater may for practical purposes, be classified
as suspended and colloidal. Suspended particles are generally larger than
1.0 µm and can be removed by gravity sedimentation. In practice, the
distinction between colloidal and suspended particles is blurred because
the particles removed by gravity settling will depend on the design of the
sedimentation facilities. Because colloidal particles cannot be removed by
sedimentation in a reasonable period of time, chemical methods (i.e., the
use of chemical coagulants and flocculant aids) must be used to help bring
about the removal of these particles.
To understand the role that chemical coagulants and flocculant aids
play in bringing about the removal of colloidal particles, it is important to
understand the characteristics of the colloidal particles found in
wastewater. Important factors that contribute to the characteristics of
colloidal particles in wastewater include (1) particle size and number, (2)
particle shape and flexibility, (3) surface properties including electrical
characteristics, (4) particle-particle interactions, and (5) particle-solvent
interactions (Shaw, 1966). Particle size, particle shape and flexibility, and
particle-solvent interactions are considered below. Because of their
importance, the development and measurement of surface charge and
particle interactions are considered separately.
a) Particle Size and Number
The size of colloidal particles in wastewater considered in this text is
typically in the range from 0.01 to 1.0 µm. as noted in Chap. 2, some
researchers have classified the size range for colloidal particles as
varying from 0.001 to 1 µm. the number of colloidal particles in
untreated wastewater and after primary sedimentation is typically
in the range from 10^6 to 10^12/Ml. It is important to note that the
number of colloidal particles will vary depending on the location
where the sample is taken within a treatment plant. The number of
particles, as will be discussed later, is of importance with respect to
the method to be used for their removal.
b) Particle Shape and Flexibility
Particle shapes found in wastewater can be described as spherical,
semispherical, ellipsoids of various shapes (e.g., prolate and oblate),
rods of various length and diameter (e.g., E. coli), disk and disklike,
strings of various lengths, and random coils. Large organic molecules
are often found in the form of coils which may be compressed,
uncoiled, or almost linear. The shape of some larger floc particles is
often described as fractal. The particle shape will vary depending on
the location within the treatment process that is being evaluated.
The shape of the particles will affect the electrical properties, the
particle-particle interactions, and particle solvent interactions.
Because of the many shapes of particles encountered in
wastewater, the theoretical treatment of particle-particle
interactions is an approximation at best.
c) Particle-Solvent Interactions
There are three general types of colloidal particles in liquids;
hydrophobic or “water-hating”, hydrophilic or “water-loving”, and
association colloids. The first two types are based on the attraction
of the particle surface for water. Hydrophobic particles have
relatively little attraction for water; while hydrophilic particles have
a great attraction for water. It should be noted, however, that water
can interact to some extent event with hydrophobic particles. Some
water molecules will generally adsorb on the typical hydrophobic
surface, but the reaction between water and hydrophilic colloids
occurs to a much greater extent. The third type of colloid is known
as an association colloidal, typically made up of surface-active
agents such as soaps, synthetic detergents, and dyestuffs which
form organized aggregates known as micelles.
44) Development and Measurement of Surface Charge
An important factor in the stability of colloids is the presence of a
surface charge. It develops in a number of different ways, depending on
the chemical composition of the medium (wastewater in this case) and
the nature of the colloid. Surface charge develops most commonly
through (1) isomorphous replacement, (2) structural imperfections, (3)
preferential adsorption, and (4) ionization, as defined below. Regardless
of how it develops, the surface charge, which promotes stability, must be
overcome if these particles are to be aggregated (flocculated) into larger
particles with enough mass to settle easily.
a) Isomorphous Replacement.
Charge development through isomorphous replacement occurs in
clay and other soil particles, in which ions in the lattice structure are
 G5.7

replaced with ions from solution (e.g., the replacement of Si^4+ with
Al^2+).

b) Structural Imperfections
In clay and similar particles, charge development can occur because
of broken bonds on the crystal edge and imperfections in the
formation of the crystal.
c) Preferential Adsorption
When oil droplets, gas bubbles, or other chemically inert substances
are dispersed in water, they will acquire a negative charge through
the preferential adsorption of anions (particularly hydroxyl ions).
d) Ionization
In the case of substances such as proteins or microorganisms,
surface charge is acquired through the ionization of carboxyl and
amino groups (Shaw, 1966).
e) The Electrical Double Layer
When the colloid or particle surface becomes charged, some ions of
the opposite charge (known as counterions) become attached to
the surface. They are held there through electrostatic and van der
Waals forces of attraction strongly enough to overcome thermal
agitation. Surrounding this fixed layer of ions is a diffuse layer of
ions, which is prevented from forming a compact double layer by
thermal agitation.
f) Measurement of Surface Potential
If a particle is placed in an electrolyte solution, and an electric
current is passed through the solution, the particle, depending on
its surface charge, will be attracted to one or the other of the
electrodes, dragging with it a cloud of ions. The potential at the
surface of the cloud (called the surface of shear) is sometimes
measured in wastewater-treatment operations. The measured
value is often called the zeta potential. Theoretically, however, the
zeta potential should correspond to the potential measured at the
surface enclosing the fixed layer of ions attached to the particle. The
use of the measured zeta potential value is limited because it will
vary with the nature of the solution components.
45) Particle-Particle Interactions
Particle-particle interactions are extremely important in bringing
about aggregation by means of Brownian motion. The theory that has
been developed to describe particle-particle interactions is based on the
consideration of interaction between two charged flat plates and
between two charged spheres (Deryagin and Landau. 1941; Verwey and
Overbeek, 1948). As neither of these developments is directly applicable
to the particles found in wastewater, as described above, the analysis for
two charged flat plates will be used for illustrative purposes.
46) Particle Destabilization with Potential-Determining Ions and Electrolytes
To bring about particle aggregation through microflocculation, steps
must be taken to reduce particle charge or to overcome the effect of this
charge. The effect of the charge can be overcome by (1) the addition of
potential-determining ions, which will be taken up by or will react with
the colloid surface to lessen the surface charge and (2) the addition of
electrolytes, which have the effect of reducing the thickness of the diffuse
electric layer and, thereby, reduce the zeta potential.
47) Particle Destabilization and Aggregation with Polyelectrolytes
Polyelectrolytes may be divided into two categories: natural and
synthetic. Important natural polyelectrolytes include polymers or
biological origin and those derived from starch products such as cellulose
derivatives and alginates. Synthetic polyelectrolytes consist of simple
monomers that are polymerized into high-molecular-weight substances.
Depending on whether their charge, when placed in water, is negative,
positive, or neutral, these polyelectrolytes are classified as anionic,
cationic, and nonionic, respectively.